Solar power

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This article is about generation of electricity using solar energy. For other uses of solar energy,
see Solar energy.
Not to be confused with Solar luminosity.

This article needs to be updated. Please update this article to reflect recent
events or newly available information. (February 2019)

A solar photovoltaic system array on a rooftop in Hong Kong

The first three concentrated solar power (CSP) units of Spain's Solnova Solar Power Station in the foreground,
with the PS10 and PS20 solar power towers in the background
This solar resource map provides a summary of the estimated solar energy available for power generation and
other energy applications. It represents the average daily/yearly sum of electricity production from a 1 kW-peak
grid-connected solar PV power plant covering the period from 1994/1999/2007 (depending on the geographical
region) to 2015. Source: Global Solar Atlas

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Solar power is the conversion of energy from sunlight into electricity, either directly
using photovoltaics (PV), indirectly using concentrated solar power, or a combination. Concentrated
solar power systems use lenses or mirrors and tracking systems to focus a large area of sunlight into
a small beam. Photovoltaic cells convert light into an electric current using the photovoltaic effect.[1]
Photovoltaics were initially solely used as a source of electricity for small and medium-sized
applications, from the calculatorpowered by a single solar cell to remote homes powered by an off-
grid rooftop PV system. Commercial concentrated solar power plants were first developed in the
1980s. The 392 MW Ivanpah installation is the largest concentrating solar power plant in the world,
located in the Mojave Desert of California.
As the cost of solar electricity has fallen, the number of grid-connected solar PV systems has grown
into the millions and utility-scale photovoltaic power stations with hundreds of megawatts are being
built. Solar PV is rapidly becoming an inexpensive, low-carbon technology to harness renewable
energy from the Sun. The current largest photovoltaic power station in the world is the
850 MW Longyangxia Dam Solar Park, in Qinghai, China.
The International Energy Agency projected in 2014 that under its "high renewables" scenario, by
2050, solar photovoltaics and concentrated solar power would contribute about 16 and 11 percent,
respectively, of the worldwide electricity consumption, and solar would be the world's largest source
of electricity. Most solar installations would be in China and India.[2] In 2017, solar power provided
1.7% of total worldwide electricity production, growing at 35% per annum.[3] As of 2018, the
unsubsidised levelised cost of electricity for utility scale solar power is around $43/MWh.[4]

Contents

 1Mainstream technologies
o 1.1Photovoltaics
o 1.2Concentrated solar power
o 1.3Hybrid systems
 2Development and deployment
o 2.1Early days
o 2.2Mid-1990s to early 2010s
o 2.3Current status
o 2.4Forecasts
o 2.5Photovoltaic power stations
 o 2.6Concentrating solar power stations
 3Economics
o 3.1Cost
o 3.2Grid parity
o 3.3Productivity by location
o 3.4Self consumption
o 3.5Energy pricing and incentives
 4Grid integration
 5Environmental impacts
o 5.1Greenhouse gases
o 5.2Energy payback
o 5.3Water use
o 5.4Other issues
 6Emerging technologies
o 6.1Concentrator photovoltaics
o 6.2Floatovoltaics
 7See also
 8References
 9Sources
 10Further reading

Mainstream technologies
Many industrialized nations have installed significant solar power capacity into their grids to
supplement or provide an alternative to conventional energy sources while an increasing number of
less developed nations have turned to solar to reduce dependence on expensive imported
fuels (see solar power by country). Long distance transmission allows remote renewable
energy resources to displace fossil fuel consumption. Solar power plants use one of two
technologies:

 Photovoltaic (PV) systems use solar panels, either on rooftops or in

ground-mounted solar farms, converting sunlight directly into
electric power.
 Concentrated solar power (CSP, also known as "concentrated solar
thermal") plants use solar thermal energy to make steam, that is
thereafter converted into electricity by a turbine.
Photovoltaics
Main article: Photovoltaics

Schematics of a grid-connected residential PV power system[5]

A solar cell, or photovoltaic cell (PV), is a device that converts light into electric current using
the photovoltaic effect. The first solar cell was constructed by Charles Fritts in the 1880s.[6] The
German industrialist Ernst Werner von Siemens was among those who recognized the importance of
this discovery.[7] In 1931, the German engineer Bruno Lange developed a photo cell using silver
selenide in place of copper oxide,[8] although the prototype selenium cells converted less than 1% of
incident light into electricity. Following the work of Russell Ohl in the 1940s, researchers Gerald
Pearson, Calvin Fuller and Daryl Chapin created the silicon solar cell in 1954.[9] These early solar
cells cost 286 USD/watt and reached efficiencies of 4.5–6%.[10]
The array of a photovoltaic power system, or PV system, produces direct current (DC) power which
fluctuates with the sunlight's intensity. For practical use this usually requires conversion to certain
desired voltages or alternating current (AC), through the use of inverters.[5]Multiple solar cells are
connected inside modules. Modules are wired together to form arrays, then tied to an inverter, which
produces power at the desired voltage, and for AC, the desired frequency/phase.[5]
Many residential PV systems are connected to the grid wherever available, especially in developed
countries with large markets.[11] In these grid-connected PV systems, use of energy storage is
optional. In certain applications such as satellites, lighthouses, or in developing countries, batteries
or additional power generators are often added as back-ups. Such stand-alone power
systems permit operations at night and at other times of limited sunlight.
Concentrated solar power
Main article: Concentrated solar power

A parabolic collectorconcentrates sunlight onto a tube in its focal point.

Concentrated solar power (CSP), also called "concentrated solar thermal", uses lenses or mirrors
and tracking systems to concentrate sunlight, then use the resulting heat to generate electricity from
conventional steam-driven turbines.
A wide range of concentrating technologies exists: among the best known are the parabolic trough,
the compact linear Fresnel reflector, the Stirling dish and the solar power tower. Various techniques
are used to track the sun and focus light. In all of these systems a working fluid is heated by the
concentrated sunlight, and is then used for power generation or energy storage.[12] Thermal storage
efficiently allows up to 24-hour electricity generation.[13]
A parabolic trough consists of a linear parabolic reflector that concentrates light onto a receiver
positioned along the reflector's focal line. The receiver is a tube positioned along the focal points of
the linear parabolic mirror and is filled with a working fluid. The reflector is made to follow the sun
during daylight hours by tracking along a single axis. Parabolic trough systems provide the best
land-use factor of any solar technology.[14] The SEGS plants in California and Acciona's Nevada
Solar One near Boulder City, Nevada are representatives of this technology.[15][16]
Compact Linear Fresnel Reflectors are CSP-plants which use many thin mirror strips instead of
parabolic mirrors to concentrate sunlight onto two tubes with working fluid. This has the advantage
that flat mirrors can be used which are much cheaper than parabolic mirrors, and that more
reflectors can be placed in the same amount of space, allowing more of the available sunlight to be
used. Concentrating linear fresnel reflectors can be used in either large or more compact plants.[17][18]
The Stirling solar dish combines a parabolic concentrating dish with a Stirling engine which normally
drives an electric generator. The advantages of Stirling solar over photovoltaic cells are higher
efficiency of converting sunlight into electricity and longer lifetime. Parabolic dish systems give the
highest efficiency among CSP technologies.[19] The 50 kW Big Dish in Canberra, Australia is an
example of this technology.[15]
A solar power tower uses an array of tracking reflectors (heliostats) to concentrate light on a central
receiver atop a tower. Power towers can achieve higher (thermal-to-electricity conversion) efficiency
than linear tracking CSP schemes and better energy storage capability than dish stirling
technologies.[15] The PS10 Solar Power Plant and PS20 solar power plant are examples of this
technology.
Hybrid systems
A hybrid system combines (C)PV and CSP with one another or with other forms of generation such
as diesel, wind and biogas. The combined form of generation may enable the system to modulate
power output as a function of demand or at least reduce the fluctuating nature of solar power and the
consumption of non renewable fuel. Hybrid systems are most often found on islands.
CPV/CSP system
A novel solar CPV/CSP hybrid system has been proposed,
combining concentrator photovoltaics with the non-PV
technology of concentrated solar power, or also known as
concentrated solar thermal.[20]
ISCC system
The Hassi R'Mel power station in Algeria, is an example of
combining CSP with a gas turbine, where a 25-megawatt CSP-
parabolic trough array supplements a much larger
130 MW combined cycle gas turbine plant. Another example is
the Yazd power station in Iran.
PVT system
Hybrid PV/T), also known as photovoltaic thermal hybrid solar
collectors convert solar radiation into thermal and electrical
energy. Such a system combines a solar (PV) module with
a solar thermal collector in a complementary way.
CPVT system
A concentrated photovoltaic thermal hybrid (CPVT) system is
similar to a PVT system. It uses concentrated
photovoltaics (CPV) instead of conventional PV technology, and
combines it with a solar thermal collector.
PV diesel system
 It combines a photovoltaic system with a diesel
generator.[21] Combinations with other renewables are possible
and include wind turbines.[22]
PV-thermoelectric system
Thermoelectric, or "thermovoltaic" devices convert a
temperature difference between dissimilar materials into an
electric current. Solar cells use only the high frequency part of
the radiation, while the low frequency heat energy is wasted.
Several patents about the use of thermoelectric devices in
tandem with solar cells have been filed.[23]
The idea is to increase the efficiency of the
combined solar/thermoelectric system to
convert the solar radiation into useful
electricity.

Development and deployment

See also: Growth of photovoltaics, Timeline of
solar cells, Solar power by country,
and Concentrated solar power § Deployment
around the world
Deployment of Solar Power
Capacity in MW by Technology
100,000
200,000
300,000
400,000
2007
2010
2013
2016
Worldwide deployment of solar power by
technology since 2006[24]
Solar PV CSP - Solar thermal

Solar Electricity Generation

Year Energy (TWh) % of Total

2004 2.6 0.01%

2005 3.7 0.02%

2006 5.0 0.03%

2007 6.8 0.03%

2008 11.4 0.06%

2009 19.3 0.10%

2010 31.4 0.15%

2011 60.6 0.27%

2012 96.7 0.43%

2013 134.5 0.58%

2014 185.9 0.79%

2015 253.0 1.05%

2016 328.2 1.31%

2017 442.6 1.73%

Sources:[25][26][27][28]

Early days
The early development of solar technologies
starting in the 1860s was driven by an
expectation that coal would soon become
scarce. Charles Fritts installed the world's first
rooftop photovoltaic solar array, using 1%-
efficient selenium cells, on a New York City
roof in 1884.[29]However, development of solar
technologies stagnated in the early
20th century in the face of the increasing
availability, economy, and utility of coal
and petroleum.[30] In 1974 it was estimated that
only six private homes in all of North America
were entirely heated or cooled by functional
solar power systems.[31] The 1973 oil
embargo and 1979 energy crisis caused a
reorganization of energy policies around the
world and brought renewed attention to
developing solar technologies.[32][33] Deployment
strategies focused on incentive programs such
as the Federal Photovoltaic Utilization Program
in the US and the Sunshine Program in Japan.
Other efforts included the formation of research
facilities in the United States (SERI,
now NREL), Japan (NEDO), and Germany
(Fraunhofer–ISE).[34] Between 1970 and 1983
installations of photovoltaic systems grew
rapidly, but falling oil prices in the early 1980s
moderated the growth of photovoltaics from
1984 to 1996.
Mid-1990s to early 2010s
In the mid-1990s development of both,
residential and commercial rooftop solar as
well as utility-scale photovoltaic power
stations began to accelerate again due to
supply issues with oil and natural gas, global
warming concerns, and the improving
economic position of PV relative to other
energy technologies.[35] In the early 2000s, the
adoption of feed-in tariffs—a policy
mechanism, that gives renewables priority on
the grid and defines a fixed price for the
generated electricity—led to a high level of
investment security and to a soaring number of
PV deployments in Europe.
Current status
For several years, worldwide growth of solar
PV was driven by European deployment, but
has since shifted to Asia,
especially China and Japan, and to a growing
number of countries and regions all over the
world, including, but not limited
to, Australia, Canada, Chile, India, Israel, Mexi
co, South Africa, South Korea, Thailand, and
the United States.
Worldwide growth of photovoltaics has
averaged 40% per year from 2000 to
2013[36] and total installed capacity reached
303 GW at the end of 2016 with China having
the most cumulative installations
(78 GW)[37] and Honduras having the highest
theoretical percentage of annual electricity
usage which could be generated by solar PV
(12.5%).[37][36] The largest manufacturers are
located in China.[38][39]
Concentrated solar power (CSP) also started to
grow rapidly, increasing its capacity nearly
tenfold from 2004 to 2013, albeit from a lower
level and involving fewer countries than solar
PV.[40]:51 As of the end of 2013, worldwide
cumulative CSP-capacity reached 3,425 MW.
Forecasts
 In 2010, the International Energy
Agency predicted that global solar PV capacity
could reach 3,000 GW or 11% of projected
global electricity generation by 2050—enough
to generate 4,500 TWh of electricity.[41] Four
years later, in 2014, the agency projected that,
under its "high renewables" scenario, solar
power could supply 27% of global electricity
generation by 2050 (16% from PV and 11%
from CSP).[2]
Photovoltaic power stations
Main articles: Photovoltaic power
station and List of photovoltaic power stations
The Desert Sunlight Solar Farm is a 550 MW
power plant in Riverside County, California,
that uses thin-film CdTe-modules made by First
Solar.[42] As of November 2014, the 550
megawatt Topaz Solar Farm was the largest
photovoltaic power plant in the world. This was
surpassed by the 579 MW Solar Star complex.
The current largest photovoltaic power station
in the world is Longyangxia Dam Solar Park,
in Gonghe County, Qinghai, China.

Largest PV power stations as of August 2018

Si
Gener
Capa ze
Cou ation Ye
Name Location city k Ref
ntry GWh ar
MWp m
p.a.
²

Tengger
Desert Ch [43][44]
37°33′00″N 105°03′ 1,547 43 2016
Solar ina 14″E
Park

Kurnool
Ultra
Mega Ind 15.681522°N 1,000 24 2017 [45]

Solar ia 78.283749°E
Park

Datong
Ch 1,000 2016 [46][47][48]
Solar 40°04′25″N 113°08′
ina
Power
Top 12″E,
 Largest PV power stations as of August 2018

Si
Gener
Capa ze
Cou ation Ye
Name Location city k Ref
ntry GWh ar
MWp m
p.a.
²

Runner 40°00′19″N112°57′
Base 20″E

Longyan
gxia [49][50][51]
Dam Ch 850 23 2015
36°10′54″N 100°34′ [52][53]
Solar ina 41″E
Park

Rewa
Ultra Ind 24.53°N [54]
750 2018
Mega ia 81.29°E
Solar

Bhadla
Solar Ind 746 40 2017 [55]
27°32′22.81″N 71°5
Park ia 4′54.91″E

Kamuthi
Solar Ind [56][57]
9°21′16″N 78°23′4″ 648 10.1 2016
Power ia E
Project

Pavagad
a Solar Ind 600 53 2017 [58][59]
14°05′49″N 77°16′1
Park ia 3″E

Solar Un
[60][61]
Star (I ited 34°49′50″N 118°23′ 579 1,664 13 2015
and II) States 53″W

Topaz Un
Solar ited 550 1,301 24.6[6 2014 [63][64][65]
2]
35°23′N 120°4′W
Farm States
Concentrating solar power stations
Main article: List of solar thermal power
stations

Ivanpah Solar Electric Generating System with

all three towers under load during February
2014, with the Clark Mountain Range seen in
the distance

Part of the 354 MW Solar Energy Generating

Systems (SEGS) parabolic trough solar complex
in northern San Bernardino County, California

Commercial concentrating solar power (CSP)

plants, also called "solar thermal power
stations", were first developed in the 1980s.
The 377 MW Ivanpah Solar Power Facility,
located in California's Mojave Desert, is the
world’s largest solar thermal power plant
project. Other large CSP plants include
the Solnova Solar Power Station (150 MW),
the Andasol solar power station (150 MW),
and Extresol Solar Power Station (150 MW), all
in Spain. The principal advantage of CSP is the
ability to efficiently add thermal storage,
allowing the dispatching of electricity over up to
a 24-hour period. Since peak electricity
demand typically occurs at about 5 pm, many
CSP power plants use 3 to 5 hours of thermal
storage.[66]
 Largest operational solar thermal power stations

Capacity
Name Location Notes
(MW)

Mojave Operational since

Ivanpah Solar
392 Desert, California, February 2014. Located
Power Facility
USA southwest of Las Vegas.

Solar Energy Mojave Commissioned between

Generating 354 Desert, California, 1984 and 1991. Collection
Systems USA of 9 units.

Mojave Solar Barstow, California, Completed December

280
Project USA 2014

Solana Completed October 2013

Gila Bend, Arizona,
Generating 280 Includes a 6h thermal
USA
Station energy storage

Genesis Solar Blythe, California,

250 Completed April 2014
Energy Project USA

Solaben Solar
Power 200 Logrosán, Spain Completed 2012–2013[68]
Station[67]

Noor I 160 Morocco Completed 2016

Solnova Solar
150 Seville, Spain Completed in 2010
Power Station

Completed 2011. Includes

Andasol solar
150 Granada, Spain a 7.5h thermal energy
power station
storage.
 Completed 2010–2012
Extresol Solar Torre de Miguel
150 Extresol 3 includes a 7.5h
Power Station Sesmero, Spain
thermal energy storage

For a more detailed, sourced and complete list, see: List of solar thermal power
stations#Operational or corresponding article.

Economics
Cost

Swanson's law – the PV learning curve

Solar PV – LCOE for Europe until 2020 (in euro-

cts. per kWh)[69]

Economic photovoltaic capacity vs installation

cost in the United States with and without the
federal Investment Tax Credit (ITC)
The typical cost factors for solar power include
the costs of the modules, the frame to hold
them, wiring, inverters, labour cost, any land
that might be required, the grid connection,
maintenance and the solar insolation that
location will receive. Adjusting for inflation, it
cost $96 per watt for a solar module in the mid-
1970s. Process improvements and a very large
boost in production have brought that figure
down to 68 cents per watt in February 2016,
according to data from Bloomberg New Energy
Finance.[70] Palo Alto California signed a
wholesale purchase agreement in 2016 that
secured solar power for 3.7 cents per kilowatt-
hour. And in sunny Dubai large-scale solar
generated electricity sold in 2016 for just 2.99
cents per kilowatt-hour – "competitive with any
form of fossil-based electricity — and cheaper
than most."[71]
Photovoltaic systems use no fuel, and modules
typically last 25 to 40 years. Thus, capital costs
make up most of the cost of solar power.
Operations and maintenance costs for new
utility-scale solar plants in the US are
estimated to be 9 percent of the cost of
photovoltaic electricity, and 17 percent of the
cost of solar thermal electricity.[72] Governments
have created various financial incentives to
encourage the use of solar power, such
as feed-in tariff programs. Also, Renewable
portfolio standards impose a government
mandate that utilities generate or acquire a
certain percentage of renewable power
regardless of increased energy procurement
costs. In most states, RPS goals can be
achieved by any combination of solar, wind,
biomass, landfill gas, ocean,
geothermal, municipal solid waste,
hydroelectric, hydrogen, or fuel cell
technologies.[73]
Levelized cost of electricity
The PV industry has adopted levelized cost of
electricity (LCOE) as the unit of cost. The
electrical energy generated is sold in units
of kilowatt-hours (kWh). As a rule of thumb,
and depending on the local insolation, 1 watt-
peak of installed solar PV capacity generates
about 1 to 2 kWh of electricity per year. This
corresponds to a capacity factor of around 10–
20%. The product of the local cost of electricity
and the insolation determines the break even
point for solar power. The International
 Conference on Solar Photovoltaic Investments,
organized by EPIA, has estimated that PV
systems will pay back their investors in 8 to 12
years.[74] As a result, since 2006 it has been
economical for investors to install photovoltaics
for free in return for a long term power
purchase agreement. Fifty percent of
commercial systems in the United States were
installed in this manner in 2007 and over 90%
by 2009.[75]
Shi Zhengrong has said that, as of 2012,
unsubsidised solar power is already
competitive with fossil fuels in India, Hawaii,
Italy and Spain. He said "We are at a tipping
point. No longer are renewable power sources
like solar and wind a luxury of the rich. They
are now starting to compete in the real world
without subsidies". "Solar power will be able to
compete without subsidies against
conventional power sources in half the world by
2015".[76]
Current installation prices
Utility-scale PV system prices

Cost Year and

Country
($/W) references

Australia 2.0 2013[2]:15

China 1.4 2013[2]:15

France 2.2 2013[2]:15

Germany 1.4 2013[2]:15

Italy 1.5 2013[2]:15

Japan 2.9 2013[2]:15

United
1.9 2013[2]:15
Kingdom

United
1.25 June 2016[77]
States

In its 2014 edition of the Technology Roadmap:

Solar Photovoltaic Energy report, the
International Energy Agency (IEA) published
prices for residential, commercial and utility-
scale PV systems for eight major markets as of
2013 (see table below).[2] However,
DOE's SunShot Initiative has reported much
lower U.S. installation prices. In 2014, prices
continued to decline. The SunShot Initiative
modeled U.S. system prices to be in the range
of $1.80 to $3.29 per watt.[78] Other sources
identify similar price ranges of $1.70 to $3.50
for the different market segments in the
U.S.,[79] and in the highly penetrated German
market, prices for residential and small
commercial rooftop systems of up to 100 kW
declined to $1.36 per watt (€1.24/W) by the
end of 2014.[80] In 2015, Deutsche Bank
estimated costs for small residential rooftop
systems in the U.S. around $2.90 per watt.
Costs for utility-scale systems in China and
India were estimated as low as $1.00 per
watt.[81]
Grid parity
Main article: Grid parity
Grid parity, the point at which the cost of
photovoltaic electricity is equal to or cheaper
than the price of grid power, is more easily
achieved in areas with abundant sun and high
costs for electricity such as
in California and Japan.[82] In 2008, the
levelized cost of electricity for solar PV was
$0.25/kWh or less in most of
the OECD countries. By late 2011, the fully
loaded cost was predicted to fall below
$0.15/kWh for most of the OECD and to reach
$0.10/kWh in sunnier regions. These cost
levels are driving three emerging trends:
vertical integration of the supply chain,
origination of power purchase
agreements (PPAs) by solar power companies,
and unexpected risk for traditional power
generation companies, grid operators and wind
turbine manufacturers.[83][dead link]
Grid parity was first reached in Spain in
2013,[84] Hawaii and other islands that
otherwise use fossil fuel (diesel fuel) to
produce electricity, and most of the US is
expected to reach grid parity by 2015.[85][not in citation
given][86]

In 2007, General Electric's Chief Engineer

predicted grid parity without subsidies in sunny
parts of the United States by around 2015;
other companies predicted an earlier date:[87]the
cost of solar power will be below grid parity for
more than half of residential customers and
10% of commercial customers in the OECD, as
long as grid electricity prices do not decrease
through 2010.[83]
Productivity by location
See also: Solar irradiance
The productivity of solar power in a region
depends on solar irradiance, which varies
through the day and is influenced
by latitude and climate.
The locations with highest annual solar
irradiance lie in the arid tropics and subtropics.
Deserts lying in low latitudes usually have few
clouds, and can receive sunshine for more than
ten hours a day.[88][89] These hot deserts form
the Global Sun Belt circling the world. This belt
consists of extensive swathes of land
in Northern Africa, Southern Africa, Southwest
Asia, Middle East, and Australia, as well as the
much smaller deserts of North and South
America.[90] Africa's eastern Sahara Desert,
also known as the Libyan Desert, has been
observed to be the sunniest place on Earth
according to NASA.[91][92]
Different measurements of solar
irradiance (direct normal irradiance, global
horizontal irradiance) are mapped below :

North America


 South America

Europe

Africa and Middle East

South and South-East Asia

 

Australia

World
Self consumption
In cases of self consumption of the solar
energy, the payback time is calculated based
on how much electricity is not purchased from
the grid. For example, in Germany, with
electricity prices of 0.25 €/kWh
and insolation of 900 kWh/kW, one kWp will
save €225 per year, and with an installation
cost of 1700 €/KWp the system cost will be
returned in less than seven years.[93] However,
in many cases, the patterns of generation and
consumption do not coincide, and some or all
of the energy is fed back into the grid. The
electricity is sold, and at other times when
energy is taken from the grid, electricity is
bought. The relative costs and prices obtained
affect the economics. In many markets, the
price paid for sold PV electricity is significantly
lower than the price of bought electricity, which
incentivizes self consumption.[94] Moreover,
separate self consumption incentives have
been used in e.g. Germany and Italy.[94] Grid
interaction regulation has also included
limitations of grid feed-in in some regions in
Germany with high amounts of installed PV
capacity.[94][95] By increasing self consumption,
the grid feed-in can be limited without
curtailment, which wastes electricity.[96]
A good match between generation and
consumption is key for high self consumption,
and should be considered when deciding
where to install solar power and how to
dimension the installation. The match can be
improved with batteries or controllable
electricity consumption.[96] However, batteries
are expensive and profitability may require
provision of other services from them besides
self consumption increase.[97] Hot water storage
tanks with electric heating with heat pumps or
resistance heaters can provide low-cost
storage for self consumption of solar
power.[96] Shiftable loads, such as dishwashers,
tumble dryers and washing machines, can
provide controllable consumption with only a
limited effect on the users, but their effect on
self consumption of solar power may be
limited.[96]
Energy pricing and incentives
Main article: PV financial incentives
The political purpose of incentive policies for
PV is to facilitate an initial small-scale
deployment to begin to grow the industry, even
where the cost of PV is significantly above grid
parity, to allow the industry to achieve the
economies of scale necessary to reach grid
parity. The policies are implemented to
promote national energy independence, high
tech job creation and reduction of
CO2 emissions. Three incentive mechanisms
are often used in combination as investment
subsidies: the authorities refund part of the cost
of installation of the system, the electricity utility
buys PV electricity from the producer under a
multiyear contract at a guaranteed rate,
and Solar Renewable Energy
Certificates (SRECs)
Rebates
With investment subsidies, the financial burden
falls upon the taxpayer, while with feed-in tariffs
the extra cost is distributed across the utilities'
customer bases. While the investment subsidy
may be simpler to administer, the main
argument in favour of feed-in tariffs is the
encouragement of quality. Investment
subsidies are paid out as a function of the
nameplate capacity of the installed system and
are independent of its actual power yield over
time, thus rewarding the overstatement of
power and tolerating poor durability and
maintenance. Some electric companies offer
rebates to their customers, such as Austin
Energy in Texas, which offers $2.50/watt
installed up to $15,000.[98]
Net metering

Net metering, unlike a feed-in tariff, requires

only one meter, but it must be bi-directional.

In net metering the price of the electricity

produced is the same as the price supplied to
the consumer, and the consumer is billed on
the difference between production and
consumption. Net metering can usually be
done with no changes to standard electricity
meters, which accurately measure power in
both directions and automatically report the
difference, and because it allows homeowners
and businesses to generate electricity at a
different time from consumption, effectively
using the grid as a giant storage battery. With
net metering, deficits are billed each month
while surpluses are rolled over to the following
month. Best practices call for perpetual roll
over of kWh credits.[99] Excess credits upon
termination of service are either lost, or paid for
at a rate ranging from wholesale to retail rate or
above, as can be excess annual credits. In
New Jersey, annual excess credits are paid at
the wholesale rate, as are left over credits
when a customer terminates service.[100]
Feed-in tariffs (FIT)
This section needs to be updated. Please update
this article to reflect recent events or newly
available information. (August 2018)

With feed-in tariffs, the financial burden falls

upon the consumer. They reward the number
of kilowatt-hours produced over a long period
of time, but because the rate is set by the
authorities, it may result in perceived
overpayment. The price paid per kilowatt-hour
under a feed-in tariff exceeds the price of grid
electricity. Net metering refers to the case
where the price paid by the utility is the same
as the price charged.
The complexity of approvals in California,
Spain and Italy has prevented comparable
growth to Germany even though the return on
investment is better.[citation needed] In some
countries, additional incentives are offered
for building-integrated photovoltaics (BIPV)
compared to stand alone PV.

 France + EUR 0.16 /kWh (compared to

semi-integrated) or + EUR 0.27/kWh
(compared to stand alone)
 Italy + EUR 0.04–0.09 kWh
 Germany + EUR 0.05/kWh (facades only)
Solar Renewable Energy Credits (SRECs)
Alternatively, Solar Renewable Energy
Certificates (SRECs) allow for a market
mechanism to set the price of the solar
generated electricity subsity. In this
mechanism, a renewable energy production or
consumption target is set, and the utility (more
technically the Load Serving Entity) is obliged
to purchase renewable energy or face a fine
(Alternative Compliance Payment or ACP). The
producer is credited for an SREC for every
1,000 kWh of electricity produced. If the utility
buys this SREC and retires it, they avoid
paying the ACP. In principle this system
delivers the cheapest renewable energy, since
the all solar facilities are eligible and can be
installed in the most economic locations.
Uncertainties about the future value of SRECs
have led to long-term SREC contract markets
to give clarity to their prices and allow solar
developers to pre-sell and hedge their credits.
Financial incentives for photovoltaics differ
across countries,
including Australia, China,[101] Germany,[102] Isra
el,[103] Japan, and the United States and even
across states within the US.
The Japanese government through its Ministry
of International Trade and Industry ran a
successful programme of subsidies from 1994
to 2003. By the end of 2004, Japan led the
world in installed PV capacity with over
1.1 GW.[104]
In 2004, the German government introduced
the first large-scale feed-in tariff system, under
the German Renewable Energy Act, which
resulted in explosive growth of PV installations
in Germany. At the outset the FIT was over 3x
the retail price or 8x the industrial price. The
principle behind the German system is a 20-
year flat rate contract. The value of new
contracts is programmed to decrease each
year, in order to encourage the industry to pass
on lower costs to the end users. The
programme has been more successful than
expected with over 1GW installed in 2006, and
political pressure is mounting to decrease the
tariff to lessen the future burden on consumers.
Subsequently, Spain, Italy, Greece—that
enjoyed an early success with domestic solar-
thermal installations for hot water needs—
and France introduced feed-in tariffs. None
have replicated the programmed decrease of
FIT in new contracts though, making the
German incentive relatively less and less
attractive compared to other countries. The
French and Greek FIT offer a high premium
(EUR 0.55/kWh) for building integrated
systems. California, Greece, France and Italy
have 30–50% more insolation than Germany
making them financially more attractive. The
Greek domestic "solar roof" programme
(adopted in June 2009 for installations up to
10 kW) has internal rates of return of 10–15%
at current commercial installation costs, which,
furthermore, is tax free.
In 2006 California approved the 'California
Solar Initiative', offering a choice of investment
subsidies or FIT for small and medium systems
and a FIT for large systems. The small-system
FIT of $0.39 per kWh (far less than EU
countries) expires in just 5 years, and the
alternate "EPBB" residential investment
incentive is modest, averaging perhaps 20% of
cost. All California incentives are scheduled to
decrease in the future depending as a function
of the amount of PV capacity installed.
At the end of 2006, the Ontario Power Authority
(OPA, Canada) began its Standard Offer
Program, a precursor to the Green Energy Act,
and the first in North America for distributed
renewable projects of less than 10 MW. The
feed-in tariff guaranteed a fixed price of $0.42
CDN per kWh over a period of twenty years.
Unlike net metering, all the electricity produced
was sold to the OPA at the given rate.

Grid integration
Main articles: Energy storage and Grid energy
storage

Construction of the Salt Tanks which provide

efficient thermal energy storage[105] so that
output can be provided after sunset, and output
can be scheduled to meet demand
requirements.[106] The 280 MW Solana
Generating Station is designed to provide six
hours of energy storage. This allows the plant to
generate about 38% of its rated capacity over
the course of a year.[107]

Thermal energy storage. The AndasolCSP plant

uses tanks of molten salt to store solar energy.

Pumped-storage hydroelectricity (PSH). This

facility in Geesthacht, Germany, also includes a
solar array.

The overwhelming majority of electricity

produced worldwide is used immediately, since
storage is usually more expensive and
because traditional generators can adapt to
demand. Both solar power and wind
power are variable renewable energy, meaning
that all available output must be taken
whenever it is available by moving
through transmission lines to where it can be
used now. Since solar energy is not available
at night, storing its energy is potentially an
important issue particularly in off-grid and for
future 100% renewable energy scenarios to
have continuous electricity availability.[108]
Solar electricity is inherently variable and
predictable by time of day, location, and
seasons. In addition solar is intermittent due to
day/night cycles and unpredictable weather.
How much of a special challenge solar power
is in any given electric utility varies significantly.
In a summer peak utility, solar is well matched
to daytime cooling demands. In winter
peak utilities, solar displaces other forms of
generation, reducing their capacity factors.
In an electricity system without grid energy
storage, generation from stored fuels (coal,
biomass, natural gas, nuclear) must be go up
and down in reaction to the rise and fall of solar
electricity (see load following power plant).
While hydroelectric and natural gas plants can
quickly follow solar being intermittent due to the
weather, coal, biomass and nuclear plants
usually take considerable time to respond to
load and can only be scheduled to follow the
predictable variation. Depending on local
circumstances, beyond about 20–40% of total
generation, grid-connected intermittent
sources like solar tend to require investment in
some combination of grid
interconnections, energy storage or demand
side management. Integrating large amounts of
solar power with existing generation equipment
has caused issues in some cases. For
example, in Germany, California and Hawaii,
electricity prices have been known to go
negative when solar is generating a lot of
power, displacing existing baseload generation
contracts.[109][110]
Conventional hydroelectricity works very well in
conjunction with solar power; water can be held
back or released from a reservoir as required.
Where a suitable river is not
available, pumped-storage
hydroelectricity uses solar power to pump
water to a high reservoir on sunny days, then
the energy is recovered at night and in bad
weather by releasing water via a hydroelectric
plant to a low reservoir where the cycle can
begin again.[111] This cycle can lose 20% of the
energy to round trip inefficiencies, this plus the
construction costs add to the expense of
implementing high levels of solar power.
Concentrated solar power plants may
use thermal storage to store solar energy, such
as in high-temperature molten salts. These
salts are an effective storage medium because
they are low-cost, have a high specific heat
capacity, and can deliver heat at temperatures
compatible with conventional power systems.
This method of energy storage is used, for
example, by the Solar Two power station,
allowing it to store 1.44 TJ in its 68 m³ storage
tank, enough to provide full output for close to
39 hours, with an efficiency of about 99%.[112]
In stand alone PV systems batteries are
traditionally used to store excess electricity.
With grid-connected photovoltaic power
system, excess electricity can be sent to
the electrical grid. Net metering and feed-in
tariff programs give these systems a credit for
the electricity they produce. This credit offsets
electricity provided from the grid when the
system cannot meet demand, effectively
trading with the grid instead of storing excess
electricity. Credits are normally rolled over from
month to month and any remaining surplus
settled annually.[113]When wind and solar are a
small fraction of the grid power, other
generation techniques can adjust their output
appropriately, but as these forms of variable
power grow, additional balance on the grid is
needed. As prices are rapidly declining, PV
systems increasingly use rechargeable
batteries to store a surplus to be later used at
night. Batteries used for grid-storage stabilize
the electrical grid by leveling out peak
loads usually for several minutes, and in rare
cases for hours. In the future, less expensive
batteries could play an important role on the
electrical grid, as they can charge during
periods when generation exceeds demand and
feed their stored energy into the grid when
demand is higher than generation.
Although not permitted under the US National
Electric Code, it is technically possible to have
a “plug and play” PV microinverter. A recent
review article found that careful system design
would enable such systems to meet all
technical, though not all safety
requirements.[114] There are several companies
selling plug and play solar systems available
on the web, but there is a concern that if
people install their own it will reduce the
enormous employment advantage solar has
over fossil fuels.[115]
Common battery technologies used in today's
home PV systems include, the valve regulated
lead-acid battery– a modified version of the
conventional lead–acid battery, nickel–
cadmium and lithium-ion batteries. Lead-acid
batteries are currently the predominant
technology used in small-scale, residential PV
systems, due to their high reliability, low self
discharge and investment and maintenance
costs, despite shorter lifetime and lower energy
density. Lithium-ion batteries have the potential
to replace lead-acid batteries in the near future,
as they are being intensively developed and
lower prices are expected due to economies of
scale provided by large production facilities
such as the Gigafactory 1. In addition, the Li-
ion batteries of plug-in electric cars may serve
as a future storage devices in a vehicle-to-
grid system. Since most vehicles are parked an
average of 95% of the time, their batteries
could be used to let electricity flow from the car
to the power lines and back. Other
rechargeable batteries used for distributed PV
systems include, sodium–sulfur and vanadium
redox batteries, two prominent types of
a molten salt and a flow battery,
respectively.[116][117][118]
The combination of wind and solar PV has the
advantage that the two sources complement
each other because the peak operating times
for each system occur at different times of the
day and year. The power generation of
such solar hybrid power systems is therefore
more constant and fluctuates less than each of
the two component subsystems.[22] Solar power
is seasonal, particularly in northern/southern
climates, away from the equator, suggesting a
need for long term seasonal storage in a
medium such as hydrogen or pumped
hydroelectric.[119] The Institute for Solar Energy
Supply Technology of the University of
Kassel pilot-tested a combined power
plant linking solar, wind, biogas and pumped-
storage hydroelectricity to provide load-
following power from renewable sources.[120]
Research is also undertaken in this field
of artificial photosynthesis. It involves the use
of nanotechnology to store solar
electromagnetic energy in chemical bonds, by
splitting water to produce hydrogen fuel or then
combining with carbon dioxide to make
biopolymers such as methanol. Many large
national and regional research projects on
artificial photosynthesis are now trying to
develop techniques integrating improved light
capture, quantum coherence methods of
electron transfer and cheap catalytic materials
that operate under a variety of atmospheric
conditions.[121] Senior researchers in the field
have made the public policy case for a Global
Project on Artificial Photosynthesis to address
critical energy security and environmental
sustainability issues.[122]

Environmental impacts

Part of the Senftenberg Solarpark, a

solar photovoltaic power plant located on former
open-pit mining areas close to the city
of Senftenberg, in Eastern Germany. The 78
MW Phase 1 of the plant was completed within
three months.

Unlike fossil fuel based technologies, solar

power does not lead to any harmful emissions
during operation, but the production of the
panels leads to some amount of pollution.
Greenhouse gases
The life-cycle greenhouse-gas emissions of
solar power are in the range of 22 to 46 gram
(g) per kilowatt-hour (kWh) depending on if
solar thermal or solar PV is being analyzed,
respectively. With this potentially being
decreased to 15 g/kWh in the future.[123] For
comparison (of weighted averages),
a combined cycle gas-fired power plant emits
some 400–599 g/kWh,[124] an oil-fired power
plant 893 g/kWh,[124] a coal-fired power plant
915–994 g/kWh[125] or with carbon capture and
storage some 200 g/kWh, and
a geothermal high-temp. power plant 91–
122 g/kWh.[124] The life cycle emission intensity
of hydro, wind and nuclear power are lower
than solar's as of 2011 as published by the
IPCC, and discussed in the article Life-cycle
greenhouse-gas emissions of energy sources.
Similar to all energy sources were their total life
cycle emissions primarily lay in the construction
and transportation phase, the switch to low
carbon power in the manufacturing and
transportation of solar devices would further
reduce carbon emissions. BP Solar owns two
factories built by Solarex (one in Maryland, the
other in Virginia) in which all of the energy used
to manufacture solar panels is produced by
solar panels. A 1-kilowatt system eliminates the
burning of approximately 170 pounds of coal,
300 pounds of carbon dioxide from being
released into the atmosphere, and saves up to
105 gallons of water consumption monthly.[126]
The US National Renewable Energy
Laboratory (NREL), in harmonizing the
disparate estimates of life-cycle GHG
emissions for solar PV, found that the most
critical parameter was the solar insolation of
the site: GHG emissions factors for PV solar
are inversely proportional to insolation.[127] For a
site with insolation of 1700 kWh/m2/year,
typical of southern Europe, NREL researchers
estimated GHG emissions of 45 gCO
2e/kWh. Using the same assumptions, at
Phoenix, USA, with insolation of
2400 kWh/m2/year, the GHG emissions factor
would be reduced to 32 g of CO2e/kWh.[128]
The New Zealand Parliamentary Commissioner
for the Environment found that the solar PV
would have little impact on the country's
greenhouse gas emissions. The country
already generates 80 percent of its electricity
from renewable resources (primarily
hydroelectricity and geothermal) and national
electricity usage peaks on winter evenings
whereas solar generation peaks on summer
afternoons, meaning a large uptake of solar PV
would end up displacing other renewable
generators before fossil-fueled power plants.[129]
Energy payback
The energy payback time (EPBT) of a power
generating system is the time required to
generate as much energy as is consumed
during production and lifetime operation of the
system. Due to improving production
technologies the payback time has been
decreasing constantly since the introduction of
PV systems in the energy market.[130] In 2000
the energy payback time of PV systems was
estimated as 8 to 11 years[131] and in 2006 this
was estimated to be 1.5 to 3.5 years
for crystalline silicon PV systems[123] and 1–1.5
years for thin film technologies (S.
Europe).[123] These figures fell to 0.75–3.5 years
in 2013, with an average of about 2 years for
crystalline silicon PV and CIS systems.[132]
Another economic measure, closely related to
the energy payback time, is the energy
returned on energy invested (EROEI) or energy
return on investment (EROI),[133] which is the
ratio of electricity generated divided by the
energy required to build and maintain the
equipment. (This is not the same as
the economic return on investment (ROI),
which varies according to local energy prices,
subsidies available and metering techniques.)
With expected lifetimes of 30 years,[134] the
EROEI of PV systems are in the range of 10 to
30, thus generating enough energy over their
lifetimes to reproduce themselves many times
(6–31 reproductions) depending on what type
of material, balance of system (BOS), and the
geographic location of the system.[135]
Water use
Solar power includes plants with among the
lowest water consumption per unit of electricity
(photovoltaic), and also power plants with
among the highest water consumption
(concentrating solar power with wet-cooling
systems).
Photovoltaic power plants use very little water
for operations. Life-cycle water consumption for
utility-scale operations is estimated to be 12
gallons per megawatt-hour for flat-panel PV
solar. Only wind power, which consumes
essentially no water during operations, has a
lower water consumption intensity.[136]
Concentrating solar power plants with wet-
cooling systems, on the other hand, have the
highest water-consumption intensities of any
conventional type of electric power plant; only
fossil-fuel plants with carbon-capture and
storage may have higher water intensities.[137] A
2013 study comparing various sources of
electricity found that the median water
consumption during operations of
concentrating solar power plants with wet
cooling was 810 ga/MWhr for power tower
plants and 890 gal/MWhr for trough plants.
This was higher than the operational water
consumption (with cooling towers) for nuclear
(720 gal/MWhr), coal (530 gal/MWhr), or
natural gas (210).[136] A 2011 study by the
National Renewable Energy Laboratory came
to similar conclusions: for power plants with
cooling towers, water consumption during
operations was 865 gal/MWhr for CSP trough,
786 gal/MWhr for CSP tower, 687 gal/MWhr for
coal, 672 gal/MWhr for nuclear, and 198
gal/MWhr for natural gas.[138] The Solar Energy
Industries Association noted that the Nevada
Solar One trough CSP plant consumes 850
gal/MWhr.[139] The issue of water consumption
is heightened because CSP plants are often
located in arid environments where water is
scarce.
In 2007, the US Congress directed the
Department of Energy to report on ways to
reduce water consumption by CSP. The
subsequent report noted that dry cooling
technology was available that, although more
expensive to build and operate, could reduce
water consumption by CSP by 91 to 95
percent. A hybrid wet/dry cooling system could
reduce water consumption by 32 to 58
percent.[140] A 2015 report by NREL noted that
of the 24 operating CSP power plants in the
US, 4 used dry cooling systems. The four dry-
cooled systems were the three power plants at
the Ivanpah Solar Power Facility near Barstow,
California, and the Genesis Solar Energy
Project in Riverside County, California. Of 15
CSP projects under construction or
development in the US as of March 2015, 6
were wet systems, 7 were dry systems, 1
hybrid, and 1 unspecified.
Although many older thermoelectric power
plants with once-through cooling or cooling
ponds use more water than CSP, meaning that
more water passes through their systems, most
of the cooling water returns to the water body
available for other uses, and
they consume less water by evaporation. For
instance, the median coal power plant in the
US with once-through cooling uses 36,350
gal/MWhr, but only 250 gal/MWhr (less than
one percent) is lost through
evaporation.[141] Since the 1970s, the majority of
US power plants have used recirculating
systems such as cooling towers rather than
once-through systems.[142]
Other issues
One issue that has often raised concerns is the
use of cadmium (Cd), a toxic heavy metal that
has the tendency to accumulate in
ecological food chains. It is used as
semiconductor component in CdTe solar
cells and as a buffer layer for certain CIGS
cells in the form of cadmium sulfide.[143] The
amount of cadmium used in thin-film solar
cells is relatively small (5–10 g/m²) and with
proper recycling and emission control
techniques in place the cadmium emissions
from module production can be almost zero.
Current PV technologies lead to cadmium
emissions of 0.3–0.9 microgram/kWh over the
whole life-cycle.[123] Most of these emissions
arise through the use of coal power for the
manufacturing of the modules, and coal
and lignite combustion leads to much higher
emissions of cadmium. Life-cycle cadmium
emissions from coal is 3.1 microgram/kWh,
lignite 6.2, and natural gas 0.2 microgram/kWh.
In a life-cycle analysis it has been noted, that if
electricity produced by photovoltaic panels
were used to manufacture the modules instead
of electricity from burning coal, cadmium
emissions from coal power usage in the
manufacturing process could be entirely
eliminated.[144]
In the case of crystalline silicon modules,
the solder material, that joins together the
copper strings of the cells, contains about 36
percent of lead (Pb). Moreover, the paste used
for screen printing front and back contacts
contains traces of Pb and sometimes Cd as
well. It is estimated that about 1,000 metric
tonnes of Pb have been used for 100 gigawatts
of c-Si solar modules. However, there is no
fundamental need for lead in the solder
alloy.[143]
Some media sources have reported that
concentrated solar power plants have injured
or killed large numbers of birds due to intense
heat from the concentrated sunrays.[145][146]This
adverse effect does not apply to PV solar
power plants, and some of the claims may
have been overstated or exaggerated.[147]
A 2014-published life-cycle analysis of land use
for various sources of electricity concluded that
the large-scale implementation of solar and
wind potentially reduces pollution-related
environmental impacts. The study found that
the land-use footprint, given in square meter-
years per megawatt-hour (m2a/MWh), was
lowest for wind, natural gas and rooftop PV,
with 0.26, 0.49 and 0.59, respectively, and
followed by utility-scale solar PV with 7.9. For
CSP, the footprint was 9 and 14, using
parabolic troughs and solar towers,
respectively. The largest footprint had coal-
fired power plants with 18 m2a/MWh.[148]

Emerging technologies
Concentrator photovoltaics

CPV modules on dual axis solar trackers in

Golmud, China

Concentrator photovoltaics (CPV) systems

employ sunlight concentrated onto photovoltaic
surfaces for the purpose of electrical power
production. Contrary to conventional
photovoltaic systems, it
uses lenses and curved mirrors to focus
sunlight onto small, but highly efficient, multi-
junction solar cells. Solar concentrators of all
varieties may be used, and these are often
mounted on a solar tracker in order to keep the
focal point upon the cell as the sun moves
across the sky.[149] Luminescent solar
concentrators (when combined with a PV-solar
cell) can also be regarded as a CPV system.
Concentrated photovoltaics are useful as they
 can improve efficiency of PV-solar panels
drastically.[150]
In addition, most solar panels on spacecraft are
also made of high efficient multi-junction
photovoltaic cells to derive electricity from
sunlight when operating in the inner Solar
System.
Floatovoltaics
Floatovoltaics are an emerging form of PV
systems that float on the surface of irrigation
canals, water reservoirs, quarry lakes, and
tailing ponds. Several systems exist in France,
India, Japan, Korea, the United Kingdom and
the United States.[151][152][153][154] These systems
reduce the need of valuable land area, save
drinking water that would otherwise be lost
through evaporation, and show a higher
efficiency of solar energy conversion, as the
panels are kept at a cooler temperature than
they would be on land.[155] Although not floating,
other dual-use facilities with solar power
include fisheries.[156]

See also
Wikimedia Commons has
media related to Solar
power.

 Energy portal
 Sustainable development portal

 Environment portal

 100% renewable energy

 Cost of electricity by source
 List of cities by sunshine duration
 List of energy storage projects
 List of renewable energy organizations
 List of solar energy topics
 List of solar thermal power stations
 Renewable energy
 Renewable energy by country
 Renewable energy commercialization
 Solar energy
 Solar lamp
 Solar vehicle
 Sustainable energy
 Thin-film cell
 Timeline of solar cells

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 Sivaram, Varun (2018). Taming the Sun:

Innovation to Harness Solar Energy and
Power the Planet. Cambridge, MA: MIT
Press. ISBN 978-0-262-03768-6.

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