A Project Report On BEHAVIOUR OF CONCRET PDF

VISVESVARAYA TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY
BELAGAVI, KARNATAKA-590018
A Project Report on
“BEHAVIOUR OF CONCRETE BY PARTIAL REPLACEMENT OF COARSE
AGGREGATE WITH RECYCLED PLASTIC GRANULES”
Submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirement for the award of the degree of
BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING IN CIVIL ENGINEERING
Submitted by
Prabesh Thapa 1ox11cv018

Sanju Bhandari 1ox11cv032
Sekandar Shah 1ox11cv035
Shweta Chaurasia 1ox11cv038
Under the guidance of

Mr. SHIVANAND C G
Asst. Professor,
Dept. Of Civil Engineering
Department of Civil Engineering

THE OXFORD COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
BENGALURU-560068
THE OXFORD COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
BOMMANAHALLI, BENGALURU-560068
CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the project work entitled “BEHAVIOUR OF

CONCRETE BY PARTIAL REPLACEMENT OF COARSE
AGGREGATE WITH RECYCLED PLASTIC GRANULES “carried out
by Prabesh Thapa (1ox11cv018), Sanju Bhandari (1ox11cv032), Shweta
Chaurasia (1ox11cv038), Sayed Sekandar Shah (1ox11cv035), are
bonafide students of “The Oxford college of Engineering” , In partial
fulfilment for the award of the “Degree of Bachelor of Engineering”.
Prescribed by Visvesvaraya Technological University, Belagavi
during the academic year 2014-15. It is certified that all the
suggestions indicated for internal assessment have been
incorporated in the report deposited in the departmental library. The
project report has been approved as it certifies the academic
requirements in respect of project work prescribed for the said
degree.
Dr. Amarnath K Mr. Shivanand C G

Head of the department Project Guide
Department of Civil Engineering. Department of Civil
Examiner Signature
1)……………………………………….. ……………………………………
2)……………………………………….. ……………………………………
DECLARATION BY THE CANDIDATES
We, Sanju Bhandari, Prabesh Thapa, Sayed Sekandar Shah, and Shweta
Chaurasia hereby declare that the project report entitled "study of behaviour of
concrete by partial replacement of coarse aggregate by recycled plastic granules",
under the guidance of Prof. Shivanand is submitted in the fulfilment of the requirements
for the MAIN-PROJECT. This is a bonafide work carried out by us and the results
embodied in this project report have not been reproduced/copied from any source. The
results embodied in this project report have not been submitted to any other university or
institution for the award of any other degree or diploma.
Date: Civil Engineering Department

Place: TOCE, Bangalore
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
A project work is a job of great enormity and it can’t be accomplished by an individual all
by them. Eventually I am grateful to a number of individuals whose professional guidance
assistance and encouragement have made it a pleasant endeavour to undertake this project.
I have a great pleasure in expressing my deep sense of gratitude to founder Chairman S.

Narasa Raju and our Executive Director S.N.V.L. Narasimha Raju for having provided
us with a great infrastructure and well-furnished labs.
I take this opportunity to express my profound gratitude to my principal Dr. RAJENDRA

PRASAD for his constant support and encouragement.
I am grateful to Dr. AMARNATH.K., HOD, department of Civil Engineering, for his

encouragement and suggestion for the project work.
Guidance and Deadlines plays a very important role in successful completion of the project
on time. I also convey my gratitude to Mr. SHIVANAND C G Lecturer, Department of
civil engineering, for having constantly monitored the development of the project and
setting up precise deadlines.
The satisfaction and excitement that accompany the successful completion of the task
would be great but incomplete without the mention of the people who made it possible with
their constant guidance and encouragement crowns all the efforts with success. In this
context, we would like thank all the other staff members, both teaching and non-teaching,
who have extended their timely help and eased our task.
PRABESH THAPA 1OX11CV018
SANJU BHANDARI 1OX11CV032
SAYED SEKANDAR SHAH 1OX11CV035
SHWETA CHAURASIA 1OX11CV038

ABSTRACT
In this paper low density poly ethylene (LDPE) granules used as replacement for coarse
aggregate for producing concrete cubes and cylinders has been investigated and reported.
LDPE based concrete cubes and cylinders were cast manually and the strength of the test
concrete in terms of compression and split tension were experimentally evaluated. It is
found that the strength of plastic replaced concrete in terms of compression and split
tension can be comparable with the conventional concrete.
The present study is aimed at concrete mix with partial replacement of coarse aggregate
by LDPE granules (0%, 10%, 20% and 30%) that will provide an advantage in reducing
the dead weight of structure. This mix in the form of cubes and cylinders were subjected
to compression and split tension to ascertain the strength parameter.
Hence the use of plastic granules in concrete making is not only beneficial but also
helpful in disposal of plastic wastes.
CONTENTS
Title Page No
CHAPTER-1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 General Introduction………………………………………………..... 01

1.2 Objectives………………………………………………………………02
CHAPTER-2 LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 General…………………………………………………………………….03
2.2 Earlier Researches ………………………………………………………..03
2.3 Summary of the literature review………………………………………..06
CHAPTER-3 MATERIALS AND METHODOLOGY
3.1 Plastic……………………………………………………………………. 08
3.1.1 Introduction and Properties…………………………………….……..08
3.1.2 Categories of Plastics……………………………………………………08
3.1.3 Health hazard…………………………………………………………...10
3.1.4 Climate Change…………………………………………………………11
3.1.5 Recycling………………………………………………………………...11
3.1.6 Low Density Poly Ethylene (LDPE)……………………………………12
3.2 Cement…………………………………………………………………….15
3.2.1 Introduction……………………………………………………………..15
3.2.2 Type of cement…………………………………………………………..15
3.2.3 Curing…………………………………………………………………...16
3.2.4 Safety Issues……………………………………………………………. 16
3.2.5 Cement Production in world………………………………………….. 16
3.2.6 Environmental Impacts………………………………………………... 17
3.2.7 Green Cement………………………………………………………….. 18
3.3 Aggregates: Fine Aggregates…………………………………………… 19
3.3.1 Introduction………………………………………………………….… 19
3.3.2 Composition……………………………………………………………..19
3.3.3 Study……………………………………………………………………..20
3.3.4 Uses………………………………………………………………………21
3.3.5 Resources and environmental concerns………………………………..23
3.3.6 Hazards………………………………………………………………….23
3.4 Aggregates: Coarse Aggregates………………………………………….24
3.4.1 Introduction……………………………………………………………..24
3.4.2 History…………………………………………………………………...25
3.4.3 Modern Production……………………………………………………..25
3.4.4 Recycled Materials for aggregates……………………………………..25
CHAPTER-4 RESULTS AND OBSERVATIONS
4.1 Tests on Cement…………………………………………………………...28
4.1.1 Standard Consistency of cement……………………………………….28
4.1.2 Setting time of cement…………………………………………………..29
4.1.3 Specific gravity of cement……………………………………………… 31
4.2 Tests on fine aggregates…………………………………………………...32

4.2.1 Specific gravity of sand…………………………………………………32
4.2.2 Water absorption test…………………………………………………...33
4.2.3 Particle size distribution of sand………………………………………..34
4.3 Tests on coarse aggregate (20mm down size aggregate)………………35
4.3.1 Specific gravity and water absorption test……………………………..35
4.4Concrete Mix Design………………………………………………………38
4.4.1 Introduction……………………………………………………………..38
4.4.2 Requirements of concrete mix design…………………………………..39
4.4.3 Types of mixes…………………………………………………………...39
4.4.4 Factors affecting the choice of mix proportions……………………….40
4.4.5 Mix proportion designations……………………………………………42
4.5 Tests on Concrete………………………………………………………….47
4.5.1 Slump test………………………………………………………………..47
4.5.2 Compaction factor test………………………………………………….49
4.5.3 Compressive strength test………………………………………………51
4.5.4 Split tensile test………………………………………………………….57
CHAPTER-5 CONCLUSION
5.1 Conclusion…………………………………………………………………64
5.2 Advantages and Disadvantages…………………………………………..64
5.3 Scope of future work………………………………………………………65
REFERNCES…………………………………………………………………67
LIST OF FIGURES
S.No. Page No.
3.1 LDPE granules……………………………………………………………14
4.1 Concrete mixing…………………………………………………………..46
4.2 Slump test…………………………………………………………………47
4.3 Compaction factor test…………………………………………………...49
4.4 Compressive strength test………………………………………………..57
4.5 Split tensile test…………………………………………………………... 63
I. Recycled plastic granules………………………………………………… 70
II. Concrete mixer in the lab…………………………………………………70
III. Preparation of mould…………………………………………………….71
IV Moulds kept for setting…………………………………………………...71
V. Casted concrete cubes and cylinders……………………………………..72
VI. Compressive strength testing in the lab………………………………...73

VII Split tensile test…………………………………………………………. 74
VIII. Concrete specimen after failure…………………………………….. 74
LIST OF TABLES
S.No. Page No.
4.1 Normal Consistency of cement …………………………………………...28
4.2 Setting time of cement…………………………………………………….30
4.3 Specific gravity of cement………………………………………………...31
4.4 Properties of cement ……………………………………………………...32
4.5 Specific gravity of sand……………………………………………………33
4.6 Water absorption of sand…………………………………………………33
4.7 Sieve analysis of Fine Aggregate…………………………………………35
4.8 Properties of fine aggregates …………………………………………….35
4.9 Specific gravity and water absorption of coarse aggregate……………..37
4.10 Properties of coarse aggregates…………………………………………37
4.11 Properties of Low Density Poly Ethylene (LDPE)……………………...38
4.12 Calculation of plastic granules weight for the mix……………………..46
4.13 Observation for slump test………………………………………………48
4.14 Compaction factor test…………………………………………………..50
4.15 Compressive strength test……………………………………………….52
4.16 Split Tensile Test…………………………………………………………58

LIST OF GRAPHS
S. No. Page No.
4.1 Comparison of slump value………………………………………………48
4.2 Comparison of compaction factor test…………………………………...51
4.3 Comparison of Compressive strength……………………………………53
4.3(a) Compressive strength of 0% vs 10%.....................................................53
4.3(b) Compressive strength of 0% vs 20%.....................................................54
4.3(c) Compressive strength of 0% vs 30% ………………………………….55
4.3(d) Compressive strength of 0%, 10%, 20%, and 30% ………………...56
4.4 Comparison of split tensile strength……………………………………...59
4.4(a) Split tensile strength of 0% vs 10%........................................................59
4.4(b) Split tensile strength of 0% vs 20%.......................................................60
4.4(c) Split tensile strength of 0% vs 30%........................................................61
4.4(d) Split tensile strength of 0%, 10%, 20%, and 30% ………………….62
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
Behaviour of concrete by partial replacement of coarse aggregate with recycled plastic granules
CHAPTER-1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 General Introduction
The problem of disposing and managing solid waste materials in all countries has become
one of the major environmental, economical, and social issues. A complete waste
management system including source reduction, reuse, recycling, land-filling, and
incineration needs to be implemented to control the increasing waste disposal problems.
Typically a plastic is not recycled into the same type of plastic products made from
recycled plastics are often not recyclable. The use of biodegradable plastics is increasing.
If some of these get mixed in the other plastics for recycling, the reclaimed plastic
is not recyclable because the variance in properties and melt temperatures.
The purpose of this project is to evaluate the possibility of using granulated plastic waste
materials to partially substitute for the coarse aggregate in concrete composites.
Among different waste fractions, plastic waste deserves special attention on account non-
biodegradable property which is creating a lot of problems in the environment. In India
approximately 40 million tons of solid waste is produced annually. This is increasing at
a rate of 1.5 to 2% every year. Plastics constitute 12.3% of total waste produced most
of which is from discarded water bottles. The plastic waste cannot be disposed off by
dumping or burning, as they produce uncontrolled fire or contaminate the soil and
vegetation.
Considerable researches and studies were carried out in some countries like USA and UK
on this topic. However, there have been very limited studies in India on plastics in
concrete. Hence an attempt on the utilization of waste Low Density Polyethylene (LDPE)
granules as partial replacement of coarse aggregate is done and its mechanical behaviour
is investigated.
Dept. of Civil Engineering, TOCE, BANGALORE Page 1

1.2 Objectives
 To compare the compressive strength of Recycled Plastics used as Coarse
Aggregate for Constructional Concrete with the Conventional concrete.
 To know its applications in construction industry.
 To reduce the pressure on naturally available materials by replacing it
with recycled plastic aggregate.
 To compare the physical characteristics of natural aggregate with Plastic
recycled aggregate.
 To study the behavior of fresh and hardened concrete reinforced with plastic
waste coarse aggregate.
 To produce lightweight polymer concrete for multi-purpose use.

CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
CHAPTER-2
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 General
The purpose of this lesson is to have a broad understanding of using alternative materials
with the replacement of coarse aggregate using Low Density Poly Ethylene (LDPE).
2.2 Earlier Researches
[1] “Recycled Plastics as Coarse Aggregate for Structural Concrete”:

Praveen Mathew, Shibi Varghese, Thomas Paul, Eldho Varghese (2013)
The use of plastic is increasing day by day, although steps were taken to reduce its
consumption. This creates substantial garbage every day which is much unhealthy. A
healthy and sustainable reuse of plastics offers a host of advantages. The suitability of
recycled plastics as coarse aggregate in concrete and its advantages are discussed here.
The initial questions arising of the bond strength and the heat of hydration regarding
plastic aggregate were solved. Tests were conducted to determine the properties of
plastic aggregate such as density, specific gravity and aggregate crushing value. As
100% replacement of natural coarse aggregate (NCA) with plastic coarse aggregate
(PCA) is not feasible, partial replacement at various percentage were examined. The
percentage substitution that gave higher compressive strength was used for determining
the other properties such as modulus of elasticity, split tensile strength and flexural
strength. Higher compressive strength was found with 20% NCA replaced concrete. Heat
resisting behaviour of the PCA concrete is also discussed in this study.
[2] “Recycled plastics used as coarse aggregate for constructional concrete”
SJB Institute of Technology, Bangalore
Landfill sites are becoming overcrowded and expensive for waste disposal, efforts are
made to minimize the quantities of materials that are delivered to landfills. The threat due
to leaching of non-biodegradable materials like waste plastics, scrap tyres. E-waste may
contaminate the soil and ground water. If the production of waste cannot be prevented,
then it is attractive to create an alternative use in another process instead of disposal. The
benefits of plastic recycling can be economically advantageous, due to abundant

availability lower cost for mixing with other variants like concrete, bitumen etc. The
development of concrete with nonconventional aggregate, such as polystyrene foam
wastes, HDPE, polyethylene terephthalate (PET), and other plastic materials has been
investigated for use in concrete in order to improve the properties of the concrete and
reduce cost. The use of such plastic wastes in concrete will contribute to the sustainability
of the concrete design and the natural environment.
The project aims at use of recycled plastic in concrete as a partial replacement of Coarse
aggregate. The maximum percentage of aggregate replaced by shredded plastic as been
determined based on detailed experimental study. The waste plastic of LDPE (Low
Density
Poly Ethylene) is collected from Bangalore south localities and mixed with OPC and sand
in varying proportions (0%, 20%, 30%, and 40%). The compressive strength for each
variant is determined in laboratory.
[3] “Studies on Concrete containing E plastic waste”
Lakshmi.R, K.L.N.College of Information Technology, Sivagangai
Nagan.S, Thiagarajar College of Engineering, Madurai (2010)
Utilization of waste materials and by-products is a partial solution to environmental and

ecological problems. Use of these materials not only helps in getting them utilized in
cement, concrete and other construction materials, it helps in reducing the cost of cement
and concrete manufacturing, but also has numerous indirect benefits such as reduction in
land-fill cost, saving in energy, and protecting the environment from possible pollution
effects. Electronic waste, abbreviated as e-waste, consists of discarded old computers,
TVs, refrigerators, radios – basically any electrical or electronic appliance that has
reached its end-of-life. Efforts have been made in the concrete industry to use non-
biodegradable components of E waste as a partial replacement of the coarse or fine
aggregates. An experimental study is made on the utilization of E-waste particles as
coarse aggregates in concrete with a percentage replacement ranging from 0 % to 30% on
the strength criteria of M20 Concrete. Compressive strength, Tensile strength and
Flexural strength of Concrete with and without E-waste as aggregates was observed
which exhibits a good strength gain. Ultrasonic tests on strength properties were executed

and the feasibility of utilizing E plastic particles as partial replacement of coarse

aggregate has been presented.
[4] “Utilization of e-waste and plastic bottle waste in concrete”
Ankit Arora, UG student
Dr. Urmil V. Dave, Senior Professor, Institute of Technology, Nirma University,

Ahmedabad (2013)
E-waste and plastic waste are the major problem in today scenario as these are non-
biodegradable. Attempts were made in past to use them in concrete by grinding them.
But it failed to give good strength because grinded particle has flattened shape. Grinded
plastic and e waste mixed with concrete is a good way to dispose them with cheap
concrete production.
The following paper deals with the grinding, rubbing and mixing technique to use e-waste
and plastic waste in concrete. E-waste from electrical and electronic equipment, that may
be old or might have reached end of life and plastic waste from plastic mineral and cold
drink bottles were collected and grinded to size of 2 mm using pulverizing machine. The
grinded pieces were rubbed against each other with friction roller machine designed and
fabricated by the authors. It is done to develop roughness and make grinded pieces shape
irregular so that they can bond well with cement when mixed with it. A mix design was
done for M20 grade of concrete by IS method. Ordinary Portland cement of 43 grade was
selected. Grinded E-waste and plastic waste were replaced by 0%, 2%, and 4% of
the fine aggregates. Compressive strength and flexural strength were tested and
compared with control concrete. Experiments done shows increase in compressive
strength by 5% and reduce cost of concrete production by 7% at optimum percentage of
grinded waste. Grinded waste greater than 3.2.75mm in certain proportion act as a good
filler material in concrete and on-going experiments are done to apply gap gradation by
grinding the waste into specific sizes. This will ensure better packing density and hence
good strength. Moreover decorative tiles were made with the grinded waste and white
cement which give appealing look to the wall and are cheaper than the vitrified tiles.

2.3 Summary of the literature review

Concrete is the most widely used man made construction material in the world and its
second only to water as the most utilized substance in the planet. Seeking aggregates for
concrete and to dispose of the plastic waste is the present concern. Today sustainability
has got top priority in construction industry. In the present study the recycled plastics
were used to prepare the coarse aggregates thereby providing a sustainable option to deal
with the plastic waste. There are many recycling plants across the world, but as plastics
are recycled they lose their strength with the number of recycling. So these plastics will
end up as earth fill. In this circumstance instead of recycling it repeatedly, if it is utilized
to prepare aggregates for concrete, it will be a boon to the construction industry.
Most of the failures in concrete structures occur due to the failure of concrete by
crushing of aggregates. Plastic Coarse Aggregates which have low crushing values will
not be crushed as easily as the stone aggregates. These aggregates are also lighter in
weight compared to stone aggregates. Since a complete substitution for Normal Coarse
Aggregate is not found feasible, a partial substitution with various percentage of Plastic
Coarse Aggregate is done. Volumetric substitution was employed in this investigation.
Hence in the present study, it is aimed at concrete mix with partial replacement of coarse
aggregate by LDPE granules (0%, 10%, 20%, and 30%).This mix in the form of cubes
and cylinders were subjected to compression and split tension to ascertain the behaviour
and strength parameter.

CHAPTER 3
MATERIALS AND METHODOLOGY

CHAPTER-3
MATERIALS AND METHODOLOGY
3.1 Plastic
3.1.1 Introduction and Properties
Plastic is a material consisting of any of a wide range of synthetic or semi-synthetic

organics that are malleable and can be moulded into solid objects of diverse shapes. Plastics
are typically organic polymers of high molecular mass, but they often contain other
substances. They are usually synthetic, most commonly derived from petrochemicals, but
many are partially natural. Plasticity is the general property of all materials that are able to
irreversibly deform without breaking, but this occurs to such a degree with this class of
mouldable polymers that their name is an emphasis on this ability.
Due to their relatively low cost, ease of manufacture, versatility, and imperviousness to
water, plastics are used in an enormous and expanding range of products, from paper clips
to spaceships. They have already displaced many traditional materials, such as wood, stone,
horn and bone, leather, paper, metal, glass, and ceramic, in most of their former uses. In
developed countries, about a third of plastic is used in packaging and another third in
buildings such as piping used in plumbing or vinyl siding. Other uses include automobiles
(up to 20% plastic), furniture, and toys. In the developing world, the ratios may be different
- for example, reportedly 42% of India's consumption is used in packaging. Plastics have
many uses in the medical field as well, to include polymer implants, however the field of
plastic surgery is not named for use of plastic material, but rather the more generic meaning
of the word plasticity in regards to the reshaping of flesh.
3.1.2 Categories of Plastic
 Polyester (PES) – Fibres, textiles.
 Polyethylene terephthalate (PET) – Carbonated drinks bottles, peanut butter jars,

plastic film, microwavable packaging.
 Polyethylene (PE) – Wide range of inexpensive uses including supermarket bags,

plastic bottles.
 High-density polyethylene (HDPE) – Detergent bottles, milk jugs, and moulded plastic
cases.
 Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) – Plumbing pipes and guttering, shower curtains, window
frames, flooring.
 Polyvinylidene chloride (PVDC) (Saran) – Food packaging.
 Low-density polyethylene (LDPE) – Outdoor furniture, siding, floor tiles, shower

curtains, clamshell packaging.
 Polypropylene (PP) – Bottle caps, drinking straws, yogurt containers, appliances, car
fenders (bumpers), plastic pressure pipe systems.
 Polystyrene (PS) – Packaging foam/"peanuts", food containers, plastic tableware,

disposable cups, plates, cutlery, CD and cassette boxes.
 High impact polystyrene (HIPS) -: Refrigerator liners, food packaging, and vending
cups.
 Polyamides (PA) (Nylons) – Fibres, toothbrush bristles, tubing, fishing line, low
strength machine parts: under-the-hood car engine parts or gun frames.
 Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) – Electronic equipment cases (e.g., computer

monitors, printers, keyboards), drainage pipe.
 Polyethylene/Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene (PE/ABS) – A slippery blend of PE and

ABS used in low-duty dry bearings.
 Polycarbonate (PC) – Compact discs, eyeglasses, riot shields, security windows, traffic
lights, lenses.
 Polycarbonate/Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene (PC/ABS) – A blend of PC and ABS

that creates a stronger plastic. Used in car interior and exterior parts, and mobile phone
bodies.
 Polyurethanes (PU) – Cushioning foams, thermal insulation foams, surface coatings,

printing rollers (Currently 6th or 7th most commonly used plastic material, for instance
the most commonly used plastic in cars).

3.1.3 Health hazard
Pure plastics have low toxicity due to their insolubility in water and because they are
biochemically inert, due to a large molecular weight. Plastic products contain a variety of
additives, some of which can be toxic. For example, plasticizers like adipates and phthalates
are often added to brittle plastics like polyvinyl chloride to make them pliable enough for
use in food packaging, toys, and many other items. Traces of these compounds can leach
out of the product. Owing to concerns over the effects of such leachates, the European
Union has restricted the use of DEHP (di-2-ethylhexyl phthalate) and other phthalates in
some applications, and the United States has limited the use of DEHP, DPB, BBP, DINP,
DIDP, and DnOP in children's toys and child care articles with the Consumer Product
Safety Improvement Act. Some compounds leaching from polystyrene food containers
have been proposed to interfere with hormone functions and are suspected human
carcinogens. Other chemicals of potential concern include alkylphenols.
Whereas the finished plastic may be non-toxic, the monomers used in the manufacture of
the parent polymers may be toxic. In some cases, small amounts of those chemicals can
remain trapped in the product unless suitable processing is employed. For example, the
World Health Organization's International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) has
recognized vinyl chloride, the precursor to PVC, as a human carcinogen. Some polymers
may also decompose into the monomers or other toxic substances when heated. In 2011, it
was reported that "almost all plastic products" sampled released chemicals with estrogenic
activity, although the researchers identified plastics which did not leach chemicals with
estrogenic activity.
Most plastics are durable and degrade very slowly; the very chemical bonds that make them
so durable tend to make them resistant to most natural processes of degradation. However,
microbial species and communities capable of degrading plastics are discovered from time
to time, and some show promise as being useful for bio remediating certain classes of
plastic waste.
Since the 1950s, one billion tons of plastic have been discarded and some of that material
might persist for centuries or much longer, as is demonstrated by the persistence of natural
materials such as amber.

Serious environmental threats from plastic have been suggested in the light of the
increasing presence of micro plastics in the marine food chain along with many highly toxic
chemical pollutants that accumulate in plastics. They also accumulate in larger fragmented
pieces of plastic called nurdles. In the 1960s the latter were observed in the guts of seabirds,
and since then have been found in increasing concentration. In 2009, it was estimated that
10% of modern waste was plastics, although estimates vary according to region.
Meanwhile, 50-80% of debris in marine areas is plastic. Before the ban on the use of CFCs
in extrusion of polystyrene (and in general use, except in life-critical fire suppression
systems; see Montreal Protocol), the production of polystyrene contributed to the depletion
of the ozone layer, but current extrusion processes use non-CFCs.
3.1.4 Climate change
The effect of plastics on global warming is mixed. Plastics are generally made from
petroleum. If the plastic is incinerated, it increases carbon emissions; if it is placed in a
landfill, it becomes a carbon sink although biodegradable plastics have caused methane
emissions. Due to the lightness of plastic versus glass or metal, plastic may reduce energy
consumption. For example, packaging beverages in PET plastic rather than glass or metal
is estimated to save 52% in transportation energy.
3.1.5 Recycling
Thermoplastics can be re-melted and reused, and thermoset plastics can be ground up and
used as filler, although the purity of the material tends to degrade with each reuse cycle.
There are methods by which plastics can be broken back down to a feedstock state.
The greatest challenge to the recycling of plastics is the difficulty of automating the sorting
of plastic wastes, making it labour-intensive. Typically, workers sort the plastic by looking
at the resin identification code, although common containers like soda bottles can be sorted
from memory. Typically, the caps for PETE bottles are made from a different kind of plastic
which is not recyclable, which presents additional problems to the automated sorting
process. Other recyclable materials such as metals are easier to process mechanically.
However, new processes of mechanical sorting are being developed to increase capacity
and efficiency of plastic recycling.

While containers are usually made from a single type and colour of plastic, making them
relatively easy to be sorted, a consumer product like a cellular phone may have many small
parts consisting of over a dozen different types and colours of plastics. In such cases, the
resources it would take to separate the plastics far exceed their value and the item is
discarded. However, developments are taking place in the field of active disassembly,
which may result in more consumer product components being re-used or recycled.
Recycling certain types of plastics can be unprofitable, as well. For example, polystyrene
is rarely recycled because it is usually not cost effective. These unrecycled wastes are
typically disposed of in landfills, incinerated or used to produce electricity at waste-to-
energy plants.
3.1.6 Low-density polyethylene (LDPE)
Introduction:
Low-density polyethylene (LDPE) is a thermoplastic made from the monomer ethylene. It

was the first grade of polyethylene, produced in 1933 by Imperial Chemical Industries (ICI)
using a high pressure process via free radical polymerization. Its manufacture employs the
same method today. The EPA estimates 3.3.7% of LDPE (recycling number 4) is recycled.
Despite competition from more modern polymers, LDPE continues to be an important plastic
grade. In 2013 the worldwide LDPE market reached a volume of about US$33 billion.
Properties:
LDPE is defined by a density range of 0.910–0.940 g/cm3.1. It is not reactive at room

temperatures, except by strong oxidizing agents, and some solvents cause swelling. It can
withstand temperatures of 80 °C continuously and 95 °C for a short time. Made in translucent
or opaque variations, it is quite flexible, and tough but breakable.
LDPE has more branching (on about 2% of the carbon atoms) than HDPE, so its
intermolecular forces (instantaneous-dipole induced-dipole attraction) are weaker, its tensile
strength is lower, and its resilience is higher. Also, since its molecules are less tightly packed
and less crystalline because of the side branches, its density is lower. LDPE contains the
chemical elements carbon and hydrogen.

Chemical resistance:
 Excellent resistance (no attack / no chemical reaction) to dilute and concentrated acids,
alcohols, bases and esters
 Good resistance (minor attack / very low chemical reactivity) to aldehydes, ketones
and vegetable oils
 Limited resistance (moderate attack / significant chemical reaction, suitable for short-
term use only) to aliphatic and aromatic hydrocarbons, mineral oils, and oxidizing
agents
 Poor resistance, and not recommended for use with halogenated hydrocarbons.
Applications:
LDPE is widely used for manufacturing various containers, dispensing bottles, wash
bottles, tubing, plastic bags for computer components, and various moulded laboratory
equipment. Its most common use is in plastic bags. Other products made from it include:
 Trays and general purpose containers
 Corrosion-resistant work surfaces
 Parts that need to be weldable and machinable
 Parts that require flexibility, for which it serves very well
 Very soft and pliable parts such as Snap-On lids
 Six pack rings
 Juice and milk cartons are made of liquid packaging board, a laminate of paperboard
and LDPE (as the waterproof inner and outer layer), and often with of a layer of
aluminium foil (thus becoming aseptic packaging).
 Packaging for computer hardware, such as hard disk drives, screen cards, and optical
disc drives
 Playground slides

Fig 3.1 LDPE granules

3.2 Cement
3.2.1 Introduction
A cement is a binder, a substance that sets and hardens and can bind other materials
together. The word "cement" traces to the Romans, who used the term opus caementicium
to describe masonry resembling modern concrete that was made from crushed rock with
burnt lime as binder. The volcanic ash and pulverized brick supplements that were added
to the burnt lime, to obtain a hydraulic binder, were later referred to as cementum,
cimentum, cäment, and cement. Cements used in construction can be characterized as
being either hydraulic or non-hydraulic, depending upon the ability of the cement to be
used in the presence of water. Non-hydraulic cement will not set in wet conditions or
underwater, rather it sets as it dries and reacts with carbon dioxide in the air. It can be
attacked by some aggressive chemicals after setting.
3.2.2 Types of cements
i. Portland cement
ii. Energetically modified cement
iii. Portland cement blends
iv. Portland blast furnace cement
v. Portland fly ash cement
vi. Portland Pozzolana cement
vii. Portland silica fume cement
viii. Masonry cements
ix. Expansive cements
x. White blended cements
xi. Colored cements
xii. Very finely ground cements
xiii. Pozzolana-lime cements
xiv. Slag-lime cements
xv. Super-sulphated cements
xvi. Calcium sulfo aluminate cements
xvii. Natural cements
xviii. Geo polymer cements

3.2.3 Curing
Cement sets or cures when mixed with water which causes a series of hydration chemical
reactions. The constituents slowly hydrate and crystallize; the interlocking of the crystals
gives cement its strength. Maintaining a high moisture content in cement during curing
increases both the speed of curing, and its final strength. Gypsum is often added to Portland
cement to prevent early hardening or "flash setting", allowing a longer working time. The
time it takes for cement to cure varies depending on the mixture and environmental
conditions; initial hardening can occur in as little as twenty minutes, while full cure can
take over a month. Cement typically cures to the extent that it can be put into service within
24 hours to a week.
3.2.4 Safety issues
Bags of cement routinely have health and safety warnings printed on them because not only
is cement highly alkaline, but the setting process is exothermic. As a result, wet cement is
strongly caustic and can easily cause severe skin burns if not promptly washed off with
water. Similarly, dry cement powder in contact with mucous membranes can cause severe
eye or respiratory irritation. Some ingredients can be specifically allergenic and may cause
allergic dermatitis. Reducing agents are sometimes added to cement to prevent the
formation of carcinogenic chromate in cement. Cement users should wear protective
clothing.
3.2.5 Cement production in world
In 2010, the world production of hydraulic cement was 3,300 million tonnes. The top three
producers were China with 1,800, India with 220, and USA with 63.1.5 million tonnes for
a combined total of over half the world total by the world's three most populated states. For
the world capacity to produce cement in 2010, the situation was similar with the top three
states (China, India, and USA) accounting for just under half the world total capacity. Over
2011 and 2012, global consumption continued to climb, rising to 3585 Mt in 2011 and 3736
Mt in 2012, while annual growth rates eased to 4.4.3% and 3.2.2%, respectively. China,
representing an increasing share of world cement consumption, continued to be the main
engine of global growth. By 2012, Chinese demand was recorded at 2160 Mt, representing
58% of world consumption. Annual growth rates, which reached 16% in 2010, appear to

have softened, slowing to 5–6% over 2011 and 2012, as China’s economy targets a more
sustainable growth rate. Outside of China, worldwide consumption climbed by 3.2.4% to
1462 Mt in 2010, 5% to 1535 Mt in 2011, and finally 2.7% to 1576 Mt in 2012.Iran is now
the 3rd largest cement producer in the world and has increased its output by over 10% from
2008 to 2011. Due to climbing energy costs in Pakistan and other major cement-producing
countries, Iran is a unique position as a trading partner, utilizing its own surplus petroleum
to power clinker plants. Now a top producer in the Middle-East, Iran is further increasing
its dominant position in local markets and abroad. The performance in the rest of the world,
which includes many emerging economies in Asia, Africa and Latin America and
representing some 1020 Mt cement demand in 2010, was positive and more than offset the
declines in North America and Europe. Annual consumption growth was recorded at 4.4%
in 2010, moderating to 3.3.1% and 3.2.3% in 2011 and 2012, respectively.
3.2.6 Environmental impacts
Cement manufacture causes environmental impacts at all stages of the process. These
include emissions of airborne pollution in the form of dust, gases, noise and vibration when
operating machinery and during blasting in quarries, and damage to countryside from
quarrying. Equipment to reduce dust emissions during quarrying and manufacture of
cement is widely used, and equipment to trap and separate exhaust gases are coming into
increased use. Environmental protection also includes the re-integration of quarries into the
countryside after they have been closed down by returning them to nature or re-cultivating
them. Carbon concentration in cement spans from ≈5% in cement structures to ≈8% in the
case of roads in cement. Cement manufacturing releases CO2 in the atmosphere both
directly when calcium carbonate is heated, producing lime and carbon dioxide, and also
indirectly through the use of energy if its production involves the emission of CO 2. The
cement industry produces about 5% of global man-made CO2 emissions, of which 50% is
from the chemical process, and 40% from burning fuel. The amount of CO2 emitted by the
cement industry is nearly 900 kg of CO2 for every 1000 kg of cement produced. In the
European Union the specific energy consumption for the production of cement clinker has
been reduced by approximately 30% since the 1970s. This reduction in primary energy
requirements is equivalent to approximately 11 million tonnes of coal per year with
corresponding benefits in reduction of CO2 emissions. This accounts for approximately 5%
of anthropogenic CO2.The high proportion of carbon dioxide produced in the chemical
reaction leads to a large decrease in mass in the conversion from limestone to cement. So,

to reduce the transport of heavier raw materials and to minimize the associated costs, it is
more economical for cement plants to be closer to the limestone quarries rather than to the
consumer centres. In certain applications, lime mortar reabsorbs the same amount of CO2
as was released in its manufacture, and has a lower energy requirement in production than
mainstream cement. Newly developed cement types from Novacem and Eco-cement can
absorb carbon dioxide from ambient air during hardening. Use of the Kalina cycle during
production can also increase energy efficiency.
3.2.7 Green cement
Green cement is a cementitious material that meets or exceeds the functional performance
capabilities of ordinary Portland cement by incorporating and optimizing recycled
materials, thereby reducing consumption of natural raw materials, water, and energy,
resulting in a more sustainable construction material. The manufacturing process for
green cement succeeds in reducing, and even eliminating, the production and release of
damaging pollutants and greenhouse gasses, particularly CO2.Growing environmental
concerns and increasing cost of fuels of fossil origin have resulted in many countries in
sharp reduction of the resources needed to produce cement and effluents (dust and
exhaust gases).Peter Trimble, a design student at the University of Edinburgh has
proposed 'DUPE' based on sporosarcina pasteurii, a bacterium with binding qualities
which, when mixed with sand and urine produces a concrete said to be 70% as strong as
conventional materials. The idea has been commercialized in the USA

3.3 Aggregates: Fine Aggregates
3.3.1 Introduction
Fine aggregate (Sand) is a naturally occurring granular material composed of finely

divided rock and mineral particles. It is defined by size, being finer than gravel and coarser
than silt. Sand can also refer to a textural class of soil or soil type; i.e. a soil containing
more than 85% sand-sized particles (by mass).
The composition of sand varies, depending on the local rock sources and conditions, but
the most common constituent of sand in inland continental settings and non-tropical coastal
settings is silica (silicon dioxide, or SiO2), usually in the form of quartz. The second most
common type of sand is calcium carbonate, for example aragonite, which has mostly been
created, over the past half billion years, by various forms of life, like coral and shellfish. It
is, for example, the primary form of sand apparent in areas where reefs have dominated the
ecosystem for millions of years like the Caribbean.
3.3.2 Composition
In terms of particle size as used by geologists, sand particles range in diameter from
0.0625 mm (or 1⁄16 mm) to 2 mm. An individual particle in this range size is termed a sand
grain. Sand grains are between gravel (with particles ranging from 2 mm up to 64 mm) and
silt (particles smaller than 0.0625 mm down to 0.004 mm). The size specification between
sand and gravel has remained constant for more than a century, but particle diameters as
small as 0.02 mm were considered sand under the Albert Atterberg standard in use during
the early 20th century. A 1953 engineering standard published by the American
Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials set the minimum sand size at
0.074 mm. A 1938 specification of the United States Department of Agriculture was
0.05 mm. Sand feels gritty when rubbed between the fingers (silt, by comparison, feels like
flour).
ISO 14688 grades sands as fine, medium and coarse with ranges 0.063 mm to 0.2 mm to
0.63 mm to 2.0 mm. In the United States, sand is commonly divided into five sub-categories
based on size: very fine sand (1⁄16 – 1⁄8 mm diameter), fine sand (1⁄8 mm – 1⁄4 mm), medium
sand (1⁄4 mm – 1⁄2 mm), coarse sand (1⁄2 mm – 1 mm), and very coarse sand (1 mm – 2 mm).
These sizes are based on the Krumbein phi scale, where size in Φ = -log2D; D being the
particle size in mm. On this scale, for sand the value of Φ varies from −1 to +4, with the
divisions between sub-categories at whole numbers.
The most common constituent of sand, in inland continental settings and non-tropical
coastal settings, is silica (silicon dioxide, or SiO2), usually in the form of quartz, which,
because of its chemical inertness and considerable hardness, is the most common mineral
resistant to weathering.
The composition of mineral sand is highly variable, depending on the local rock sources
and conditions. The bright white sands found in tropical and subtropical coastal settings are
eroded limestone and may contain coral and shell fragments in addition to other organic or
organically derived fragmental material, suggesting sand formation depends on living
organisms, too. The gypsum sand dunes of the White Sands National Monument in New
Mexico are famous for their bright, white colour. Arkose is a sand or sandstone with
considerable feldspar content, derived from weathering and erosion of a (usually nearby)
granitic rock outcrop. Some sands contain magnetite, chlorite, glauconite or gypsum. Sands
rich in magnetite are dark to black in colour, as are sands derived from volcanic basalts and
obsidian. Chlorite-glauconite bearing sands are typically green in colour, as are sands
derived from basaltic (lava) with a high olivine content. Many sands, especially those found
extensively in Southern Europe, have iron impurities within the quartz crystals of the sand,
giving a deep yellow colour. Sand deposits in some areas contain garnets and other resistant
minerals, including some small gemstones.
3.3.3 Study
The study of individual grains can reveal much historical information as to the origin and
kind of transport of the grain. Quartz sand that is recently weathered from granite or
gneiss quartz crystals will be angular. It is called Grus in geology or sharp sand in the
building trade where it is preferred for concrete, and in gardening where it is used as a
soil amendment to loosen clay soils. Sand that is transported long distances by water or
wind will be rounded, with characteristic abrasion patterns on the grain surface. Desert
sand is typically rounded.

3.3.4 Uses
 Agriculture: Sandy soils are ideal for crops such as watermelons, peaches and peanuts,
and their excellent drainage characteristics make them suitable for intensive dairy
farming.
 Aquaria: Sand makes a low cost aquarium base material which some believe is better
than gravel for home use. It is also a necessity for saltwater reef tanks, which emulate
environments composed largely of aragonite sand broken down from coral and
shellfish.
 Artificial reefs: Geotextile bagged sand can serve as the foundation for new reefs.
 Artificial islands in the Persian Gulf for instance.
 Beach nourishment: Governments move sand to beaches where tides, storms or

deliberate changes to the shoreline erode the original sand.
 Brick: Manufacturing plants add sand to a mixture of clay and other materials for
manufacturing bricks.
 Cob: Coarse sand makes up as much as 75% of cob.
 Mortar: Sand is mixed with masonry cement or Portland cement and lime to be used in
masonry construction.
 Concrete: Sand is often a principal component of this critical construction material.
 Hydraulic Fracturing: A drilling technique for natural gas, which uses rounded silica
sand as a "proppant", a material to hold open cracks that are caused by the hydraulic
fracturing process.
 Glass: Sand is the principal component in common glass.
 Landscaping: Sand makes small hills and slopes (for example, in golf courses).
 Paint: Mixing sand with paint produces a textured finish for walls and ceilings or non-
slip floor surfaces.

 Railroads: Engine drivers and rail transit operators use sand to improve the traction of
wheels on the rails.
 Recreation. Playing with sand is a favourite beach time activity. One of the most
beloved uses of sand is to make sometimes intricate, sometimes simple structures
known as sand castles. Such structures are well known for their impermanence. Sand
is also used in children's play. Special play areas enclosing a significant area of sand,
known as sandboxes, are common on many public playgrounds, and even at some
single family homes.
 Roads: Sand improves traction (and thus traffic safety) in icy or snowy conditions.
 Sand animation: Performance artists draw images in sand. Makers of animated films
use the same term to describe their use of sand on frontlit or backlit glass.
 Sand casting: Casters moisten or oil molding sand, also known as foundry sand and
then shape it into moulds into which they pour molten material. This type of sand must
be able to withstand high temperatures and pressure, allow gases to escape, have a
uniform, small grain size and be non-reactive with metals.
 Sand castles: Shaping sand into castles or other miniature buildings is a popular beach
activity.
 Sandbags: These protect against floods and gunfire. The inexpensive bags are easy to
transport when empty, and unskilled volunteers can quickly fill them with local sand
in emergencies.
 Sandblasting: Graded sand serves as an abrasive in cleaning, preparing, and polishing.
 Thermal Weapon: While not in widespread use anymore, sand used to be heated and
poured on invading troops in the classical and medieval time periods.
 Water filtration: Media filters use sand for filtering water.
 Zoanthid "skeletons": Animals in this order of marine benthic cnidarians related to

corals and sea anemones, incorporate sand into their mesoglea for structural strength,
which they need because they lack a true skeleton.

3.3.5 Resources and environmental concerns
Only some sands are suitable for the construction industry, for example for making
concrete. Because of the growth of population and of cities and the consequent construction
activity there is a huge demand for these special kinds of sand, and natural sources are
running low. In 2012 French director Denis Delestrac made a documentary called "Sand
Wars" about the impact of the lack of construction sand. It shows the ecological and
economic effects of both legal and illegal trade in construction sand.
Sand's many uses require a significant dredging industry, raising environmental concerns
over fish depletion, landslides, and flooding. Countries such as China, Indonesia, Malaysia
and Cambodia ban sand exports, citing these issues as a major factor.
3.3.6 Hazards
While sand is generally non-toxic, sand-using activities such as sandblasting require

precautions. Bags of silica sand used for sandblasting now carry labels warning the user to
wear respiratory protection to avoid breathing the resulting fine silica dust. Material safety
data sheets (MSDS) for silica sand state that "excessive inhalation of crystalline silica is a
serious health concern".
In areas of high pore water pressure sand and salt water can form quicksand, which is a
colloid hydrogel that behaves like a liquid. Quicksand produces a considerable barrier to
escape for creatures caught within, who often die from exposure (not from submersion) as
a result.

3.4 Aggregates: Coarse Aggregates
3.4.1 Introduction
Construction aggregate (coarse aggregate), or simply “aggregate”, is a broad category

of coarse particulate material used in construction, including sand, gravel, crushed stone,
slag, recycled concrete and geosynthetic aggregates. Aggregates are the most mined
materials in the world. Aggregates are a component of composite materials such as concrete
and asphalt concrete; the aggregate serves as reinforcement to add strength to the overall
composite material. Due to the relatively high hydraulic conductivity value as compared to
most soils, aggregates are widely used in drainage applications such as foundation and
French drains, septic drain fields, retaining wall drains, and road side edge drains.
Aggregates are also used as base material under foundations, roads, and railroads. In other
words, aggregates are used as a stable foundation or road/rail base with predictable, uniform
properties (e.g. to help prevent differential settling under the road or building), or as a low-
cost extender that binds with more expensive cement or asphalt to form concrete. Preferred
bituminous aggregate sizes for road construction are given in EN 13043 as d/D (where the
range shows the smallest and largest square mesh grating that the particles can pass). The
same classification sizing is used for larger armour stone sizes in EN 13383, EN 12620 for
concrete aggregate, EN 13242 for base layers of road construction and EN 13450 for
railway ballast.
The American Society for Testing and Materials publishes an exhaustive listing of
specifications including ASTM D 692 and ASTM D 1073 for various construction
aggregate products, which, by their individual design, are suitable for specific construction
purposes. These products include specific types of coarse and fine aggregate designed for
such uses as additives to asphalt and concrete mixes, as well as other construction uses.
State transportation departments further refine aggregate material specifications in order to
tailor aggregate use to the needs and available supply in their particular locations.
Sources for these basic materials can be grouped into three main areas: Mining of mineral
aggregate deposits, including sand, gravel, and stone; use of waste slag from the
manufacture of iron and steel; and recycling of concrete, which is itself chiefly
manufactured from mineral aggregates. In addition, there are some (minor) materials that
are used as specialty lightweight aggregates: clay, pumice, perlite, and vermiculite.

3.4.2 History
People have used sand and stone for foundations for thousands of years. Significant
refinement of the production and use of aggregate occurred during the Roman Empire,
which used aggregate to build its vast network of roads and aqueducts. The invention of
concrete, which was essential to architecture utilizing arches, created an immediate,
permanent demand for construction aggregates.
3.4.3 Modern production
The advent of modern blasting methods enabled the development of quarries, which are
now used throughout the world, wherever competent bedrock deposits of aggregate quality
exist. In many places, good limestone, granite, marble or other quality stone bedrock
deposits do not exist. In these areas, natural sand and gravel are mined for use as aggregate.
Where neither stone, nor sand and gravel, are available, construction demand is usually
satisfied by shipping in aggregate by rail, barge or truck. Additionally, demand for
aggregates can be partially satisfied through the use of slag and recycled concrete.
However, the available tonnages and lesser quality of these materials prevent them from
being a viable replacement for mined aggregates on a large scale. Large stone quarry and
sand and gravel operations exist near virtually all population centres. These are capital-
intensive operations, utilizing large earth-moving equipment, belt conveyors, and machines
specifically designed for crushing and separating various sizes of aggregate, to create
distinct product stockpiles.
3.4.4 Recycled materials for aggregates
The largest-volume of recycled material used as construction aggregate is blast furnace and
steel furnace slag. Blast furnace slag is either air-cooled (slow cooling in the open) or
granulated (formed by quenching molten slag in water to form sand-sized glass-like
particles). If the granulated blast furnace slag accesses free lime during hydration, it
develops strong hydraulic cementitious properties and can partly substitute for Portland
cement in concrete. Steel furnace slag is also air-cooled. In 2006, according to the USGS,
air-cooled blast furnace slag sold or used in the U.S. was 4.3 million tonnes valued at $49
million, granulated blast furnace slag sold or used in the U.S. was 3.2.2 million tonnes
valued at $318 million, and steel furnace slag sold or used in the U.S. was 4.4.7 million
tonnes valued at $40 million. Air-cooled blast furnace slag sales in 2006 were for use in
road bases and surfaces (41%), asphaltic concrete (13%), ready-mixed concrete (16%), and
the balance for other uses. Granulated blast furnace slag sales in 2006 were for use in
cementitious materials (94%), and the balance for other uses. Steel furnace slag sales in
2006 were for use in road bases and surfaces (51%), asphaltic concrete (12%), for fill
(18%), and the balance for other uses.
Glass aggregate, a mix of colours crushed to a small size, is substituted for many
construction and utility projects in place of pea gravel or crushed rock, often saving
municipalities like the City of Tumwater, Washington Public Works, thousands of dollars
(depending on the size of the project). Glass aggregate is not sharp to handle. In many
cases, the state Department of Transportation has specifications for use, size and percentage
of quantity for use. Common applications are as pipe bedding—placed around sewer, storm
water or drinking water pipes to transfer weight from the surface and protect the pipe.
Another common use would be as fill to bring the level of a concrete floor even with a
foundation. Use of glass aggregate helps close the loop in glass recycling in many places
where glass cannot be smelted into new glass.
Aggregates themselves can be recycled as aggregates. Unlike deposits of sand and gravel
or stone suitable for crushing into aggregate, which can be anywhere and may require
overburden removal and/or blasting, “deposits” of recyclable aggregate tend to be
concentrated near urban areas, and production from them cannot be raised or lowered to
meet demand for aggregates. Supply of recycled aggregate depends on physical decay of
structures and their demolition. The recycling plant can be fixed or mobile; the smaller
capacity mobile plant works best for asphalt-aggregate recycling. The material being
recycled is usually highly variable in quality and properties.
Many aggregate products of various types are often recycled for other industrial purposes.
In Bay City, Michigan, for example, a recycle program exists for contractors and their own
unused products. These piles are composed of unused mixed concrete, block, brick, gravel,
pea stone, and other used materials. Composed of several alternating piles that grow to
hundreds of feet in height and diameter. These piles are then crushed to provide gravel for
roads and driveways, among other purposes. This program has huge economic and
environmental benefits to the local and surrounding area. Contractors save on disposal costs
and less aggregate is buried or piled and abandoned

According to the USGS in 2006, 2.9 million tonnes of Portland cement concrete (including
aggregate) worth $21.9 million was recycled, and 1.6 million tonnes of asphalt concrete
(including aggregate) worth $11.8 million was recycled, both by crushed stone operations.
Much more of both materials are recycled by construction and demolition firms not in the
USGS survey. For sand and gravel, the USGS survey for 2006 showed that 3.2.7 million
tonnes of cement concrete valued at $32.0 million was recycled, and 3.4.17 million tonnes
of asphalt concrete valued at $43.3.1 million was recycled. Again, more of both materials
are recycled by construction and demolition firms not in this USGS survey. The
Construction Materials Recycling Association indicates that there are 325 million tonnes
of recoverable construction and demolition materials produced annually.
Many geosynthetic aggregates are also made from recycled materials. Being polymer
based, recyclable plastics can be reused in the production of these new age of aggregates.

CHAPTER 4
Results and discussion

CHAPTER-4
RESULTS AND OBSERVATIONS
4.1 Tests on cement
4.1.1 Standard consistency of cement
Standard consistency is defined as the percentage water requirement of cement paste at

which viscosity of the paste becomes such that the plunger in a specially designed
apparatus (known as Vicat’s apparatus) penetrates a depth 5 to 7mm, measured from
the bottom of the mould. Practical importance of Standard consistency value is to
determine amount of water needed to make paste for other tests of cement.
Apparatus: Vicat’s Apparatus with plunger, needles, stop watch etc.
Procedure:
(1) Prepare a paste of weighed quantity of cement (approx. 400 gms) with weighed
quantity of water (start from 20%-25%) taking care that mixing (gauging) remains
between 3 to 5 minutes and mixing shall be completed before any signs of setting
becomes visible.
(2) Fill the Vicat’s mould with the paste, mould should rest on non-porous base.
(3) Place the mould under Vicat’s apparatus. The plunger attached to a movable rod is
gently lowered on the paste.
(4) Settlement of plunger is noted, penetration from bottom is equal to the difference
of mould height and settlement of plunger. If penetration of the plunger is within
5-7mm from bottom, then water added is correct. Otherwise, water is added and
process is repeated.
Observations:
Mass of cement taken= 400 gms
Table 4.1 Normal Consistency of cement
S. No % water Initial reading Final reading Height not penetrated(mm)

1. 20 40 38 2
2. 24 40 37 3
3 28 40 10 30
4. 30 40 5 35
Standard consistency of cement = 30%

4.1.2 Setting time of cement
Two stiffening states of cements are (i) initial and (ii) final setting time. Initial setting
time is defined as the time taken by the paste to stiffen to an extent such that the Vicat
needle is not permitted to move down through the paste within 5 ± 0.5 mm measured
from the bottom of the mould. Time is measured from the instant water is added to the
paste.
Final setting time is the time when the paste becomes so hard that the annular
attachment to the needle under standard weight only makes an impression on the
hardened cement paste
Initial Setting Time:
(1) Take approx. 400 gms of dry cement and add 0.85 P where P is the weight of
water for standard consistency to make paste.
(2) Fill the mould with paste, attach square needle to moving rod of apparatus.
(3) The needle is quickly released and is allowed to penetrate cement paste.
(4) Note down the time and penetration from bottom.
(5) Plot a curve between time (min) and penetration (mm).
(6) Find initial setting time (minutes) when penetration of needle (from bottom) is
within 5 ±0.5mm.
Observations:
Mass of cement taken= 400 gm
(Size of cement particle passing 850µ size)
Needle dimension = 1 mm2 area of 50mm long
Gauging time = 2-3 min
Qty. of water = (0.85P × 400) gm
30
=0.85× ×400
100
= 102 ml

Table 4.2 Setting time of cement
S. No Time Initial Final reading Height not

reading penetrated(mm)
(minutes)
1. 0 40 0 40
2. 5 40 0 40
3 10 40 2 38
4. 15 40 2 38
5. 20 40 2 38
6. 25 40 3 37
7. 30 40 3 37
8. 35 40 3 37
9. 40 40 3 37
10. 45 40 3 37
11. 50 40 4 36
12. 55 40 4 36
13. 60 40 5 35
14. 65 40 5 35
Final Setting Time:
(1) Attach needle with annular collar to the movable rod.

(2) Release the needle gently.
(3) The time when needle makes an impression only on the hardened cement paste is
recorded.
Initial setting time = 30 mins
Final setting time = 580 mins

4.1.3 Specific gravity of cement
Specific gravity is determined by use of a Le Chatelier’s flask. In the determination

of specific gravity of cement, kerosene is used as a medium instead of water, because
water undergoes hydration reaction with cement, while kerosene does not react. The
specific gravity of OPC is generally around 3.1.13.3.
Procedure:
1. Weigh the specific gravity bottle dry. Let the mass of empty bottle be W1.
2. Fill the bottle with distilled water and weigh the bottle filled with water. Let the
mass of bottle with distilled water be W2
3. Wipe and dry the bottle and fill it with kerosene and weigh. Let this mass be W3.1.
4. Weigh the dry cement sample. Let this mass be W3.2.
5. Pour some quantity of kerosene out and introduce a weighed quantity of cement
(about 50gm) into the bottle. Roll the bottle gently in inclined position until no
further air bubble rises to surface. Fill the bottle to the top with kerosene and
weigh it. Let this mass be W3.3.
W4 (W3−W1)
6. The specific gravity of OPC is given by S=(W4+W3−W5)(W2−W1)
Table 4.3 Specific gravity of cement
Description Trial 1 Trial 2

1.Mass of empty bottle W1 gm. 67 67
2.Mass of bottle +water W2 gm. 161 164
3.Mass of bottle +kerosene W3 gm. 144 137
4.Mass of cement W4 gm. 50 50
5.Mass of bottle + cement + kerosene W5 gm. 181 175
6.Specific gravity of cement 3.15 3.00
W4 (W3−W1)
S=
(W4+W3−W5)(W2−W1)
Specific gravity of cement = 3.15

Table 4.4 Properties of cement:
S. No. Properties Values obtained Standard values

1. Specific gravity 3.15 3.15
2. Normal consistency 30% 30%
3. Initial 30 min Not less than 30 mins
and and Not greater than 10 hrs
Final setting time 580 min
4.2 Tests on fine aggregates
4.2.1 Specific gravity of sand
Specific gravity is the ratio of the weight in air of a given volume of a material to the
weight in air of an equal volume of distilled water. Specific gravity of river sand is
around 2.5 and manufactured sand is around 2.7
Apparatus: Pycnometer bottle, Tray, Weighing balance
Procedure:
(1) Take a clean, dry pycnometer, and find its weight with its cap and
washer (W1)
(2) Put about 200 g to 400 g of sand in the pycnometer and find its weight
(W2)
(3) Fill the pycnometer a n d filled in sand as in step2, w i t h distilled water and
measure its weight (W3)
(4) Empty the pycnometer, clean it thoroughly, and fill it with clean water only to the
hole of the conical cap, and find its weight (W4)
(5) Repeat the same procedure at least for three different samples

Table 4.5 Specific gravity of sand
S. Weight of Weight of Weight of Weight of Specific gravity of sand

No Empty Pycn. Pycn+dry Pycn.+ dry Pycn.+ water
(W1) (g) sand (W2) (g) sand +water (W4) (g) W2− W1
(W3) (g) (W2 − W1 ) − (W3 − W4 )
1 415 900 1750 1449 2.63

2 415 830 1715 1447 2.66
3 415 885 1745 1450 2.62
Average Specific gravity of fine aggregate= 2.65
4.2.2 Water absorption test
Absorption is a measure of the amount of water that an aggregate can absorb into its pore
structure. Pores that absorb water are also referred to as “water permeable voids”.
Apparatus: Beaker (1 lit), Hot air oven, weighing balance, tray.
Procedure:
1) Take 500 gms of saturated surface dry sand in the air. Note down the weight as W1.
2) Dry the sample in oven at 100 C-110 C for 24 hrs. Note this weight as W2.
3) Note down empty weight as W3.1.
4) Calculate water absorption value as the percentage of oven dry weight.
𝑊1−𝑊2
Percentage of water absorption=𝑊2−𝑊3×100%
Table 4.6 Water absorption of sand
Water Absorption Trial 1 Trial 2 Trial 3
Wt. of tray + saturated surface dry fine agg (W1) 953 948 940
Wt. of tray + oven dry fine aggregate (W2) 947 943 936
Wt. of empty tray (W3) 452 449 444
Percentage of water absorption 1.21 1.01 1.01
Percentage of water absorption = 1.01%

4.2.3 Particle size distribution of sand
There are different types of sand, so we will have to judge which type of sand is the best
for use. The sand is differentiated on the basis of its gradation. The sand will be
called graded if it consists of particles having a variety of dimensions. For this reason
sieve analysis is conducted to determine the particle size distribution in a sample of
aggregate. As per Indian standard the aggregate fraction from 3.2.75mm to 75 micron are
termed as fine aggregate.
Fineness modulus is defined as sum of the cumulative percentage of sand retained

in the designated sieves divided by 100.
The effective size, i.e. D10 represents a size, in mm such that 10% of the particles are
finer then the sieve size.
Where D60 is the grain diameter at 60% passing, i.e. 40% of sample is retained on that
particular sieve then there is 60% passing.
Coefficient of uniformity Cu=D60/D30
Coefficient of curvature Cc=D302/D10*D60
Apparatus: Sieve Apparatus or sieve set. The apparatus consists of eight different types
of sieves i.e. 3.2.75mm, 2.36mm, 1.18mm, 600µ, 300µ, 150µ and 75µ sieve for fine
aggregate.
Procedure:
1) The sample shall be brought to an air-dried condition before weighing and sieving.
2) Measure 500 gram of the sand.
3) Arrange sieve in descending order of size from the top.
4) Put the sand in sieve 3.2.75mm, and shake for 10 minutes. Material shall not be
forced through the sieve by hand pressure.
5) After 10 minutes stop the shaker and separate the sieve 3.2.75mm from the
apparatus. Then with the help of balance measure the weight of retained particles,
note this weight in the table.
6) Measure the weight of the particles retained in each sieve and notes them in the
table.
7) Calculate the percentage of weight retained on each sieve.
8) Find the percentage of the weight which has passed through each sieve.
9) Plot particle size (log scale) and % passing and find out D10, D30, and D60.
Table 4.7 Sieve analysis of Fine Aggregate
IS Sieve (1) (2) (3) (4) (5)

Size Weight Percentage Cumulative Cumulative Percentage finer
(mm) retained Weight weight percentage 100-Col(4)
(gm.) retained retained (gm.) weight retained
3.2.75mm - - - - 100
2.36mm 11 1.1 11 1.1 94.4.9
1.18mm 190 19 201 20.1 74.5.9
600µ 328 32.8 529 52.9 44.1
300µ 436 43.1.6 965 93.4.5 3.1.5
150µ 28 2.8 993 94.5.3 0.7
Pan 7 0.7 1000 100 0
Result: Fineness Modulus = ∑ Col. (4)/100 =264.5.9/100 =2.699
Table 4.8 Properties of fine aggregates:
Properties Values obtained

Specific gravity 2.65
Water absorption 1.01
Fineness Modulus 2.699
4.3 Tests on coarse aggregates (20mm down size aggregate)
4.3.1 Specific gravity and water absorption test
Specific gravity of an aggregate is a measure of strength or quality of the material. Stones

having low specific gravity are generally weaker than those with higher specific gravity.

Water absorption indicates strength of rocks. Stones having more water absorption are
more porous in nature and are unsuitable unless they are found to be acceptable based
on strength, impact and hardness tests.
Apparatus: Beaker (1 lt), Hot air oven, weighing balance, tray
Procedure:
(1) Take about 2kg of coarse aggregate sample, wash thoroughly to remove finer
particles and dust and immerse in water for 24 hours at a temperature between
22°C and 32°C with a cover of at least 5 cm of water above the top of the basket. Lift
the basket 25 mm above the base of tank and allowing it to drop 25 times at the rate
of more than one drop per second. The weight is noted while suspending in water=W 1.
(2) Remove the aggregate from basket and allow it to drain for few minutes. Weight of
empty basket in water is measured as W 2.
(3) Take out the immersed aggregate and place in a dry cloth. It shall then be spread
out not more than one stone deep, and best exposed to the atmosphere away from
direct sunlight or any other source of heat for not less than 10 minutes, or until it
appears to be completely surface dry. Measure weight of the aggregate (W3)
(4) The aggregate shall then be placed in the oven in the shallow tray, at a temperature
of 100 to 110°C and maintained at this temperature for 24 hours. After 24 hours,
It shall then be removed from the oven, cooled in the airtight container and weighed
(W4).
𝐷𝑟𝑦 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑔𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑊4
(5) Specific gravity of aggregate= 𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 𝑊3−𝑊𝑠
𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑏𝑦 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑒𝑑 𝑊3−𝑊4
Water absorption = = × 100
𝑂𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑔𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑊4

Table 4.9 Specific gravity and water absorption of coarse aggregate
Description Trial 1 Trial 2
Wt. of saturated aggregate suspended in water 2806 2796

with basket=W1 gm
Wt. of basket suspended in water=W2 gm 1537 1532
Wt. of saturated aggregate in water=W1-W2=Ws 1269 1264

gm
Wt. of saturated surface dry aggregate in 2010 2005
air=W3 gm
Wt. of water equal to the volume of 905 741
aggregate=W3-Ws gm
Dry weight after 24 hours W4 gm 1998 1984
𝑊4 2.69 2.67
Specific gravity = 𝑊3−𝑊𝑠
𝑊3−𝑊4
Water absorption= × 100 0.6% 1.05%
𝑊4
Avg. specific gravity= 2.68
Avg. water absorption value= 0.8%
Table 4.10 Properties of coarse aggregates:
Properties Values obtained

Specific gravity 2.68
Water absorption 0.8%

Table 4.11 Properties of Low Density Poly Ethylene (LDPE):
Properties Values
Physical State Solid
Appearance Granules
Grain size 5-7 mm
Density 920 kg/m3
Heat Resistance 80o C
4.4 Concrete mix design
4.4.1 Introduction
The process of selecting suitable ingredients of concrete and determining their relative
amounts with the objective of producing a concrete of the required, strength, durability,
and workability as economically as possible, is termed the concrete mix design. The
proportioning of ingredient of concrete is governed by the required performance of
concrete in 2 states, namely the plastic and the hardened states. If the plastic concrete
is not workable, it cannot be properly placed and compacted. The property of workability,
therefore, becomes of vital importance.
The compressive strength of hardened concrete which is generally considered to be an

index of its other properties, depends upon many factors, e.g. quality and quantity of
cement, water and aggregates; batching and mixing; placing, compaction and curing.
The cost of concrete is made up of the cost of materials, plant and labour. The variations
in the cost of materials arise from the fact that the cement is several times costly than the
aggregate, thus the aim is to produce as lean a mix as possible. From technical point of
view the rich mixes may lead to high shrinkage and cracking in the structural concrete,
and to evolution of high heat of hydration in mass concrete which may cause cracking.
The actual cost of concrete is related to the cost of materials required for producing a
minimum mean strength called characteristic strength that is specified by the designer of
the structure. This depends on the quality control measures, but there is no doubt that the
quality control adds to the cost of concrete. The extent of quality control is often an
economic compromise, and depends on the size and type of job. The cost of labour
depends on the workability of mix, e.g., a concrete mix of inadequate workability may

result in a high cost of labour to obtain a degree of compaction with available

equipment.
4.4.2 Requirements of concrete mix design
The requirements which form the basis of selection and proportioning of mix
ingredients are:
a) The minimum compressive strength required from structural

consideration
b) The adequate workability necessary for full compaction with the compacting
equipment available.
c) Maximum water-cement ratio and/or maximum cement content to give adequate
durability for the particular site condition to meet the site condition and meet strength.
d) Maximum cement content to avoid shrinkage cracking due to temperature cycle in
mass concrete.
4.4.3 Types of Mixes
Nominal Mixes
In the past the specifications for concrete prescribed the proportions of cement, fine and
coarse aggregates. These mixes of fixed cement-aggregate ratio which ensures adequate
strength are termed nominal mixes. These offer simplicity and under normal
circumstances, have a margin of strength above that specified. However, due to the
variability of mix ingredients the nominal concrete for a given workability varies widely
in strength.
Standard Mixes
The nominal mixes of fixed cement-aggregate ratio (by volume) vary widely in strength
and may result in under- or over-rich mixes. For this reason, the minimum compressive
strength has been included in many specifications. These mixes are termed standard mixes.
IS 456-2000 has designated the concrete mixes into a number of grades as M10, M15,
M20, M25, M30, M35 and M40. In this designation the letter M refers to the mix and
the number to the specified 28 day cube strength of mix in N/mm2. The mixes of grades
M10, M15, M20 and M25 correspond approximately to the mix proportions (1:3:6),
(1:2:4), (1:1.5:3) and (1:1:2) respectively.

Designed Mixes
In these mixes the performance of the concrete is specified by the designer but the mix
proportions are determined by the producer of concrete, except that the minimum cement
content can be laid down. This is most rational approach to the selection of mix proportions
with specific materials in mind possessing more or less unique characteristics. The
approach results in the production of concrete with the appropriate properties most
economically. However, the designed mix does not serve as a guide since this does not
guarantee the correct mix proportions for the prescribed performance.
For the concrete with undemanding performance nominal or standard mixes (prescribed
in the codes by quantities of dry ingredients per cubic meter and by slump) may be used
only for very small jobs, when the 28-day strength of concrete does not exceed 30
N/mm2. No control testing is necessary reliance being placed on the masses of the
ingredients.
4.4.4 Factors affecting the choice of mix proportions
The various factors affecting the mix design are:
Compressive strength
It is one of the most important properties of concrete and influences many other
describable properties of the hardened concrete. The mean compressive strength required
at a specific age, usually 28 days, determines the nominal water-cement ratio of the mix.
The other factor affecting the strength of concrete at a given age and cured at a prescribed
temperature is the degree of compaction. According to Abraham’s law the strength of
fully compacted concrete is inversely proportional to the water-cement ratio.
Workability
The degree of workability required depends on three factors. These are the size of the
section to be concreted, the amount of reinforcement, and the method of compaction to
be used. For the narrow and complicated section with numerous corners or inaccessible
parts, the concrete must have a high workability so that full compaction can be achieved
with a reasonable amount of effort. This also applies to the embedded steel sections. The
desired workability depends on the compacting equipment available at the site.

Durability
The durability of concrete is its resistance to the aggressive environmental conditions.

High strength concrete is generally more durable than low strength concrete. In the
situations when the high strength is not necessary but the conditions of exposure are such
that high durability is vital, the durability requirement will determine the water-cement
ratio to be used.
Maximum nominal size of aggregate
In general, larger the maximum size of aggregate, smaller is the cement requirement for
a particular water-cement ratio, because the workability of concrete increases with
increase in maximum size of the aggregate. However, the compressive strength tends to
increase with the decrease in size of aggregate.
IS 456:2000 and IS 1343:1980 recommend that the nominal size of the aggregate should
be as large as possible.
Grading and type of aggregate
The grading of aggregate influences the mix proportions for a specified workability and
water- cement ratio. Coarser the grading leaner will be mix which can be used. Very lean
mix is not desirable since it does not contain enough finer material to make the concrete
cohesive.
The type of aggregate influences strongly the aggregate-cement ratio for the desired
workability and stipulated water cement ratio. An important feature of a satisfactory
aggregate is the uniformity of the grading which can be achieved by mixing different size
fractions.
Quality control
The degree of control can be estimated statistically by the variations in test results. The
variation in strength results from the variations in the properties of the mix ingredients
and lack of control of accuracy in batching, mixing, placing, curing and testing. The
lower the difference between the mean and minimum strengths of the mix lower will
be the cement-content required. The factor controlling this difference is termed as quality
control.

4.4.5 Mix Proportion Designations
The common method of expressing the proportions of ingredients of a concrete mix is

in the terms of parts or ratios of cement, fine and coarse aggregates. For e.g., a concrete
mix of proportions 1:2:4 means that cement, fine and coarse aggregate are in the ratio
1:2:4 or the mix contains one part of cement, two parts of fine aggregate and four parts of
coarse aggregate. The proportions are either by volume or by mass. The water-cement
ratio is usually expressed in mass
Factors to be considered for mix design
• The grade designation giving the characteristic strength requirement of concrete.

• The type of cement influences the rate of development of compressive strength
of concrete.
• Maximum nominal size of aggregates to be used in concrete may be as large as
possible within the limits prescribed by IS 456:2000.
• The cement content is to be limited from shrinkage, cracking and creep.
• The workability of concrete for satisfactory placing and compaction is related to
size and shape of section, quantity and spacing of reinforcement and technique
u s e d for transportation, placing and compaction.
A-1 Design stipulations for proportioning
i. Grade designation : M20

ii. Type of cement
: OPC 43 grade confirming to IS 8112
iii. Minimum cement content :: 320 kg/m3
20 mm
iv. Maximum water cement ratio : 0.55
v. Workability : 75 mm (slump)
vi. Exposure condition : Mild
vii. Degree of supervision : Good
viii. Type of aggregate : Crushed angular aggregate
ix. Maximum cement content
: 450 kg/m3
x. Chemical admixture : Not recommended ( used)
: 450 kg/m3

A-2 Test data for materials
a) Cement used : OPC 43 grade confirming to IS 8112

b) Specific gravity of cement : 3.15
c) Specific gravity of
Coarse aggregate : 2.68
Fine aggregate : 2.65
d) Water absorption
Coarse aggregate : 0.6 percent
Fine aggregate : 1.0 percent
e) Free (surface) moisture
Coarse aggregate : Nil (absorbed moisture full)
Fine aggregate : Nil
f) Sieve analysis
Coarse aggregate : Conforming to Table 2 of IS: 383
Fine aggregate : Conforming to Zone I of IS: 383
A-3 TARGET STRENGTH FOR MIX PROPORTIONING
f’ck= fck + 1.65 s
Where
f’ck = Target average compressive strength at 28 days,
fck = Characteristic compressive strength at 28

days s= Standard deviation
From Table 1 standard deviation, s = 4 N/mm2
Therefore target strength = 20 + 1.65 x 4 = 26.60 N/mm2
A-4 SELECTION OF WATER CEMENT RATIO
From Table 5 of IS: 456-2000, maximum water cement ratio = 0.55 (Mild
exposure) Based on experience adopt water cement ratio as 0.50
0.5 < 0.55, hence ok

A-5 SELECTION OF WATER CONTENT
From Table-2, maximum water content = 186 litres (for 25mm – 50mm slump range)
For 20 mm aggregates
Estimated water content for 75 mm slump = 186 + 3/100 x186 = 191.6 litres
A-6 CALCULATION OF CEMENT CONTENT
Water cement ratio = 0.50
Cement content = 191.6/0.5 = 383 kg/m3 >320 kg/m3 (given)
From Table 5 of IS: 456, minimum cement content for mild exposure condition = 300 kg/m3
Hence OK
A-7 PROPORTION OF VOLUME OF COARSE AGGREGATE

AND FINE AGGREGATE CONTENT
From Table 3, volume of coarse aggregate corresponding to 20 mm size aggregate

and fine aggregate (Zone I) for water-cement ratio of 0.50 =0.60.
In the present case w/c ratio is 0.3.3.Therefore, volume of coarse aggregate is required to
be increased to decrease the fine aggregate content. As the w/c ratio is lowered by 0.10,
the proportion of volume of coarse aggregate is increased by 0.02(at the rate of +/- 0.01
for every +/- 0.05 change in w/c ratio).
Therefore, corrected proportion of volume of coarse aggregate for the w/c ratio of 0.5
= 0.62.
Volume of fine aggregate =1-0.62=0.38
A-8 MIX CALCULATIONS
The mix calculations per unit volume of concrete shall be as follows:
Volume of concrete (a): 1m3
Volume of cement (b) = (mass of cement/specific gravity of cement) *1/1000
= [383.1.16/3.1.15] x [1/1000] = 0.122 m3
Volume of water(c) = (mass of water/specific gravity of water) *1/1000

= [192/1] x [1/1000] = 0.192 m3
Volume of all in aggregates (e) = a-(b+c)
= 1 – (0.122 + 0.192) =0.686
Mass of coarse aggregates = e * volume of coarse aggregates* specific gravity of CA
= 0.686 x 0.6 x 2.68 x 1000
= 1103 kg
Volume of fine aggregates = e * volume of fine aggregates* specific gravity of FA
= 0.686 x 0.4 x 2.65 x 1000
= 727 kg
A-9 MIX PROPORTIONS FOR TRIAL NUMBER 1
Cement = 383 kg/m3
Water = 192 kg/m3
Fine aggregate = 727 kg/m3
Coarse aggregates = 1103 kg/m3
Water cement ratio = 0.50
Yield =2404.6 kg
A-10 MIX CALCULATION FOR REQUIRED VOLUME OF CONCRETE
Volume of concrete = (0.15^3+π*0.15^2/4*30)*24=0.208m3
Volume of cement = (383*0.208)*1/ (3.1.15*1000) = 0.025m3
Volume of water = (191.6*0.208)/ (1*1000) =0.04m3
Volume of all in aggregate = 0.208-(.025+.04) =0.143m3
Mass of coarse aggregate =0.143*0.62*2.68*1000=234.6kg
Mass of fine aggregate = 0.143* 0.38*2.68*1000 = 145.63kg
Table 4.12 Calculation of plastic granules weight for the mix:

% replacement Weight of plastic granules Weight of coarse

used (kg) aggregate after
(by volume)
replacement
10 2.71 79.2-2.37=76.83
20 5.43 79.2-5.43=73.76
30 8.13 79.2-8.13=71.07
Fig4.1: Concrete mixing

4.5 Tests on concrete
4.5.1 Slump test
Workability is a term associated with freshly prepared concrete. This can be defined as
the ease with which concrete can mixed, placed, compacted and finished. Slump test is
the most commonly used method of measuring ‘workability’ of concrete in a laboratory
or at site of work. It is used conveniently as a control test and gives an indication of
uniformity of concrete from batch to batch. Vertical settlement of a standard cone of
freshly prepared concrete is called ‘slump’.
Apparatus:
Slump cone (bottom diameter = 20 cm, top diameter = 10 cm, height=30 cm), Weighing
balance, tray, standard tamping rod, concrete mixer
Materials used:
Cement, Fine aggregate, stone chips (Coarse aggregate) and water
Concrete Mix: 1:1.5:3 (W/C=0.5). The ingredients are by weight.
Fig 4.2: Slump test

Procedure:
1) Take Mix proportion: 1: 1.5:3 by weight; Use W/C ratio=-0.3.3.

2) Prepare three mixes.
3) Clean the internal surface of the mould thoroughly and it should be freed from
superfluous moisture.
4) Place the mould on a smooth, horizontal, rigid and non-absorbent surface,
such as a carefully leveled metal plate, and fixed it.
5) Fill the mould with freshly prepared concrete in four layers and compact each
layer by tamping with 25 strokes of temping rod. After the top layer has been
rodded, struck off the excess concrete, make level with a trowel or tamping rod.
6) Carefully lift the mould vertically upwards, so as not to disturb the concrete cone.
7) Determine the level difference between the height of the mould and the highest
point of the subsided concrete.
8) Height difference in mm is taken as Slump of concrete.
Table 4.13 Observation for slump test
S. N W/C ratio Percentage of plastic Height of mould Height of subsided Slump

replaced (%) H1 (mm) concrete H2 (mm) H1–H2 (in mm)
1. 0.5 0 300 240 60
2. 0.5 10 300 232 68
3. 0.5 20 300 225 75
4. 0.5 30 300 214 86
Graph 4.1 Comparison of slump value
Comparison of slump test

100
Slump value (in mm )
80
60
40
20
0
% of LDPE replaced
0% 10% 20% 30%

4.5.2 Compaction factor test
Compaction Factor is used to indicate workability of concrete where nominal size of

aggregate does not exceed 40mm. It is a measure of density of concrete to which a fresh
concrete mix can be compacted for a standard energy input relative to the theoretical
maximum density corresponding to zero air content. This theoretical maximum density
can be estimated in the laboratory as that obtained by full compaction under mechanical
vibration. Compaction factor is calculated as below:
Apparatus: Compaction Factor Apparatus, trowels, weighing balance.
Fig4.3: Compaction factor test
Procedure:
1. Prepare mix.
2. Clean the inner surface of the upper, lower hopper and cylindrical mould of the
compaction factor apparatus.
3. Note down the dimensions of upper, lower hopper and cylindrical mould and
record the dimension with a neat sketch of the apparatus in your report.
4. Take the weight of the cylinder, say W1.
5. Place the concrete mix in the upper hopper up to the brim.
6. Open trap door of upper hopper to allow concrete to fall in the lower hopper
7. Next open trap door of lower hopper to allow concrete to fall in to the cylindrical
mould.

8. For a dry mix, a slight poking by a rod may be required to set the concrete in
motion.
9. The concrete is made leveled at the top of the cylinder.
10. Take the weight of cylinder and partially compacted concrete, say W2.
11. The cylinder is emptied and then re-filled with the same sample of concrete
in layers approximately 50 mm deep.
12. Each layer is heavily rammed (preferably vibrated) so as to obtain full compaction.
13. Top surface is then carefully made levelled with the top of the cylinder.
14. Take weight of the fully compacted concrete with the mould, say W3.1.
15. Calculate compaction factor as below:
Compaction Factor (C.F.)

𝑊𝑡. 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑒 𝑊2−𝑊1
=𝑊3−𝑊1
𝑊𝑡.𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑙𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑒
Observation:
Water cement ratio=0.50
Wt. of cylinder, W1 =5.22 kg
Table 4.14 Compaction factor test
SN % of Weight of Weight of Mass of Mass of fully 𝐶𝐹

concrete partially fully partially compacted 𝑤2 − 𝑤1
=
replaced compacted compacted compacted concrete,W3- 𝑤3 − 𝑤1
concrete,W2 concrete,W3 concrete, W1
W2-W1
1 0 17.48 19.85 7.26 9.63 0.75
2 10 17.69 19.91 7.47 9.69 0.77
3 20 17.91 19.99 7.69 9.70 0.79
4 30 17.93 19.87 7.71 9.65 0.79

Graph 4.2 Comparison of compaction factor test
Comparison of compaction factor test

0.8
0.79
Compaction factor value
0.78
0.77
0.76
0.75
0.74
0.73
% of LDPE replaced
0% 10% 20% 30%
4.5.3 Compressive strength test
Testing hardened concrete plays an important role in controlling and conforming the
quality of cement concrete work. The main factor in favour of the use of concrete in
structures is its compressive strength. One of the important properties of the hardened
concrete is its strength which represents its ability to resist forces. The compressive
strength of the concrete is considered to be the most important and is often taken as an
index of the overall quality of concrete. The compressive strength of concrete is defined
as the load which causes the failure of specimen per unit cross section on compression
under given rate of loading.
Apparatus: Cube moulds 150mm size, weighing machine, ramming rods, compression
testing machine
Procedure:
1) Take three cube moulds for each mix. Assemble the mould with base plate so that it
is rigidly held together.
2) Clean the inside of the mould and see that joints (at the edges) are perfectly tight.
3) Pour properly mixed concrete for the given mix to the cube moulds.

4) Compaction by needle vibrator will be preferred. If vibrator is not available, hand

compaction is to be done by placing concrete in three layers; each layer be
compacted with the help of standard temping rod by means of 25 blows.
5) Level the concrete at the top of the mould by means of trowel and give proper
identification mark of the specimen.
6) Keep the cubes in laboratory for 24 hours.
7) After 24 hours, dismantle the plates of cube mould and take out the hardened
concrete cubes carefully so that edges specimens are not damaged.
8) Immerse the cubes in curing tank filled with water. Keep it for curing up to 28 days.
9) Test the cubes after 7, 14 and 28 days of curing to find the compressive strength.
10) Tabulate Compressive strength for each cube and calculate average value for each
mix.
Table 4.15 Compressive strength test
% Weight (kg) Peak load Compressive Strength

Granules (kN) (MPa)
added 7th 14th 28th 7th 14th 28th 7th 14th 28th
days days days days days days days days days
0% 8.20 8.27 8.29 418.50 505.12 703.57 18.60 22.45 31.27
8.10 8.17 8.22 402.75 501.07 723.37 17.90 22.27 32.15
10 % 7.96 7.99 8.00 371.5 391.90 562.20 16.50 20.40 27.90
8.06 7.91 7.80 321.2 502.90 612.50 16.20 22.30 27.20
20 % 7.83 7.91 7.66 309 453.20 635.50 15.70 20.10 25.20
7.60 7.76 7.75 334.6 438.00 621.50 14.80 19.40 26.60
30 % 7.83 7.75 7.80 373.9 416.30 739.80 15.40 18.50 22.80
7.87 7.56 7.87 387.6 380.70 742.20 15.20 16.90 23.20

Graphs 4.3 Comparison of Compressive strength
Graph 4.3(a) Compressive strength of 0% vs 10%
Compressive strength of conventional concrete vs plastic replaced

concrete
35 31.27
Compressive strength (MPa)
27.9
30
25 22.45
20.4
18.6
20 16.5
15
10
5
0
0% 10%
% of LDPE granules replaced
7 days 14 days 28 days
Compressive strength of conventional concrete vs plastic relaced

concrete
35 32.15
Compressive Strength (MPa)
30 27.2
25 22.27 22.3
20 17.9
16.2
15
10
0
0% 10%

Graph 4.3(b) Compressive strength of 0% vs 20%
Compressive strength of conventional concrete vs plastic relaced

Compressive strength (MPa) concrete
35 31.27
30
25.2
25 22.45
20.1
18.6
20
15.7
15
10
0
0% 20%

concrete
35 32.15
30 26.6
25 22.27
19.4
17.9
20
14.8
15
10
5
0
0% 20%

Graph 4.3(c) Compressive strength of 0% vs 30%

concrete
35 31.27
30
25 22.45 22.8
18.6 18.5
20
15.4
15
10
0
0% 30%

concrete
35 32.15
30
22.27 23.2
25
20 17.9 16.9
15.2
15
10
0
0% 30%

Graph 4.3(d) Compressive strength of 0%, 10% and 30%

concrete
35
Compressive Strength(MPa)
30 31.27
27.9
25 25.2
22.45 22.8
20 20.4 20.1
18.6 18.5
16.5 15.7 15.4
15
10
0
0% 10% 20% 30%
% of LDPE added(by vol.)

concrete
35
Compressive Strength(MPa)
32.15
30
27.2 26.6
25
22.27 22.3 23.2
20 19.4
17.9 16.9
15 16.2 15.2
14.8
10
5
0
0% 10% 20% 30%
% of LDPE replaced( by vol.)
Results:
Compressive strength of plastic replaced concrete is compared with conventional

concrete. From graph it is found that a compressive strength up to 80% is achieved for a
mix of waste plastic up to 30% (as a replacement for coarse aggregate) in concrete.
The reduction in compressive strength of plastic replaced concrete is due to deficient

bonding of plastic granules in the matrix.

Fig 4.4 Compressive strength test
4.5.4 Split tensile test
Concrete is not usually expected to resist the direct tension because of its low tensile
strength and brittle nature. However the determination of tensile strength is necessary to
determine the load at which the concrete members may crack. The cracking is a form of
tensile failure.
Apparatus: Cylindrical moulds 300mm height and 150mm diameter, weighing machine,
ramming rods, compression testing machine
Procedure:
1) Take three cylindrical moulds for each mix. Assemble the mould with base plate so
that it is rigidly held together.
2) Clean the inside of the mould and see that joints (at the edges) are perfectly tight.
3) Pour properly mixed concrete for the given mix to the moulds.
4) Compaction by needle vibrator will be preferred. If vibrator is not available, hand

compaction is to be done by placing concrete in three layers; each layer be compacted
with the help of standard temping rod by means of 25 blows.
5) Level the concrete at the top of the mould by means of trowel and give proper
identification mark of the specimen.
6) Keep the cylinders in laboratory for 24 hours.
7) After 24 hours, dismantle the mould and take out the hardened concrete cubes carefully
so that specimens are not damaged.
8) Immerse the cylinders in curing tank filled with water. Keep it for curing up to 28
days.
9) Test the cylinders after 7, 14 and 28 days of curing to find the split tensile strength.
10) Tabulate Split tensile strength for each cylinder and calculate average value for each
mix.
Table 4.16 Split Tensile Test
% Weight (kg) Peak load Compressive Strength

Granules (kN) (MPa)
added 7th 14th 28th 7th days 14th 28th 7th 14th 28th
days days days days days days days days
0% 12.45 12.49 12.50 165.87 183.80 226.99 3.61 4.00 4.94
12.39 12.52 12.48 164.04 181.04 220.56 3.57 3.94 4.80
10 % 12.30 12.44 12.16 96.50 123.60 150.00 2.10 2.70 3.30
12.20 12.30 12.38 103.90 135.10 154.40 2.30 3.00 3.40
20 % 12.01 12.11 12.10 161.30 180.30 206.60 3.50 4.00 4.50
12.00 12.14 12.08 127.20 166.70 204.20 2.80 3.70 4.40
30 % 11.82 11.86 11.73 116.40 134.60 172.80 2.50 2.90 3.80
11.76 11.72 11.67 124.60 150.80 179.70 2.70 3.30 3.90

Graph 4.4 Comparison of split tensile strength
Graph 4.4(a) Split tensile strength of 0% vs 10%
Split tensile strength of conventional concrete vs plastic replaced

concrete
6
4.94
Tensile strength(MPa)
5
4
4 3.61
3.3
2.7
3
2.1
2
0
0% 10%

concrete
6
4.8
5
3.94
4 3.57 3.4
3
3 2.3
0
0% 10%

Graph 4.4(b) Split tensile strength of 0% vs 20%

concrete
6
4.94
5 4.5
4 4
4 3.61 3.5
0
0% 20%

concrete
6
4.94
5 4.4
4
3.61 3.7
4
2.8
3
0
0% 20%

Graph 4.4(c) Split tensile strength of 0% vs 30%

concrete
6
4.94
5
4
3.61 3.8
4
2.9
3 2.5
0
0% 30%

concrete
6
4.8
5
3.94 3.9
4 3.57
3.3
2.7
3
0
0% 30%

Graph 4.4(d) Split tensile strength of 0%, 10% and 30%

concrete
6
5 4.94
4.5
4 4 4 3.8
3.61 3.5
3.3
3 2.9
2.7 2.5
2 2.1
1
0
0% 10% 20% 30%
% of LDPE replaced(by vol.)

concrete
6
Tensile Strength(MPa)
5
4.8
4.4
4 3.94 3.9
3.57 3.7
3.4 3.3
3 3 2.8 2.7
2.3
2
0
0% 10% 20% 30%
% of LDPE replaced

Results:
Split tensile strength up to 70% is achieved for a mix of waste plastic up to 90% (as a
replacement for coarse aggregate) in concrete.
The reduction in strength of plastic replaced concrete is due to deficient bonding of

plastic granules in the matrix.
Fig4.5: Split tensile test

CHAPTER 5
conclusions
CHAPTER-5
CONCLUSION
5.1 Conclusion
The experimental results have shown the use of waste plastic material in making
concrete/mortar can provide an alternative solution to minimize the environmental impact
due to unscientific disposal of waste plastic. The following conclusions were drawn:
• The properties of concrete containing various percentage of plastic (0%, 10%,

20%, and 30%) were tested for its physical properties and compressive strength.
• The waste plastic used for experiments is of LDPE (Low Density Poly Ethylene),
5-7mm size and specific gravity of waste plastic is found to be 0.92.
• The compressive strength of test concrete is compared with plain concrete (fig
1.1) and it is found that the compressive strength up to 80% is achieved for a mix
of waste plastic up to 30% (as a replacement for coarse aggregate) in concrete.
Hence it is recommended for light weight concrete structures.
• The mechanical properties of the test concrete did not display any notable
differences depending on the color of the plastic waste.
• This research also has potential application for the production of lightweight
concrete, for minimizing the amount of polymer wastes in landfills, and the
creation of decorative, attractive landscaping products.
5.2 Advantages and Disadvantages
Advantages:
• A better workability is achieved for plastic reinforced concrete in comparison to

the conventional one.
• Considerable reduction in the weight results in the formation of light weight

concrete.

• Recycled plastic in the construction purpose can set a benchmark by utilizing the
non-bio-degradable waste and eventually minimizing the environmental
pollution.
Disadvantages:
• Strength achieved for the plastic replaced concrete is slightly less than the
conventional concrete but can be improved by the use of admixtures.
• Cost of plastic is high in the place where we need to buy from the dealers and
hence the cost of construction also increases.
• There is no proper bonding of plastic materials in the matrix unless admixtures are
used
5.3 Scope of future work

The present research can be extended to
• The test can be carried out for different grades of concrete.

• The use of admixtures in the test can be performed to get improved strength.
• Experimental study has to be conducted for other varieties of plastics like HDPE,
PP, PET etc.
• The durability of such a concrete has to be tested for beams and columns with
varying proportions of waste plastic at different ages.

REFERENCES

REFERENCES
1. Praveen Mathew, Shibi Varghese, Thomas Paul - Recycled Plastics as Coarse
Aggregate for Structural Concrete, IJIRSET, March 2013
2. Lakshmi, Nagan.S, Studies on Concrete containing E plastic waste,
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES, 2010
3. IS 10262 (2009): Guidelines for concrete mix design.

4. MS Shetty, Concrete Technology, Theory and Practice, Revised Edition, 2010
5. V. Kasselouri - Rigopoulou, S. Gavela, S. Kolias “Use Of Polymeric Wastes in
The Concrete Production” Polymers in concrete: a vision for the 21st
century, Cement & Concrete Composites
6. Comprehensive literature review on use of waste product in concrete
B.V.Bahoria, Research Scholar, Civil Engg. Dept., YCCE, Nagpur, India
Dr. D.K. Parbat, Professor, Civil Engg. Dept, Government Polytechnic, Sakoli,
Bhandara, India
Dr.P.B.Naganaik, Professor, Civil Engg. Dept, GHRCE, Nagpur, India

Dr.U.P.Waghe, Professor, Civil Engg. Dept, Y.C.C.E , Nagpur, India
7. International Journal of Innovative Technology and Exploring Engineering
(IJITEE), ISSN: 2278-3075, Volume-2, Issue-2, January 2013
Utilization of Recycled Wastes as Ingredients in Concrete Mix, Nitish Puri,
Brijesh Kumar, Himanshu Tyagi
8. Nabajyoti Saikia and Jorge de Brito,”Use of plastic aggregate in cement
mortor and concrete preparation”, Construction and Building materials,
Vol:34, 2012,page no:385-401.
9. K.Balakrishna, C Sukesh, P.S.Teja, M.T.Meher,” Partial replacement of fine
Aggregates with waste plastic in concrete”, International Journal of Civil
Engineering Research, Vol.3, No:2,2012, page no:105-113.1.

10. Mechanical Study on Concrete with Waste Plastic J.N.S. Suryanarayana Raju,
M. Senthil Pandian, Department of civil Engineering, VIT University,
Chennai, India
International Journal of Research in Civil Engineering, Architecture & Design
Volume 1, Issue 1, July-September, 2013
11. International Journal of Emerging Technology and Advanced Engineering
Website: www.ijetae.com (ISSN 2250-2459, Volume 2, Issue 6, June 2012)
Experimental Investigation on the Properties of Concrete With Plastic PET
(Bottle) Fibers as Fine Aggregates
Ms. K.Ramadevi, Ms. R. Manju, Department of Civil Engineering,
Kumaraguru College of Technology, Coimbatore, Tamilnadu, India

FIGURES

Fig. I Recycled plastic granules
Fig. II Concrete mixer in the lab

Fig. III Preparation of mould
Fig. IV Moulds kept for setting

Fig. V Casted concrete cubes and cylinders

Fig. VI Compressive strength testing in the lab

Fig. VII Split tensile test
Fig. VIII Concrete specimen after failure

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VISVESVARAYA TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY

Prabesh Thapa 1ox11cv018

Under the guidance of

Department of Civil Engineering

This is to certify that the project work entitled “BEHAVIOUR OF

Dr. Amarnath K Mr. Shivanand C G

Date: Civil Engineering Department

I have a great pleasure in expressing my deep sense of gratitude to founder Chairman S.

I take this opportunity to express my profound gratitude to my principal Dr. RAJENDRA

I am grateful to Dr. AMARNATH.K., HOD, department of Civil Engineering, for his

PRABESH THAPA 1OX11CV018

SANJU BHANDARI 1OX11CV032

SAYED SEKANDAR SHAH 1OX11CV035

SHWETA CHAURASIA 1OX11CV038

1.1 General Introduction………………………………………………..... 01

CHAPTER-2 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.2 Earlier Researches ………………………………………………………..03

2.3 Summary of the literature review………………………………………..06

CHAPTER-3 MATERIALS AND METHODOLOGY

3.1.1 Introduction and Properties…………………………………….……..08

3.1.2 Categories of Plastics……………………………………………………08

3.1.3 Health hazard…………………………………………………………...10

3.1.4 Climate Change…………………………………………………………11

3.1.6 Low Density Poly Ethylene (LDPE)……………………………………12

3.2.2 Type of cement…………………………………………………………..15

3.2.5 Cement Production in world………………………………………….. 16

3.2.6 Environmental Impacts………………………………………………... 17

3.2.7 Green Cement………………………………………………………….. 18

3.3 Aggregates: Fine Aggregates…………………………………………… 19

3.3.5 Resources and environmental concerns………………………………..23

3.4 Aggregates: Coarse Aggregates………………………………………….24

3.4.3 Modern Production……………………………………………………..25

3.4.4 Recycled Materials for aggregates……………………………………..25

CHAPTER-4 RESULTS AND OBSERVATIONS

4.1 Tests on Cement…………………………………………………………...28

4.1.1 Standard Consistency of cement……………………………………….28

4.1.2 Setting time of cement…………………………………………………..29

4.1.3 Specific gravity of cement……………………………………………… 31

4.2 Tests on fine aggregates…………………………………………………...32

4.2.2 Water absorption test…………………………………………………...33

4.2.3 Particle size distribution of sand………………………………………..34

4.3 Tests on coarse aggregate (20mm down size aggregate)………………35

4.3.1 Specific gravity and water absorption test……………………………..35

4.4Concrete Mix Design………………………………………………………38

4.4.2 Requirements of concrete mix design…………………………………..39

4.4.3 Types of mixes…………………………………………………………...39

4.4.4 Factors affecting the choice of mix proportions……………………….40

4.4.5 Mix proportion designations……………………………………………42

4.5 Tests on Concrete………………………………………………………….47

4.5.1 Slump test………………………………………………………………..47

4.5.2 Compaction factor test………………………………………………….49

4.5.3 Compressive strength test………………………………………………51

4.5.4 Split tensile test………………………………………………………….57

5.2 Advantages and Disadvantages…………………………………………..64

5.3 Scope of future work………………………………………………………65

S.No. Page No.

3.1 LDPE granules……………………………………………………………14

4.1 Concrete mixing…………………………………………………………..46

4.2 Slump test…………………………………………………………………47

4.3 Compaction factor test…………………………………………………...49

4.4 Compressive strength test………………………………………………..57

4.5 Split tensile test…………………………………………………………... 63