CROP PROTECTION 1

Weed Science

 Study of weeds and their control

 Offshoot of plant physiology – from study of plant growth regulators
 Main goal is the formulation of most effective, economical and satisfactory
methods of controlling weeds

WHY STUDY WEEDS?

 Important component of the agro-ecosystem
 Factors to be considered in the management of land and water resources
 Great impact in agriculture
 Always grow with crops and often dictate many crop production practices

DEFINITION
 Unwanted, undesirable, useless plants
 A plant growing where it is not wanted
 A plant whose potential for harm outweighs its potential for good
 A plant whose uses have not yet been discovered
 A plant or plant part interfering with the objectives of man
 A plant that colonizes disturbed habitats (agricultural lands) and has
evolved as an interfering associate of crops, locally abundant, with little or
no value and are costly to control.
 A plant that forms populations that are able to enter disturbed habitat
which are cultivated or occupied by man, and potentially depress or
displace the crop populations which are deliberately cultivated.

CONCEPT OF A WEED
 Depends on characteristics, habits, and their relative position with
reference to other plants and man
 Must impair man’s activities
 A species is a weed only in terms of human attitude
 Of approximately 250,000 plant species, 3000 have weedy characteristics,
less than 250 of these or about 0.1% are troublesome enough to be called
weeds
 Some species, however, occur as a weed 99% of the time
 CHARACTERISTICS OF WEEDS
 Excellent adaptation to disturbed environments
 Short, rapid seedling growth, and short life cycle
 Can flower and produce seeds in 3-4 wks from germination
 High seed output with seeds dispersed widely
 Can reproduce sexually and asexually
 Seed longevity and dormancy, have “flushes” of germination within a
cropping season
 Can adapt to changing environment -
“plasticity”
 Mature early and reproduce rapidly
 Most are prolific and produce abundant seeds
 Echinochloa colona – 42, 758 seeds
 Monochoria vaginalis – 44, 799 seeds
 Rottboellia cochinchinensis – 5, 048 seeds
 Eleusine indica – 4, 899 seeds
 Can germinate under a wide range of conditions
 some can resist drought
 others can grow in flooded soil
(anoxia or hypoxia)
 can grow under saline conditions
 Vegetative propagules possess apical dominance; seeds possess dormancy
or can be induced to become dormant – can survive under unfavorable
conditions
 Adapted to crop competition
- uneven seed germination and emergence
- rapid establishment and growth of seedlings
- quick response to available moisture and nutrients
 Excellent adaptation to disturbed conditions
 Can survive adverse conditions
 Rapid vegetative growth
 Mature early and reproduce in a short period of time
 Very prolific; produce abundant seeds or vegetative propagules (possess
dormancy)
 Adapted to crop competition
 WEEDS VS CROPS
 Weeds are plants found on land where human has replaced the native
vegetation with a controlled system of cropping and management
 They are products of natural selection
 Crops are plants that fit economically into the scheme of human’s work and
existence
 Plants that are managed to some degree
 Man developed it to be a crop
 They are products of artificial selection
 Similar physiology and morphology
 Weeds are UNWANTED, crops are plants that fit ECONOMICALLY into man’s
work and existence
 Compete for the same resources (weeds are always associated with the
crop)
 Damage caused by weed is not easily seen
 Unusual to have total crop failure due to weeds
The most important criterion for weediness is interference at some place or
time with the values and activities of people

WEEDS AND OTHER PESTS

 Main impact is due to COMPETITION
 Damage caused by weeds is not as visible as that of the other pests
 It is seldom to have total crop failure due to weeds
 Can serve as alternate hosts for pathogens like fungi, viruses and
nematodes
 Can be the source of inoculum
 Can serve as shelter for rodents
 Alternate hosts to plant pathogens and nematodes
 P. oryzae (Rice blast) – S. maritimus
 M. incognita (Root-knot nematode) – F. miliacea , E. colona
 Alternate hosts to insect pests
 Caseworm – L. chinensis, L. hexandra, I. rugosum

IMPACT OF WEEDS ON HUMAN AFFAIRS

 reduce soil erosion - Imperata cylindrica – cogon grass
 Add organic matter to the soil
 Food for human consumption
  Amaranthus spinosus
 Portulaca oleracea
 Commelina benghalensis
 Monochoria vaginalis
 Sphenoclea zeylanica
 Coccinia grandis
 Corchorus olitorius
 Ipomoea aquatica
 Feed for livestock
 Panicum maximum (Guinea grass)
 Pennisetum purpureum (Napier grass)
 Yield useful drugs - Poppies (Papaver somniferum) – source of opium,
morphine, heroin, codeine
 Provide habitat for insect predators and other arthropods
 Add to the beauty of a landscape

DETRIMENTAL EFFECTS of WEEDS

 Reduce quantity of crop yield from 24-96%
 Yield loss depends on weed composition,
 density and type
 of crop culture

Type of rice culture % Yield Loss

Transplanted, irrigated lowland 48

Water-seeded, irrigated lowland 44

Direct-seeded, irrigated lowland 55

Dry-seeded, rainfed lowland 74

Wet-seeded, rainfed lowland 61

 Transplanted, rainfed lowland 51

Broadcast, rainfed lowland 96

 reduce quality of products

 Reduce quality of seed for certification
 Rhizomes can puncture sweet potato tubers
 Lower market value of hay
 Off flavor to milk
 Lantana camara
 Wools and hides with burr seeds
 Emex australis
 Cenchrus echinatus
 Handweeding labor increases weed control costs
 Clog irrigation and drainage canals
 Prevent water movement
 Reduce available water
 Constraint on transport by water
 Added cost of harvesting
 Expenses are incurred in cleaning of crop seeds
 Increase fuel consumption and equipment wear and tear
 Land and property depreciation
 Agricultural land with ‘talahib’ (Saccharum spontaneum) or cogon
grass (Imperata cylindrica)
 Weeds along utility rights-of-way
 Real estate with noxious weeds
 Golf courses infested with weeds
 Hazard to health and livestock
 Allergies and skin irritations – Laportea spp.
 Injury to livestock (disorders, illness,
 birth defects, death)
 e.g.Chromolaena odorata in pastures
 CLASSIFICATION OF WEEDS
 Life cycle
 Gross morphological features
 Number of cotyledons
 Body texture
 Habitat
 Growth Habit
 Common and Noxious

Refers to the grouping together of weeds based on their similarities and

differences. The knowledge of the different types of weeds is essential to
formulate an effective management program.
The traditional Botanical Classification of higher plants is based more on their
similarities rather than their differences. Weeds are commonly classified into
Families, Genera, Species, and Subspecies

BASIS FOR WEED CLASSIFICATION

LIFE CYCLE
 Annual – by seeds
 Perennial – by seeds; and by seeds and vegetative propagules
GROSS MORPHOLOGICAL FEATURES
 Grasses – members of family Gramineae/ Poaceae. leaves, narrow, parallel-
veined and arise alternately in 2 rows from each node with leaf sheaths
clasping the stem, called culm, either solid or hollow; roots, fibrous
 Sedges - members of the family Cyperaceae. stems, triangular; absence of
ligule and fusion of leaf sheaths forming a tube around the stem. Leaves
narrow and parallel-veined arising alternately in 3 rows
 Broadleaves - wide expanded leaves
BASED ON NUMBER OF COTYLEDONS
 monocotyledonous weeds – having a single cotyledon, leaves with parallel
venation and fibrous root system
 dicotyledonous weeds – having two cotyledons, have expanded leaf blade,
usually with netted leaf venation and tap root system.
BODY TEXTURE
 Herbaceous
 Woody
HABIT OR MANNER OF GROWTH
 Erect
 Twining
 Prostrate
 Creeping
HABITAT
 Aquatic/lowland/wetland – grows best in standing water (flooded soil; non-
aerobic)
 Terrestrial/upland/dryland – grows best in dry soil (aerobic)
ACCORDING TO UNDESIRABILITY
 COMMON WEEDS – weeds that are more or less found in every farm, but
are not exceptionally injurious and are readily controlled by good farming
practices
 NOXIOUS WEEDS – weeds that are detrimental, destructive, and difficult to
control with ordinary farming practices.
 Extensive perennial underground system (e.g. Cyperus rotundus,
Imperata cylindrica)
 Highly competitive, can reduce crop yield at low density (Scirpus
maritimus)
 Produce tremendous amounts of seeds (for annuals) which often
possess dormancy

Effect of Scirpus maritimus density on rice yield

Density/m2 Grain yield Yield reduction
(kg/ha) (%)

0 5531.11 0
5 4683.57 15

10 3483.51 37

15 3183.49 42

20 2400.12 57
 25 1633.42 70
30 550.03 90

INVASIVE SPECIES
BPI Announces Quarantine Order on Salvinia
 Salvinia molesta as a noxious weed Declaring Aklan, Antique, Capiz, Iloilo,
Guimaras and Negros under quarantine. Affect aquatic habitat, reducing
oxygen supply
 Prohibition of planting, cultivation, propagation, distribution of S. molesta
and its movement to other regions
 Destruction by burning, drying, or chemical methods

Mile-a-minute
 Mikania micrantha
 South America
 Vine
 Threat to ecological balance (flora and fauna)

PERSISTENCE, REPRODUCTION AND DISPERSAL OF WEEDS

Persistence is due to the ability of the weed to:
• reproduce rapidly
• be dispersed widely
• resist control
• adapt to adverse environmental conditions
Reproduction and dispersal of weeds
 Methods of reproduction
- sexually by seeds
- asexually by vegetative propagules
(clones)
 Dispersal of weeds
- wind, water, animals and man
Methods of Reproduction
Sexual reproduction – annual weeds
 Flowering as early as 4-5 weeks after planting, seeds produced in 3-4 wks
after flowering
  Reproductive period is long and flowers are produced successively,
resulting in large volumes of seeds
 Number of seeds depends on plant size, growing conditions, and on
successful pollination followed by fertilization during the flowering period
Weed seed production

Methods of reproduction
Asexual reproduction – perennial weeds
 If a weed has an efficient means of vegetative reproduction, sexual
reproduction is of secondary importance
 Some weeds have more than one type of vegetative propagule (C. rotundus
has tubers and bulbs, P. distichum has stolons and rhizomes)
 Once initiated, vegetative reproduction can proceed rapidly
Vegetative reproduction
 Tubers produced 3 weeks after shoot emergence (C. rotundus and S.
maritimus)
 45 tubers in one week after the first tuber is formed
(S. maritimus)
 Off-shoots of P. stratiotes produced in 18 days
 Estimated tuber production of Cyperus rotundus:
 1500 tubers/m2 or
 3 to 7 million tubers/ha/season
 One tuber produced 549 tubers in 126 days
 First 100 d: 1 tuber/day; after 112 d: 4 tubers/day

DISPERSAL OF WEEDS
 Can easily be disseminated – possess special structures for dissemination
 Structure of the seed, habitat of weeds, and the activities of man are key
factors for efficient dispersal

DISSEMINATING AGENTS
 Wind – for seeds that are light and small, have flattened structures, with
wing-like outgrowth or feathery appendages (pappus)
 Water – common among aquatic weeds whose seeds possess oily film, light
pericarp, or inflated structure which can
 float easily in water
 Animals and man – seeds with spines, hooks or sticky substance
 Cenchrus echinatus
 Triumfetta bartramia
 Chrysopogon aciculatus
 Urena lobata
 Bidens pilosa
 Seeds with hard seed coats pass through the digestive system (birds and
cattle) are still viable and can germinate once in the soil
 Cassia tora, Cassia occidentalis
 Phaseolus lathyroides
 Other legumes
 Rats and ants carry seeds
 Man – shipment of seeds, feedstuff, farm equipment; some introduced
as ornamentals, through compost or as mistaken identity
 Limnocharis flava – as an ornamental
  Salvinia molesta - mistakenly introduced as giant Azolla; ornament
for ponds and aquaria

There is a great number of weed seeds buried in the soil = soil seed bank
= important in weed management

Germination and Sprouting

Refers to the resumption of growth of the embryo in the seed (sexual) or of

the young plantlet in the propagule (asexual, sprouting)
Imbibition
Period of rapid metabolic activity
Emergence of radicle
Emergence of the shoot (leaf, chlorophyll)
Independent growth = can photosynthesize .

Two absolute requirements for germination: water and oxygen

• water – needed to hydrate food reserves and trigger amylase
activity for starch breakdown
• oxygen – needed for aerobic respiration (TCA or Krebs cycle)
 to produce chemical energy (ATP) for synthesis
of food materials during germination .

Factors affecting weed seed germination

Environmental factors
Moisture – soften seed coat and make it permeable to oxygen; for enzyme
activation
lowland weed seeds – germinate in saturated soil
upland weed seeds – below saturation level
Temperature – for normal metabolic activities
25 C to 35 C, upper limit 40 C
Oxygen – for respiration, to generate metabolic energy (ATP) for food
synthesis
aerobic vs. anaerobic respiration
Sunlight – may or may not be required, some
seeds germinate in the dark but most weed seeds
need sunlight to germinate .
Cultural factors
Water management
- flooding
- alternate flooding and drying
Cultivation
- brings seeds to the surface
- aerates the soil
- loss of dormancy of progagules

Seedling growth and development

Seedling stage is the most important stage in weed establishment
Most sensitive stage to environmental influences (most sensitive to
herbicides)
Damage against crop is low
Most vulnerable and most practical stage for weed control
Best time to control weeds – before flowering
Polymorphism – difficult to distinguish weed seedlings, look different from
adult plants
Factors affecting seedling growth and development
 Soil factors (nutrient level, salinity)
Light (shading)
reduced photosynthesis, transpiration, slower nutrient uptake
higher incidence of disease with high relative humidity
Moisture: flooded vs well-drained soil
aerobic vs anaerobic .

CROP WEED COMPETITION

Competition occurs when two or more plants make demands for the same
resource (s) which is/are limited.
One factor below the requirement – all other factors cannot be used
effectively
Overall effect of competition is a reduction of the reproductive potential
of both competitors

COMPONENTS OF COMPETITION
Weeds influence crop growth, resulting in decreased yield (especially if the
weed is very competitive)
Crops also exert partial competition against the weeds, for example,
competitive cultivars

TYPES OF COMPETITION
Interspecific competition – between plants of different species
(weeds vs crops, weed sp1 vs weed sp2)
Intraspecific competition – between plants of the same species
(individual plants of weed sp.1
or individual plants of crop 1
Resources competed for
Water
Nutrients
Space
Light – shading limits the amount of light available to crops
Light – the shading ability is expressed in terms of LIGHT TRANSMISSION
RATIO (LTR) and LEAF AREA INDEX (LAI)
LTR – ratio of light intensity at ground level to the light intensity above the
canopy level (expressed in %)
LAI –leaf area of the plant per unit ground area
 LTR is affected by LAI: more leaves, higher LAI, lower LTR, more competitive
species
(less light going through canopy, thus more shading of other plants)
What makes weeds more competitive?
• Higher water use efficiency (WUE)
WUE = g of water used per g of dry matter produced
• Efficient fertilizer absorbers
Weeds absorb more nutrient and, thus, use fertilizer more efficiently than
crops
• Physiological basis: C4 vs C3 plants
C4 plants more competitive and more high-yielding than C3 plants
 rapid root growth and development
 rapid leaf production
 multiple shoot development
 extensive root system
 rapid reproduction
 dormancy of seeds and propagules
 higher water use efficiency and nutrient
absorption .

WATER USE EFFICIENCY AND C4 VS C3 PLANTS

Species g dm/100 g absorbed water

Portulaca oleracea 3.94

Sorghum bicolor 3.73

Zea mays 2.77

Glycine max 1.55

FACTORS AFFECTING DEGREE OF COMPETITION

Effect of weed density on crop yield:
Crop yield decreases with increase in weed density (inverse relationship)
 Yield reduction increases with increase in weed density (direct relationship)
Weed species – similar morphology
(rice vs grass weeds, vegetables vs broadleaves)
Density – competition increases with number and size of weeds per unit
area
Crop variety – some varieties (some local varieties) are better competitors
than others
Seeding methods – crops given a headstart compete better (transplanted
rice vs direct-seeded rice, closer vs wider spacing
Time of weed competition
Time of crop and weed emergence
(transplanting vs direct-seeding)
The critical period of competition is that time in which the crop is
very sensitive to weed competition
First 25-33% of the crop growth:
Weeds should be removed before or during the critical period of
competition
CRITICAL PERIOD OF COMPETITION
CROP Days to maturity Critical period

CORN 120 49

UPLAND RICE 120 40

LOWLAND RICE 120 30-40

ONION 95 56
PEANUT 105 42

MUNGBEAN 60-65 21-35

SOYBEAN 125 42

TO REDUCE COMPETITION
Provide enough of the resources being competed for
Remove one of the competing individuals in this case, weeds (direct and
indirect control methods)
 Apply strategies that will weaken weeds or make weeds grow slower, but
make crops grow faster
(weed management strategies)

ALLELOPATHY and COMPETITION

Allelopathy is a biochemical interaction among plants resulting in a direct or
indirect effect of one plant on another thru excretion of substances
(allelochemicals)
Effects: inhibition of germination and growth, destroys root cells – becomes less
competitive
ALLELOPATHIC PLANTS
Allelopathic plants Affected Plants

Imperata cylindrica Corn

Cyperus rotundus Cucumber

Salvia leucophylla Cabbage

Rottboellia Cucumber, I. triloba
cochinchinensis
Barley Stellaria media
Cucumber (certain Panicum miliaceum
lines)

SHIFTS IN WEED POPULATIONS

All vegetation is in continuous state of change
Change is influenced by environment and the activities of man
Weed species in cultivated (cropped) areas keep changing or shifting from
less dominant to more dominant species

FACTORS AFFECTING SHIFTS IN WEED POPULATIONS:

methods of weed management
 Man’s intervention applied continuously over extended periods of time
is the single most important factor affecting shifts in weed populations
 Herbicides – shift from annual to perennials
 Ex. shift to perennials Scirpus maritimus and Paspalum distichum in rice
fields applied with herbicides to control annual weeds like E. crusgalli and M.
vaginalis
Herbicides – continuous use of 2,4-D resulted in shift of dominant weeds
from broadleaves to grasses
Direct-seeding and use of high-yielding (HYVs) but short rice varieties:
resulted in shift of dominant weeds from broadleaves to grasses
Herbicides – continuous use of 2,4-D resulted in shift of dominant weeds
from broadleaves to grasses
Direct-seeding and use of high- yielding (HYVs) but short rice varieties:
resulted in shift of dominant weeds from broadleaves to grasses

WEEDS ARE DYNAMIC AND WEED POPULATIONS CHANGE WITH CHANGING

SITUATIONS; BEING ABLE TO PREDICT THESE CHANGES WILL ENABLE
ADEQUATE MANAGEMENT OF IMPORTANT WEED SPECIES AND PREVENT
THE BUILD-UP OF POPULATIONS OF NOXIOUS WEEDS

WEED MANAGEMENT
Integration of methods to prevent, decrease or maintain weed population
densities below critical threshold levels

Considerations for weed management:

 Identity of weeds (species)
 The field’s cropping history
 Grower’s objectives
 Available technology
 Financial resources
Methods of weed management
 Preventive
 Mechanical and physical
 Cultural or agroecological
 Chemical
 Biological
 Biotechnological
 Integrated weed management (IWM)

PREVENTIVE METHODS
When a weed problem is anticipated and action is taken to prevent it from
occurring
 Secure and plant “clean seed”
 Prevent seed production by weeds
 Prevent the vegetative spread of perennials
 Be aware of the infestation potential of imported seeds or plants (e.g.
ornamentals)
“1 year’s seeding = 7 years’ weeding”
 Maintain clean weed-free fields and
surroundings (dikes, levees)
 Regulatory actions - to prevent the introduction of non-native weeds or the
entry or dispersal of noxious or invasive weeds
 quarantine laws by Dept of Agriculture
 Use of certified or foundation seeds (many farmers use seeds from
previous harvests which are usually contaminated with weed seeds)
 roguing out off-types during mid-season to prevent cross-pollination
or multiplication (e.g. weedy rice)
MECHANICAL METHODS
 Handweeding
 Hoeing
 Tillage or cultivation
 Mowing
 Flooding, Dredging, Draining
 Tillage – bury weed seeds , stimulate germination of dormant seeds and
propagules, desiccate shoots, and exhaust carbohydrate reserves of
perennial weeds
 Thorough land preparation:
1 to 2 plowings followed by 2 to 3 harrowings will reduce weed
growth and reduce the number of handweedings after planting.
Interrow cultivation: rotary weeder (rice) off-barring, hilling-up (corn,
vegetables)
 Stale-seedbed technique (SST) reduces tuber populations in the soil

PHYSICAL METHODS
Utilize some physical components of the environment, such as temperature,
humidity, or light, to the detriment of weeds
 HEAT
  Flaming (rice hull burning) – kills weeds
 Solarization – heat from sun, dries up weeds

 MULCHING
Prevents light penetration and prevents weed growth, increases soil
temperature
- rice straw, hay, paper, plastic
- used in high value crops (onion, pepper, other vegetables and fruits)

CULTURAL OR AGROECOLOGICAL METHODS (INDIRECT WEED CONTROL)

Environmental modifications or crop production practices that enhance
crop growth (to make crop more competitive) and reduce weed growth
(to make weed less competitive)
CROP
 COMPETITION
Healthy crop - Make crop more competitive than weeds (planting
methods,spacing)
 Transplanted rice: has a 20-day headstart over weeds (Lesser
competition)
 Direct-seeded rice and weeds germinate and grow at same time
(Greater competition)
CULTURAL METHODS
 Water management
 Flooded rice vs upland rice
Flooded or irrigated rice more competitive than rainfed or upland rice
Flooding suppresses weed growth and transplanting makes rice more
Competitive
 CROP ROTATION
 Rotate crops with different habitats or crop requirements to break
the life cycle of the weeds associated with them
Crop rotation = disrupts life cycle of weeds growing with crop
o Onion = dryland weeds (C. rotundus, A. spinosus)
o Rice = wetland weeds (E. crusgalli, C. difformis)
o During dryland crop, wetland weeds are inhibited.
o During wetland crop, dryland weeds are inhibited.
However, if rotation pattern is done repeatedly
over extended periods, over the years, the weeds can adapt
 to the new environment. For example, in rice-onion
rotations, a lowland purple nutsedge that can sprout and
grow in flooded soil has developed and is now becoming a
dominant weed in lowland rice.

CHEMICAL METHOD
 Herbicides are chemicals which are used to modify growth, injure or kill
weeds through its effect on the weeds’ physiology and biochemistry
 Understand the NATURE and PROPERTIES of herbicides
 Use properly
Advantages of Herbicides
 Reduce or eliminate excessive human labor
 Reduce or eliminate mechanical tillage requirements
 Used in places where other methods will not work
 Early season weed control to prevent weeds or reduce competition (pre-
emergence or pre-plant herbicides)
Disadvantages of Herbicides
 Expensive
 Exacting
Encourages monoculture, not diversity
Residue problems
Can be toxic to non-target organisms
HERBICIDE RESISTANCE

BIOLOGICAL METHODS - Use of biotic (living) organisms such as natural

enemies (insects, pathogens) to control weeds

Methods of Application of BCA

CLASSICAL
 The weed has a native habitat
 Has an effective natural enemy or biological control agent (BCA) which can
be reared (insects)
BCA should be host-specific (will not damage crops or other non-target
plants)

METHODS OF APPLICATION OF BCA

 AUGMENTATIVE - (Microbial herbicides, mycoherbicides)
 Use of plant pathogens to control weeds BCA is native to the habitat of
weed
Ex. C. gleosporioides f. sp. aeschynomene (mycoherbicide, Collego)
Phytophthora palmivora (Devine)
These bioherbicides control broadleaf weeds infesting rice.

INTEGRATED WEED MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES

Combination of two or more weed control methods to get most efficient
season-long control
• “Best-mix” combination
• Must be practical, economical, cost-effective
• Must be suitable to existing farming conditions
• Usually herbicide followed by a mechanical or cultural method (direct +
indirect method)

Economics of weed control

• Weed control inputs consist about 20% of total production costs
• Need to develop weed management strategies that reduce input costs
without reducing weed control efficacy
Examples: a. 2 hw instead of weekly handweeding (FP)
b. 1 herbicide + 1 hw instead of 2 herbic + 2 HW (FP)
c. Thorough land preparation
d. Stale-seedbed technique
e. Use of mulch, Rice hull burning