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WORKSHOP TAPASYA
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CHEMISTRY
COURSE : IJSO (STAGE-) I
Subject : Chemistry NTSE STAGE-I

S. No. Topics Page No.

1. Structure of Atom 1 - 12

2. Acids, Bases and Salts 13 - 23

3. Periodic Table 24-38

4. Mole Concept 39-57

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 MOLE CONCEPT

Atomic Atomic
ATOMIC MASS UNIT Number Element Symbol mass
1 Hydrogen H 1
2 Helium He 4
The atomic mass unit (amu) is equal to one-twelfth
3 Lithium Li 7
(1/12) of the mass of an atom of carbon-12.The mass 4 Beryllium Be 9
of an atom of carbon-12 isotope was given the atomic 5 Boron B 11
6 Carbon C 12
mass of 12 units, i.e. 12 amu or 12 u.
7 Nitrogen N 14
The atomic masses of all other elements are now 8 Oxygen O 16
expressed in atomic mass units. 9 Fluorine F 19
10 Neon Ne 20
11 Sodium Na 23
RELATIVE ATOMIC MASS 12 Magnesium Mg 24
13 Aluminium Al 27
The atomic mass of an element is a relative quantity 14 Silicon Si 28
15 Phosphorus P 31
and it is the mass of one atom of the element relative
16 Sulphur S 32
to one -twelfth (1/12) of the mass of one carbon-12 17 Chlorine Cl 35.5
atom. Thus, Relative atomic mass 18 Argon Ar 40
19 Potassium K 39
Mass of one atom of the element 20 Calcium Ca 40
=
1
 mass of one C  12 atom RELATIVE MOLECULAR MASS
12
[1/12 the mass of one C-12 atom = 1 amu, The relative molecular mass of a substance is the
mass of a molecule of the substance as compared
1 amu = 1.66 × 10 –24
g = 1.66 × 10 –27
kg.]
to one-twelfth of the mass of one carbon -12 atom
 Note : i.e.,
Relative molecular mass
One amu is also called one dalton (Da).
Mass of one molecule of the substance
GRAM-ATOMIC MASS =
1
 mass of one C  12 atom
The atomic mass of an element expressed in grams 12
The molecular mass of a molecule, thus, represents
is called the Gram Atomic Mass of the element.
the number of times it is heavier than 1/12 of the
The number of gram -atoms mass of an atom of carbon-12 isotope.
Mass of the element in grams GRAM MOLECULAR MASS
=
Gram Atomic mass of the element
The molecular mass of a substance expressed in
e.g. grams is called the Gram Molecular Mass of the
Calculate the gram atoms present in (i) 16g of oxygen substance . The number of gram molecules
and (ii) 64g of sulphur. Mass of the subs tance in grams
=
Gram molecular mass of the subs t ance
(i) The atomic mass of oxygen = 16.
e.g.
 Gram-Atomic Mass of oxygen (O) = 16 g.
(i) Molecular mass of hydrogen (H2) = 2u.
16  Gram Molecular Mass of hydrogen (H2) = 2 g .
No. of Gram-Atoms = =1
16
(ii) Molecular mass of methane (CH4) = 16u
(ii) The gram-atoms present in 64 grams of sulphur.  Gram Molecular Mass of methane (CH4) = 16 g.
64 64 e.g. the number of gram molecules present in 64 g of
= Gram Atomic Mass of sulphur = =2
32 methane (CH4).

64 64
= Gram molecular mass of CH = = 4.
4 16

PAGE # 1
 (a) Calculation of Molecular Mass : (iv) Eq. mass of a salt

The molecular mass of a substance is the sum of Mol. wt. of the salt
=
the atomic masses of its constituent atoms present Number of metal atoms  valency of metal
in a molecule. Formula wt. of the ion
(v) Eq. mass of an ion =
Ex.1 Calculate the molecular mass of water. Charge on the ion
(Atomic masses : H = 1u, O = 16u).
(vi) Eq. mass of an oxidizing/reducing agent
Sol. The molecular formula of water is H2O.
Molecular mass of water = ( 2 × atomic mass of Mol wt. or At. wt
=
H) + (1 × atomic mass of O) No. of electrons lost or gained by one
= 2 × 1 + 1 × 16 = 18 molecule of the substance
i.e., molecular mass of water = 18 amu.
Equivalent weight of some compounds are given in
Ex.2 Find out the molecular mass of sulphuric acid. the table :
(Atomic mass : H = 1u, O = 16u, S = 32u). Equivalent
S.No. Compound
Sol. The molecular formula of sulphuric acid is H2SO4. weight
 Molecular mass of H2SO4 1 HCl 36.5
= (2 × atomic mass of H) + ( 1 × atomic mass of S)
2 H2SO4 49
+ ( 4 × atomic mass of O)
= (2 × 1) + (1× 32) + (4×16) = 2 + 32 + 64 = 98 3 HNO3 63
i.e., Molecular mass of H2SO4= 98 amu.
4 45
FORMULA MASS COOH
The term ‘formula mass’ is used for ionic
compounds and others where discrete molecules
5 63
do not exist, e.g., sodium chloride, which is best .2H2O
represented as (Na+Cl–)n, but for reasons of simplicity COOH
as NaCl or Na+Cl–. Here, formula mass means the 6 NaOH 40
sum of the masses of all the species in the formula.
Thus, the formula mass of sodium chloride = (atomic 7 KOH 56
mass of sodium) + (atomic mass of chlorine) 8 CaCO3 50
= 23 + 35.5 9 NaCl 58.5
= 58.5 amu
10 Na2CO3 53
EQUIVALENT MASS
To find the relationship between molecular mass
and vapour density of a gas.
(a) Definition :
Density of gas
Equivalent mass of an element is the mass of the Vapour density (V.D.) = Density of hydrogen
element which combine with or displaces 1.008 parts
by mass of hydrogen or 8 parts by mass of oxygen or
Mass of a certain volume of the gas
35.5 parts by mass of chlorine. =
Mass of the same volume of hydrogen at
(b) Formulae of Equivalent Masses of different the same temp. and pressure
substances :
(i) Equivalent mass of an element = If n molecules are present in the given volume of a gas
and hydrogen under similar conditions of temperature
Atomic wt. of the element and pressure.
Valency of the element Mass of n molecules of the gas
V.D. =
Mass of n molecules of hydrogen
Mol. wt. of the acid
(ii) Eq. mass an acid = Mass of 1 molecule of the gas
Basicity of the acid =
Mass of 1 molecule of hydrogen
Basicity is the number of replaceable H+ ions from
Molecular mass of the gas
one molecule of the acid. =
Molecular mass of hydrogen
Mol. wt. of the base
(iii) Eq. Mass of a base = Molecular mass
Acidity of the base =
2
Acidity is the number of replaceable OH– ions from (since molecular mass of hydrogen is 2)
one molecule of the base Hence, Molecular mass = 2 × Vapour density

PAGE # 2
 SOME IMPORTANT RELATIONS AND FORMULAE
(i) 1 mole of atoms = Gram Atomic mass = mass of
In Latin, mole means heap or collection or pile. A
6.023 × 1023 atoms
mole of atoms is a collection of atoms whose total
mass is the number of grams equal to the atomic (ii) 1 mole of molecules = Gram Molecular Mass
mass in magnitude. Since an equal number of moles = 6.023 x 1023 molecules
of different elements contain an equal number of (iii) Number of moles of atoms
atoms, it becomes convenient to express the
amounts of the elements in terms of moles. A mole Mass of element in grams
represents a definite number of particles, viz, atoms, =
Gram Atomic Mass of element
molecules, ions or electrons. This definite number is
called the Avogadro Number (now called the Avogadro (iv) Number of moles of molecules
constant) which is equal to 6.023 × 1023.
Mass of substance in grams
A mole is defined as the amount of a substance that =
Gram Molecular Mass of substance
contains as many atoms, molecules, ions, electrons
or other elementary particles as there are atoms in (v) Number of moles of molecules
exactly 12 g of carbon -12 (12C).
No. of molecules of element N
(a) Moles of Atoms : = 
Avogadro number NA
(i) 1 mole atoms of any element occupy a mass which
is equal to the Gram Atomic Mass of that element. Ex.3 To calculate the number of moles in 16 grams of
Sulphur (Atomic mass of Sulphur = 32 u).
e.g. 1 Mole of oxygen atoms weigh equal to Gram
Atomic Mass of oxygen, i.e. 16 grams. Sol. 1 mole of atoms = Gram Atomic Mass.
So, 1 mole of Sulphur atoms = Gram Atomic Mass of
(ii) The symbol of an element represents 6.023 x 1023
Sulphur = 32 grams.
atoms (1 mole of atoms) of that element.
Now, 32 grams of Sulphur = 1 mole of Sulphur
e.g : Symbol N represents 1 mole of nitrogen atoms So, 16 grams of Sulphur
and 2N represents 2 moles of nitrogen atoms. = (1/32) x 16 = 0.5 moles
(b) Moles of Molecules : Thus, 16 grams of Sulphur constitute 0.5 mole of
Sulphur.
(i) 1 mole molecules of any substance occupy a mass
which is equal to the Gram Molecular Mass of that 22.4 litre
substance.
e.g. : 1 mole of water (H2O) molecules weigh equal to In term of
volume
Gram Molecular Mass of water (H2O), i.e. 18 grams.
23
6.023 × 10 6.023 × 10
23

(ii) The symbol of a compound represents 6.023 x (NA) Atoms In terms of (NA) molecules
10 23 molecules (1 mole of molecules) of that particles
compound. 1 Mole

e.g. : Symbol H 2O represents 1 mole of water In terms of

mass
molecules and 2 H2O represents 2 moles of water
molecules.
1 gram atom 1 gram molecule 1 gram formula
 Note : of element of substance mass of substance

The symbol H2O does not represent 1 mole of H2

molecules and 1 mole of O atoms. Instead, it
represents 2 moles of hydrogen atoms and 1 mole PROBLEMS BASED ON THE MOLE CONCEPT
of oxygen atoms.
 Note : Ex.4 Calculate the number of moles in 5.75 g of
The SI unit of the amount of a substance is Mole. sodium. (Atomic mass of sodium = 23 u)
Sol. Number of moles
(c) Mole in Terms of Volume :
Volume occupied by 1 Gram Molecular Mass or 1 Mass of the element in grams 5.75
mole of a gas under standard conditions of = = = 0.25 mole
Gram Atomic Mass of element 23
temperature and pressure (273 K and 1atm.
pressure) is called Gram Molecular Volume. Its value or,
is 22.4 litres for each gas. 1 mole of sodium atoms = Gram Atomic mass of
Volume of 1 mole = 22.4 litre (at STP) sodium = 23g.
23 g of sodium = 1 mole of sodium.
 Note :
The term mole was introduced by Ostwald in 1896. 5.75
5.75 g of sodium = mole of sodium = 0.25 mole
23

PAGE # 3
Ex.5 What is the mass in grams of a single atom of Ex.11 What mass in grams is represented by
chlorine ? (Atomic mass of chlorine = 35.5u) (a) 0.40 mol of CO2,
Sol. Mass of 6.022 × 1023 atoms of Cl = Gram Atomic (b) 3.00 mol of NH3,
Mass of Cl = 35.5 g. (c) 5.14 mol of H5IO6
(Atomic masses : C=12 u, O=16 u, N=14 u,
35.5 g H=1 u and I = 127 u)
 Mass of 1 atom of Cl = = 5.9 × 10–23 g.
6.022  10 23 Sol. Weight in grams = number of moles × molecular
mass.
Ex.6 The density of mercury is 13.6 g cm–3. How many
Hence,
moles of mercury are there in 1 litre of the metal ?
(a) mass of CO2 = 0.40 × 44 = 17.6 g
(Atomic mass of Hg = 200 u).
(b) mass of NH3 = 3.00 × 17 = 51.0 g
Sol. Mass of mercury (Hg) in grams = Density (c) mass of H5IO6 = 5.14 × 228 = 1171.92g
(g cm–3)× Volume (cm3) Ex.12 Calculate the volume in litres of 20 g of hydrogen
= 13.6 g cm–3 × 1000 cm3 = 13600 g. gas at STP.
 Number of moles of mercury Sol. Number of moles of hydrogen
Mass of mercury in grams Mass of hydrogen in grams 20
13600
= Gram Atomic Mass of mercury = = 68 = =
= 10
200 Gram Molecular Mass of hydrogen
2
 Volume of hydrogen = number of moles × Gram
Ex.7 The mass of a single atom of an element M is
Molecular Volume.
3.15× 10–23 g . What is its atomic mass ? What
= 10 ×22.4 = 224 litres.
could the element be ?
Sol. Gram Atomic Mass = mass of 6.022 × 1023 atoms PERCENTAGE COMPOSITION
= mass of 1 atom × 6.022 × 1023 The percentage composition of elements in a
= (3.15 × 10–23g) × 6.022 × 1023 compound is calculated from the molecular formula
= 3.15 × 6.022 g = 18.97 g. of the compound.
 Atomic Mass of the element = 18.97u The molecular mass of the compound is calculated
Thus, the element is most likely to be fluorine. from the atomic masses of the various elements
present in the compound. The percentage by mass
Ex.8 An atom of neon has a mass of 3.35 × 10–23 g. of each element is then computed with the help of the
How many atoms of neon are there in 20 g of the following relations.
gas ? Percentage mass of the element in the compound
Sol. Number of atoms Total mass of the element
= × 100
Total mass 20 Molecular mass
= = = 5.97 × 1023
Mass of 1 atom 3.35  10 – 23 Ex.13 W hat are the percentage compositions of
Ex.9 How many grams of sodium will have the same hydrogen and oxygen in water (H2O) ?
(Atomic masses : H = 1 u, O = 16 u)
number of atoms as atoms present in 6 g of
magnesium ? Sol. Molecular mass of water, H2O = 2 + 16 = 18 amu.
(Atomic masses : Na = 23u ; Mg =24u) H2O has two atoms of hydrogen.
Sol. Number of gram -atom of Mg So, total mass of hydrogen in H2O = 2 amu.
2  100
Mass of Mg in grams 6 1 Percentage of H = = 11.11 %
= Gram Atomic Mass = = 18
24 4 Similarly,
1 16  100
 Gram Atoms of sodium should be = percentage of oxygen = = 88.88 %
4 18
 1 Gram Atom of sodium = 23 g
1 1
gram atoms of sodium = 23 × = 5.75 g
4 4 The following steps are involved in determining the
empirical formula of a compound :
Ex.10 How many moles of Cr are there in 85g of Cr2S3 ?
(Atomic masses : Cr = 52 u , S =32 u) (i) The percentage composition of each element is
Sol. Molecular mass of Cr2S3 = 2 × 52 + 3 × 32 = 104 divided by its atomic mass. It gives atomic ratio of the
+ 96 = 200 u. elements present in the compound.
200g of Cr2S3 contains = 104 g of Cr. (ii) The atomic ratio of each element is divided by the
minimum value of atomic ratio as to get the simplest
104  85
 85 g of Cr2S3 contains = g of Cr = 44.2g ratio of the atoms of elements present in the
200 compound.
44.2 (iii) If the simplest ratio is fractional, then values of
Thus, number of moles of Cr = = 0.85 . simplest ratio of each element is multiplied by
52
smallest integer to get the simplest whole number
for each of the element.

PAGE # 4
 (iv) To get the empirical formula, symbols of various Whole of the hydrogen is present in the form of water
elements present are written side by side with their of crystallisation. Thus, 10 water molecules are
respective whole number ratio as a subscript to the
lower right hand corner of the symbol. present in the molecule.
So, molecular formula = Na2SO4. 10H2O
(v) The molecular formula of a substance may be
determined from the empirical formula if the molecular
mass of the substance is known. The molecular CONCENTRATION OF SOLUTIONS
formula is always a simple multiple of empirical
formula and the value of simple multiple (n) is (a) Strength in g/L :
obtained by dividing molecular mass with empirical
formula mass. The strength of a solution is defined as the amount of
Molecular Mass the solute in grams present in one litre (or dm3) of the
n = solution, and hence is expressed in g/litre or g/dm3.
Empirical Formula Mass
Ex-14 A compound of carbon, hydrogen and nitrogen Weight of solute in gram
Strength in g/L =
contains these elements in the ratio of 9:1:3.5 respectively. Volume of solution in litre
Calculate the empirical formula. If its molecular mass is
108, what is the molecular formula ? (b) Molarity :

Sol. Mass Atomic Relative Number Simplest Molarity of a solution is defined as the number of
Element
Ratio Mass of Atoms Ratio
moles of the solute dissolved per litre (or dm3) of
9
Carbon 9 12  0.75 0.75×4 = 3 solution. It is denoted by ‘M’. Mathematically,
12
1 Number of moles of solute
Hydrogen 1 1  1 1×4=4 M=
1 Volume of the solution in litre
3.5
Nitrogen 3.5 14  0.25 0.25 ×4 = 1
14 Mass of solute in gram/Gram Molecular Mass of solute
Volume of solution in litre
Empirical ratio = C3H4N
Empirical formula mass = (3 × 12) + (4× 1) + 14 = 54 M can be calculated from the strength as given below :
Molecular Mass 108 Strength in grams per litre
n= = 2 M=
Empirical Formula Mass 54 Molecular mass of solute
Thus, molecular formula of the compound
= (Empirical formula)2 If ‘w’ gram of the solute is present in V cm3 of a given
= (C3H4N)2 solution , then
= C6H8N2 w 1000
M= ×
Ex.15 A compound on analysis, was found to have the Molecular mass V
following composition : e.g. a solution of sulphuric acid having 4.9 grams of it
(i) Sodium = 14.31%, (ii) Sulphur = 9.97%, (iii) Oxygen
dissolved in 500 cm3 of solution will have its molarity,
= 69.50%, (iv) Hydrogen = 6.22%. Calculate the
molecular formula of the compound assuming that w 1000
whole hydrogen in the compound is present as water M= ×
Molecular mass V
of crystallisation. Molecular mass of the compound
is 322. 4.9 1000
Element Percentage
Atomic Relative Number
Simplest ratio
M= × = 0.1
Sol. mass of atoms 98 500
14 .31 0.622
Sodium 14.31 23  0.622 2
23 0.311 (c) Formality :
9 .97 0.311
Sulphur 9.97 32 0.311 1
32

0.311 In case of ionic compounds like NaCl, Na2CO3 etc.,
6 . 22 6.22
formality is used in place of molarity. The formality of
Hydrogen 6.22 1  6.22  20
1 0.311 a solution is defined as the number of gram formula
69. 50 4.34 masses of the solute dissolved per litre of the
Oxygen 69.50 16  4.34  14
16 0.311
solution. It is represented by the symbol ‘F’. The term
formula mass is used in place of molecular mass
because ionic compounds exist as ions and not as
The empirical formula = Na2SH20O14 molecules. Formula mass is the sum of the atomic
Empirical formula mass masses of the atoms in the formula of the compound.
= (2 × 23) + 32 + (20 × 1) + (14 × 16)
= 322 Mass of solute in gram/Formula Mass of solute
Molecular mass = 322 Volume of solution in litre
Molecular formula = Na2SH20O14

PAGE # 5
 (d) Normality : N N
Normality of a solution is defined as the number of Ex.17 100 ml of HCl is mixed with 25 ml of NaOH.
10 5
gram equivalents of the solute dissolved per litre (dm3) Find out the normality of the mixture.
of given solution. It is denoted by ‘N’.
Mathematically, Sol. Milli equivalent of HCl – milli equivalent of NaOH
Number of gram equivalent s of solute
= milli equivalent of mixture
N = N1 V1 – N2 V2 = N3 V3 { where, V3 =V1 + V2 )
Volume of the solution in litre
 1  1 
Weight of solute in gram / equivalent weight of solute   100  –   25  = N3 × 125
N=  10   5 
Volume of the solution in litre
1
N can be calculated from the strength as given below : N3 =
25
Strength in grams per litre S
N= =  Note :
Equivalent mass of solute E
1 milli equivalent of an acid neutralizes 1 milli
If ‘w’ gram of the solute is present in V cm3 of a given equivalent of a base.
solution.
(e) Molality :
w 1000
N = Equivalent mass of the solute × Molality of a solution is defined as the number of
V
moles of the solute dissolved in 1000 grams of the
e.g. A solution of sulphuric acid having 0.49 gram of solvent. It is denoted by ‘m’.
it dissolved in 250 cm 3 of solution will have its Mathematically,
normality,
Number of moles of the solute
w 1000 m= × 1000 ‘m’ can
N = Equivalent mass of the solute × Weight of the solvent in gram
V be calculated from the strength as given below :
0.49 1000 Strength per 1000 gram of solvent
N= × = 0.04 m=
49 250 Molecular mass of solute
(Eq. mass of sulphuric acid = 49).
If ‘w’ gram of the solute is dissolved in ‘W’ gram of the
Solution Semi Deci Centi solvent then
normal normal normal w 1000
Normality m= ×
1 1 1 Mol. mass of the solute W
2 10 100
e.g. A solution of anhydrous sodium carbonate
Some Important Formulae : (molecular mass = 106) having 1.325 grams of it,
dissolved in 250 gram of water will have its molality -
(i) Milli equivalent of substance = N × V
where , N  normality of solution 1.325 1000
m=  = 0.05
V  Volume of solution in mL 106 250
 Note :
(ii) If weight of substance is given,
w  1000
Relationship Between Normality and Molarity of a
milli equivalent (NV) = Solution :
E
Where, W  Weight of substance in gram Normality of an acid = Molarity × Basicity
E  Equivalent weight of substance Normality of base = Molarity × Acidity

(iii) S = N × E Ex.18 Calculate the molarity and normality of a solution

S  Strength in g/L containing 0.4 g of NaOH dissolved in 500 cm3 of
N  Normality of solution solvent.
E  Equivalent weight Sol. Weight of NaOH dissolved = 0.5 g
Volume of the solution = 500 cm3
(iv) Calculation of normality of mixture :
(i) Calculation of molarity :
N N Molecular weight of NaOH = 23 + 16 + 1 = 40
Ex.16 100 ml of HCl is mixed with 50 ml of H SO .
10 5 2 4 Weight of solute/ molecular weight of solute
Find out the normality of the mixture. Molarity =
Volume of solution in litre
Sol. Milli equivalent of HCl + milli equivalent H 2SO 4 0.5/40
= milli equivalent of mixture = = 0.025
500/1000
N1 V1 + N2 V2 = N3 V3 { where, V3 =V1 + V2 )
(ii) Calculation of normality :
 1  1 
  100     50   N3 × 150 Normality
 10  5  Weight of solute/ equivalent weight of solute
=
20 2 Volume of solution in litre
N3 = = = 0.133 0.5/40
150 15 = = 0.025
500/1000

PAGE # 6
Ex.19 Find the molarity and molality of a 15% solution Ex.20 Find out the mole fraction of solute in 10% (by weight)
of H2SO4 (density of H2SO4 solution = 1.02 g/cm3) urea solution.
weight of solute (urea) = 10 g
(Atomic mass : H = 1u, O = 16u , S = 32 u) weight of solution = 100 g
Sol. 15% solution of H2SO4 means 15g of H2SO4 are weight of solvent (water) = 100 – 10 = 90g
present in 100g of the solution i.e. Moles of solute
Wt. of H2SO4 dissolved = 15 g mole fraction of solute =
Weight of the solution = 100 g
Moles of solution
Density of the solution = 1.02 g/cm3 (Given) w/m 10 / 60
= = = 0.032
Calculation of molality : w/m  W/M 10 / 60  90 / 18
Weight of solution = 100 g  Note :
Weight of H2SO4 = 15 g Sum of mole fraction of solute and solvent is always
equal to one.
Wt. of water (solvent) = 100 – 15 = 85 g
Molecular weight of H2SO4 = 98 STOICHIOMETRY
15
 15 g H2SO4 = = 0.153 moles (a) Quantitative Relations in Chemical
98 Reactions :
Thus ,85 g of the solvent contain 0.153 moles .
Stoichiometry is the calculation of the quantities of
0.153
1000 g of the solvent contain= × 1000 = 1.8 mole reactants and products involved in a chemical
85 reaction.
Hence ,the molality of H2SO4 solution = 1.8 m
It is based on the chemical equation and on the
Calculation of molarity : relationship between mass and moles.
N2(g) + 3H2(g)  2NH3(g)
15 g of H2SO4 = 0.153 moles
A chemical equation can be interpreted as follows -
Wt. of solution 1 molecule N2 + 3 molecules H2  2 molecules
Vol. of solution =
Density of solution NH 3 (Molecular interpretation)
100 1 mol N2 + 3 mol H2  2 mol NH3
= = 98.04 cm3 (Molar interpretation)
1.02
28 g N2 + 6 g H2  34 g NH3
This 98.04 cm3 of solution contain H2SO4 = 0.153
(Mass interpretation)
moles
1 volume N2 + 3 volume H2  2 volume NH3
1000 cm3 of solution contain H2SO4 (Volume interpretation)
0.153 Thus, calculations based on chemical equations are
= × 1000 = 1.56 moles divided into four types -
98.04
Hence the molarity of H2SO4 solution = 1.56 M (i) Calculations based on mole-mole relationship.
(ii) Calculations based on mass-mass relationship.
(f) Mole Fraction :
(iii) Calculations based on mass-volume relationship.
The ratio between the moles of solute or solvent to
(iv) Calculations based on volume -volume
the total moles of solution is called mole fraction. relationship.
Moles of solute n (i) Calculations based on mole-mole relationship :
mole fraction of solute = 
Moles of solution nN In such calculations, number of moles of reactants
are given and those of products are required.
w/m Conversely, if number of moles of products are given,
= then number of moles of reactants are required.
w/m  W/M
Moles of solvent N Ex.21 Oxygen is prepared by catalytic decomposition
Mole fraction of solvent =  of potassium chlorate (KClO 3). Decomposition
Moles of solution nN of potassium chlorate gives potassium chloride
W/M (KCl) and oxygen (O2). How many moles and how
= many grams of KClO 3 are required to produce
w/m  W/M 2.4 mole O2.
where, Sol. Decomposition of KClO3 takes place as,
n  number of moles of solute 2KClO3(s)  2KCl(s) + 3O2(g)
2 mole KClO3  3 mole O2
N  number of moles of solvent
 3 mole O2 formed by 2 mole KClO3
m  molecular weight of solute
2 
M  molecular weight of solvent  2.4 mole O 2 will be formed by  3  2.4 
 
w  weight of solute
mole KClO3 = 1.6 mole KClO3
W  weight of solvent Mass of KClO3 = Number of moles × molar mass
= 1.6 × 122.5 = 196 g

PAGE # 7
 (ii) Calculations based on mass-mass relationship: Ex.24 How many kilograms of pure H 2SO 4 could be
In making necessary calculation, following steps are obtained from 1 kg of iron pyrites (FeS2) according to
followed - the following reactions ?
(a) Write down the balanced chemical equation. 4FeS2 + 11O2  2Fe2O3 + 8SO2
2SO2 + O2  2SO3
(b) Write down theoretical amount of reactants and
SO3 + H2O  H2SO4
products involved in the reaction.
Sol. Final balanced equation,
(c) The unknown amount of substance is calculated 4FeS2 + 15O2 + 8H2O 2Fe2O3 + 8H2SO4
4 mole 8 mole
using unitary method. 4 × 120 g 8 × 98 g

Ex.22 Calculate the mass of CaO that can be prepared 4 × 120 g of FeS2 yield H2SO4 = 8 × 98 g
by heating 200 kg of limestone CaCO3 which is 8  98
1000 g of FeS2 will yield H2SO4 = × 1000
95% pure. 4  120
95 = 1633.3 g
Sol. Amount of pure CaCO 3 =  200 = 190 kg
100 (iii) Calculations involving mass-volume relationship :
= 190000 g
In such calculations masses of reactants are given
CaCO3(s)  CaO(s) + CO2(g) and volume of the product is required and vice-versa.
1 mole CaCO3  1 mole CaO 1 mole of a gas occupies 22.4 litre volume at STP.
100 g CaCO3  56 g CaO Mass of a gas can be related to volume according to
100 g CaCO3 give 56 g CaO the following gas equation -
56 PV = nRT
 190000 g CaCO3 will give= × 190000 g CaO
100 w
= 106400 g = 106.4 kg PV = RT
m
Ex.23 How many grams of oxygen are required to burn
Ex-25. What volume of NH3 can be obtained from 26.75 g
completely 570 g of octane ?
of NH4Cl at 27ºC and 1 atmosphere pressure.
Sol. Balanced equation
Sol. The balanced equation is -
2C8H18 + 25O2 16CO2 + 18H2O
2 mole 25 mole NH4Cl(s) NH3(g) + HCl(g)
2 × 114 25 × 32 1 mol 1 mol
53.5 g
First method : For burning 2 × 114 g of the octane,
oxygen required = 25 × 32 g  53.5 g NH4Cl give 1 mole NH3
25  32 1
For burning 1 g of octane, oxygen required = g  26.75 g NH4Cl will give × 26.75 mole NH3
2  114 53.5
Thus, for burning 570 g of octane, oxygen required = 0.5 mole
25  32 PV = nRT
= × 570 g = 2000 g
2  114 1 ×V = 0.5 × 0.0821 × 300
Mole Method : Number of moles of octane in 570 V = 12.315 litre
grams
570 (iv) Calculations based on volume volume
= 5.0
114 relationship :
For burning 2.0 moles of octane, oxygen required These calculations are based on two laws :
= 25 mol = 25 × 32 g (i) Avogadro’s law (ii) Gay-Lussac’s Law
For burning 5 moles of octane, oxygen required e.g.
25  32 N 2(g) + 3H 2(g) 2NH 3(g) (Avogadro's law)
= × 5.0 g = 2000 g 1 mol
2 .0 1 × 22.4 L
3 mol
3 × 22.4 L
2 mol
2 × 22.4 L

Proportion Method : Let x g of oxygen be required for

burning 570 g of octane. It is known that 2 × 114 g of (under similar conditions of temperature and
the octane requires 25 × 32 g of oxygen; then, the pressure, equal moles of gases occupy equal
proportion. volumes)

25  32 g oxygen x N2(g) + 3H2(g) 2NH3(g) (Gay- Lussac's Law)

= 1 vol 3 vol 2 vol
2  114 g oc tan e 570 g oc tane
(under similar conditions of temperature and
25  32  570 pressure, ratio of coefficients by mole is equal to ratio
x= = 2000 g
2  114 of coefficient by volume).

PAGE # 8
Ex-26 One litre mixture of CO and CO2 is taken. This is (v) Strength in grams per litre = normality × equivalent
passed through a tube containing red hot charcoal.
weight.
The volume now becomes 1.6 litre. The volume are
measured under the same conditions. Find the (vi) (a) Normality = molarity × factor relating mol. wt.
composition of mixture by volume.
and eq. wt.
Sol. Let there be x mL CO in the mixture , hence, there will
be (1000 – x) mL CO2. The reaction of CO2 with red (b) No. of equivalents = no. of moles × factor relat
hot charcoal may be given as - ing mol. wt. and eq. wt.
CO2(g) + C(s) 2CO(g) Ex.28 Calculate the number of milli equivalent of H2SO4
1 vol. 2 vol.
(1000 –x) 2(1000 – x) present in 10 mL of N/2 H2SO4 solution.
Total volume of the gas becomes = x + 2(1000 – x) 1
x + 2000 – 2x = 1600 Sol. Number of m.e. = normality × volume in mL =
× 10 = 5.
2
x = 400 mL Ex.29 Calculate the number of m.e. and equivalents of
 volume of CO = 400 mL and volume of CO2 = 600 mL
NaOH present in 1 litre of N/10 NaOH solution.
Ex-27 What volume of air containing 21% oxygen by volume Sol. Number of m.e. = normality × volume in mL
is required to completely burn 1kg of carbon containing
100% combustible substance ? 1
= × 1000 = 100
Sol. Combustion of carbon may be given as, 10
no. of m.e. 100
C(s) + O2(g) CO2(g) Number of equivalents = = = 0.10
1000 1000
1 mol 1 mol
12 g 32 g Ex.30 Calculate number of m.e. of the acids present in
 12 g carbon requires 1 mole O2 for complete (i) 100 mL of 0.5 M oxalic acid solution.
combustion
(ii) 50 mL of 0.1 M sulphuric acid solution.
1 Sol. Normality = molarity × basicity of acid
 1000 g carbon will require  1000 mole O2 for
12
(i) Normality of oxalic acid = 0.5 × 2 = 1 N
combustion, i.e. , 83.33 mole O2
Volume of O2 at STP = 83.33 × 22.4 litre m.e. of oxalic acid = normality × vol. in mL = 1 × 100
= 1866.66 litre = 100.
 21 litre O2 is present in 100 litre air (ii) Normality of sulphuric acid = 0.1 × 2 = 0.2 N
100 m.e. of sulphuric acid = 0.2 × 50 = 10
1866.66 litre O2 will be present in × 1866.66 litre air
21
3
= 8888.88 litre or 8.89 × 10 litre Ex.31 What is strength in gram/litre of a solution of H2SO4,
VOLUMETRIC CALCULATIONS N
12 cc of which neutralises 15 cc of NaOH
10
The quantitative analysis in chemistry is primarily solution ?
carried out by two methods, viz, volumetric analysis
and gravimetric analysis.In the first method the mass 1
Sol. m.e. of NaOH solution = × 15 = 1.5
of a chemical species is measured by measurement 10
of volume, whereas in the second method it is deter- m.e. of 12 cc of H2SO4 = 1.5
mined by taking the weight. 1.5
The strength of a solution in volumetric analysis is
 normality of H2SO4 =
12
generally expressed in terms of normality, i.e., num- Strength in grams/litre = normality × eq. wt.
ber of equivalents per litre but since the volume in the
volumetric analysis is generally taken in millilitres 1.5
= × 49 grams/litre
(mL), the normality is expressed by milliequivalents 12
per millilitre. = 6.125 grams/litre.

USEFUL FORMULAE FOR  molecular wt. 98 

 eq. wt. of H2 SO 4    49 
VOLUMETRIC CALCULATIONS  basicity 2 
(i) milliequivalents = normality × volume in millilitres. Ex.32 What weight of KMnO4 will be required to prepare
(ii) At the end point of titration, the two titrants, say 1 N
250 mL of its solution if eq. wt. of KMnO4 is 31.6 ?
and 2, have the same number of milliequivalents, 10
i.e., N1V1 = N2V2, volume being in mL. Sol. Equivalent weight of KMnO4 = 31.6
m.e. 1
(iii) No. of equivalents = . Normality of solution (N) =
1000 10
(iv) No. of equivalents for a gas = Volume of solution (V) = 250 ml
Volumeat STP NEV ; W = 1  31 .6  250 31 .6
equivalent volume( vol. of 1eq. at STP) W
10 1000  0.79 g
1000 40

PAGE # 9
Ex.33 100 mL of 0.6 N H2SO4 and 200 mL of 0.3 N HCl
SOLUBILITY
were mixed together. What will be the normality of the
resulting solution ?
Sol. m.e. of H2SO4 solution = 0.6 × 100 = 60
m.e. of HCl solution = 0.3 × 200 = 60
 m.e. of 300 mL (100 + 200) of acidic mixture
= 60 + 60 = 120.
m.e.
Normality of the resulting solution =
total vol.
120 2 temperature and pressure. The solubility of the solute
= = N.
300 5
Ex.34 A sample of Na2CO3. H2O weighing 0.62 g is added
to 100 mL of 0.1 N H2SO4. Will the resulting solution
be acidic, basic or neutral ?
0.62
Sol. Equivalents of Na2CO3. H2O = = 0.01
62
 124 
 eq. wt. of Na 2 CO 3 .H2 O   62 
 2 
m.e. of Na2CO3. H2O = 0.01 × 1000 = 10
m.e. of H2SO4 = 0.1 × 100 = 10
Since the m.e. of Na2CO3. H2O is equal to that of H2SO4,
the resulting solution will be neutral.
Indicators show change in colour or turbidity at the
stage of completion of titration.
 Note :
(c) Concentraion representation of solution
(A) Strength of solution : Grams of solute dissolved
per litre of solution is called strength of solution'
(B) Parts Per Million (ppm) : Grams of solute
dissolved per 10 6 grams of solvent is called
concentration of solution in the unit of Parts Per Million
(ppm). This unit is used to represent hardness of
water and concentration of very dilute solutions.
(C) Percentage by mass : Grams of solute dissolved
per 100 grams of solution is called percentage by
mass.
(D) Percentage by volume : Millilitres of solute per
100 mL of solution is called percentage by volume.
For example, if 25 mL ethyl alcohol is diluted with
water to make 100 mL solution then the solution thus
 Note :
obtained is 25% ethyl alcohol by volume.
(E) Mass by volume percentage :Grams of solute
present per 100 mL of solution is called percentage
mass by volume.
For example, let 25 g glucose is dissolved in water to
make 100 mL solution then the solution is 25% mass
by volume glucose.
The solubility of a solute in a solution is always
expressed with respect to the saturated solution.
(a) Definition :
The maximum amount of the solute which can be
dissolved in 100g (0.1kg) of the solvent to form a
saturated solution at a given temperature.
Suppose w gram of a solute is dissolved in W gram
of a solvent to make a saturated solution at a fixed
will be given by -
w Mass of the solute
× 100 = × 100
W Mass of the solvent
For example, the solubility of potassium chloride in
water at 20ºC and 1 atm. is 34.7 g per 100g of water.
This means that under normal conditions 100 g of
water at 20ºC and 1 atm. cannot dissolve more than
34.7g of KCl.
(b) Effect of Temperature and Pressure on
Solubility of a Solids :
The solubility of a substance in liquids generally
increases with rise in temperature but hardly changes
with the change in pressure. The effect of temperature
depends upon the heat energy changes which
accompany the process.
If heat energy is needed or absorbed in the process,
it is of endothermic nature. If heat energy is evolved
or released in the process, it is of exothermic nature.
(i) Effect of temperature on endothermic dissolution
process : Most of the salts like sodium chloride,
potassium chloride, sodium nitrate, ammonium
chloride etc. dissolve in water with the absorption of
heat. In all these salts the solubility increases with
rise in temperature. This means that sodium chloride
becomes more soluble in water upon heating.
(ii) Effect of temperature on exothermic dissolution
process : Few salts like lithium carbonate, sodium
carbonate monohydrate, cerium sulphate etc.
dissolve in water with the evolution of heat. This
means that the process is of exothermic nature. In
these salts the solubility in water decreases with rise
in temperature.
1. While expressing the solubility, the solution must
be saturated but for expressing concentration (mass
percent or volume percent), the solution need not to
be saturated in nature.
2. While expressing solubility, mass of solvent is
considered but for expressing concentration the
mass or volume of the solution may be taken into
consideration.
PAGE # 10
 (c) Ef fect of Temperature on the Solubility Ex.36 4 g of a solute are dissolved in 40 g of water to
of a Gas form a saturated solution at 25ºC. Calculate the
solubility of the solute.
(i) The solubility of a gas in a liquid decreases with
the rise in temperature. Mass of solute
Sol. Solubility = × 100
Mass of solvent
(ii) The solubility of gases in liquids increases on
Mass of solute = 4 g
increasing the pressure and decreases on decreas-
Mass of solvent = 40 g
ing the pressure.
4
Solubility = × 100 = 10 g
SAMPLE PROBLEMS 40

Ex.35 12 grams of potassium sulphate dissolves in Ex.37 (a) What mass of potassium chloride would be
75 grams of water at 60ºC. What is the solubility needed to form a saturated solution in 50 g of
of potassium sulphate in water at that temperature ? water at 298 K ? Given that solubility of the salt is
mass of solute 46g per 100g at this temperature.
Sol. Solubility =  100
mass of solvent (b) What will happen if this solution is cooled ?
12
= ×100 = 16 g Sol. (a) Mass of potassium chloride in 100 g of water
75
in saturated solution = 46 g
Thus, the solubility of potassium sulphate in Mass of potassium chloride in 50 g of water in
water is 16 g at 60ºC. saturated solution.
46
= × (50g) = 23 g
100

(b) When the solution is cooled, the solubility of

salt in water will decrease. This means, that upon
cooling, it will start separating from the solution
in crystalline form.



PAGE # 11
 ACIDS AND BASES

(a) Classification of Acids :

ACIDS
Substances with sour taste are regarded as acids.
Lemon juice, vinegar, grape fruit juice and spoilt milk
etc. taste sour since they are acidic. Many substances
can be identified as acids based on their taste but
some of the acids like sulphuric acid have very strong
action on the skin which means that they are corrosive
in nature. In such cases it would be according to
modern definition -
An acid may be defined as a substance which
releases one or more H+ ions in aqueous solution.
Acids are mostly obtained from natural sources.
(i) Classification of acids on the basis of their
Source
On the basis of their source, acids can be classified
in two categories :
(A) Organic acids (B) Inorganic acids
(A) Organic acids
The acids which are usually obtained from
organisms are known as organic acids. Oxalic acid
[(COOH)2], acetic acid (CH3COOH) etc. are very
common examples of organic acids. Some other
organic acids with their natural sources are given in
the following Table.

Some Organic Acids with Their Natural Sources

S.No. Organic acid Natural sources S.No. Organic acid Natural sources
1 Acetic acid Vinegar 7 Oleic acid Olive oil
2 Citric acid Citrus fruits (like 8 Stearic acid Fats
orange and lemon)
3 Butyric acid Rancid butter 9 Amino acid Proteins
4 Formic acid Sting of bees and ants 10 Uric acid Urine
5 Lactic acid Sour milk 11 Tartaric acid Tamarind
6 Malic acid Apples 12 Oxalic acid Tomatoes

It may be noted that all organic acids contain carbon
as one of their constituting elements. These are weak
acids and, therefore, do not ionise completely in their
aqueous solutions. Since these acids do not ionise
completely in their aqueous solutions, therefore, their
solutions contains both ions as well as
undissociated molecules. For example, formic acid’s
aqueous solution contains H3O+, HCOO– as well as
undissociated HCOOH molecules.
HCOOH + H2O H3O+ + HCOO–
Formic acid Hydronium ion Formate ion
(B) Inorganic Acids.
The acids which are usually obtained from minerals
are known as inorganic acids. Since the acids are
obtained from minerals, therefore, these acids are
also called mineral acids. Some common examples
of inorganic acids are : Hydrochloric acid (HCl),
Sulphuric acid (H2SO4), Nitric acid (HNO3) etc.
It may be pointed out that except carbonic acid
(H2CO3), these acids do not contain carbon. Acids
like HCl, H2SO4 and HNO3 are strong acids which
ionise completely in their aqueous solutions and,
therefore, their aqueous solutions do not contain any
undissociated molecules.
(ii) Classification of acids on the basis of their
Basicity :
The basicity of an acid is defined as the number of
hydronium ions [H3O+ (aq.)] that can be produced by
the complete ionisation of one molecule of that acid
in aqueous solution.
For example, basicity of HCl, H2SO4, H3PO4 is 1, 2
and 3 respectively because one molecule of these
acids, on ionisation, produces 1, 2 and 3 hydronium
ions in aqueous solution respectively.
It may be pointed out here that the basicity of an acid
is determined by number of hydronium ions produced
per molecule of an acid on ionisation and not the
number of hydrogen atoms present in one molecule
of an acid. For example, basicity of acetic acid
(CH3COOH) is 1 because one molecule of acetic acid,
on ionisation in aqueous solution, produces one
hydronium ion although one molecule of acetic acid
contains four hydrogen atoms.
CH3COOH + H2O H3O+ + CH3COO–
Acetic acid Hydronium ion Acetate ion
On the basis of basicity, the acids can be classified
as under :

PAGE # 12
 (A) Monobasic Acids : (C) Tribasic Acids :
When one molecule of an acid on complete ionisation When one molecule of an acid on complete ionisation
produces one hydronium ion (H 3 O + ) in aqueous produces three hydronium ions (H3O+) in aqueous
solution, the acid is said to be a monobasic acid. solution, the acid is said to be a tribasic acid.
An example of tribasic acids is Phosphoric acid
Examples of Monobasic Acids. (H3PO4).
Some examples of monobasic acids are :
(i) Hydrochloric acid (HCl) (D) Tetrabasic Acids :
(ii) Hydrobromic acid (HBr) When one molecule of an acid on complete ionisation
(iii) Nitric acid (HNO3) produces four hydronium ions (H3 O+) in aqueous
(iv) Acetic acid (CH3COOH) solution, the acid is said to be a tetrabasic acid.
(v) Formic acid (HCOOH) An example of tetrabasic acids is silicic acid (H4SiO4).
Characteristics of Monobasic Acids. (iii) Classification of acids on the basis of their
Two important characteristics of monobasic acids strength :
are : We know that acids ionise in the aqueous solution to
produce hydronium ions. So, the strength of an acid
(i) A monobasic acid ionises in one step in aqueous
depends upon the degree of ionisation, usually
solution. For example,
denoted by the letter alpha ().
HCl + H2O H3O+ + Cl– Degree of ionisation of an acid ()
(Single step ionisation) Number of molecules of the acid undergoing ionisation
=  100
Total number of acid molecules
(ii) A monobasic acid forms only single salt or a normal
salt. For example, More the degree of ionisation () of an acid, more stronger
it will be. Generally, if the degree of ionisation () for an
HCl + NaOH  NaCl + H2O
acid is greater than 30%, it is considered to be a strong
Sodium chloride
acid. If it is less than 30%,it is considered to be a weak
(Normal salt)
acid.
(B) Dibasic Acids :
On the basis of degree of ionisation, the acids can be
When one molecule of an acid on complete ionisation classified as under:
produces two hydronium ions (H 3 O +) in aqueous
solution, the acid is said to be a dibasic acid. (A) Strong Acids :
The acids which undergo almost complete ionisation
Examples of Dibasic Acids : in a dilute aqueous solution, thereby producing a high
Some examples of dibasic acids are : concentration of hydronium ions (H3O+) are known as
(i) Sulphuric acid (H2SO4) strong acids.
(ii) Sulphurous acid (H2SO3)
Examples of strong acids :
(iii) Carbonic acid (H2CO3)
Some examples of strong acids are :
(iv) Oxalic acid [(COOH)2] (i) Hydrochloric acid (HCl)
(v) Hydrofluoric acid (HF) (ii) Sulphuric acid (H2SO4)
Characteristics of Dibasic Acids : (iii) Nitric acid (HNO3)
Two important characteristics of dibasic acids are : All these three mineral acids are considered to be
(i) A dibasic acid ionises in two steps in aqueous strong acids because they ionise almost completely
solution. For example, sulphuric acid which is a dibasic in their dilute aqueous solutions.
acid ionises to produce bisulphate ion (HSO4–) in (B) Weak Acids :
the first step which further ionises to produce sulphate The acids which undergo partial or incomplete
ion (SO42–) in the second step. ionisation in a dilute aqueous solution, thereby
H2SO4 + H2O H3O+ + HSO4– producing a low concentration of hydronium ions
Sulphuric acid Bisulphate ion (H3O+) are known as weak acids.
–
HSO4 + H2O H3O + SO42–
+ Examples of weak acids :
Sulphate ion Some examples of weak acids are :
(i) Acetic acid (CH3COOH)
\ (ii) Because of the presence of two replaceable (ii) Formic acid (HCOOH)
hydrogen ions, a dibasic acid forms two series of salts (iii) Oxalic acid [(COOH)2]
i.e., an acid salt and a normal salt. For example, H2SO4 (iv) Carbonic acid (H2CO3)
reacts with NaOH to form NaHSO4 (an acid salt) and (v) Sulphurous acid (H2SO3)
Na2SO4 (a normal salt) (vi) Hydrogen sulphide (H2S)
NaOH + H2SO4 NaHSO4 + H2O (vii) Hydrocyanic acid (HCN)
Sodium hydrogen The aqueous solution of weak acids contain both ions
sulphate as well as undissociated molecules.
(An acid salt)
HCl (aq) H+ (aq) + Cl– (aq)
2NaOH + H2SO4 Na2SO4 + 2H2O CH3COOH (aq) CH3COO–(aq) + H+(aq)
Sodium sulphate It may be noted that single arrow () is used to
(Normal salt)
represent complete ionization, while double half
headed arrow   is used to represent partial
ionization.
PAGE # 13
(iv) Classification on the basis of Concentration of
the Acid :
By the term concentration, we mean the amount of
water present in the given sample of acid solution in
water.
(A) Concentrated Acid :
The sample of an acid which contains very small or no
amount of water is called a concentrated acid.
(B) Dilute Acid :
The sample of an acid which contains far more amount
of water than its own mass is known as a dilute acid
It must be mentioned here that concentration of an
acid simply tells the amount of water in the acid. It may
not be confused with strength of an acid, which is a
measure of concentration of hydronium ion it produces
in aqueous solution.
A concentrated acid may not necessarily be a strong
acid while a dilute acid may not necessarily be a weak
acid. A strong acid will remain strong even if it is dilute
because it produces a large concentration of hydronium
ions in aqueous solution. On the other hand, a weak
acid will remain weak even when concentrated
because it will produce lesser concentration of
hydronium ions in aqueous solution.

CHEMICAL FORMULAE, TYPES AND USES OF SOME COMMON ACIDS

Name Type Chemical Formula Where found or used

Carbonic acid Mineral acid H2CO3 In soft drinks and lends fizz.

Used in the manufacture of explosives (TNT,

Nitric acid Mineral acid HNO3 Nitroglycerine) and fertilizers (Ammonium nitrate,
Calcium nitrate, Purification of Au, Ag)

In purification of common salt, in textile industry

Hydrochloric acid Mineral acid HCl as bleaching agent, to make aqua regia, in
stomach as gastric juice, used in tanning industry

Commonly used in car batteries, in

the manufacture of fertilizers (Ammonium
Sulphuric acid Mineral acid H2SO4 sulphate, super phosphate) detergents etc, in
paints, plastics, drugs, in manufacture of artificial
silk, in petroleum refining.
Phosphoric acid Mineral acid H3PO4 Used in antirust paints and in fertilizers.
Found in the stings of ants and bees, used in
Formic acid Organic acid HCOOH
tanning leather, in medicines for treating gout.
Found in vinegar, used as solvent in the
Acetic acid Organic acid CH3COOH
manufacture of dyes and perfumes.
Lactic acid Organic acid CH3CH(OH)COOH Responsible for souring of milk in curd.
Benzoic acid Organic acid C6H5COOH Used as a food preservative.
Citric acid Organic acid C6H8O7 Present in lemons, oranges and citrus fruits.
Tartaric acid Organic acid C4H6O6 Present in tamarind.

(b) Chemical Properties of Acids : (ii) Action with metal oxides :

Chemical Properties of Acids : Acids react with metal oxides to form salt and water.
These reactions are mostly carried out upon heating.
(i) Action with metals :
e.g.
Dilute acids like dilute HCl and dilute H2SO4 react with
certain active metals to evolve hydrogen gas. ZnO(s) + 2HCl (aq)  ZnCl2(aq) + H2O()
2Na(s) + 2HCl (dilute)  2NaCl(aq) + H2(g) MgO(s) + H2SO4(aq)  MgSO4(aq) + H2O()
Mg(s) + H2SO4 (dilute)  MgSO4(aq) + H2(g)
CuO(s) + 2HCl(aq.)  CuCl2(aq) + H2O()
Metals which can displace hydrogen from dilute acids
are known as active metals. e.g. Na, K, Zn, Fe, Ca, Mg (Black) (Bluish green)
etc. (iii) Action with metal carbonates and metal
Zn(s) + H2SO4 (dilute)  ZnSO4(aq) + H2(g) bicarbonates : Both metal carbonates and bicarbonates
The active metals which lie above hydrogen in the react with acids to evolve CO2 gas and form salts.
activity series are electropositive and more reactive in e.g.
nature. Their atoms lose electrons to form positive ions CaCO3(s)+ 2HCl(aq)  CaCl2(aq) + H2O() + CO2(g)
and these electrons are accepted by H+ ions of the
Calcium Calcium
acid. As a result, H2 is evolved.
e.g. carbonate chloride
Zn(s)  Zn2+ (aq) + 2e– 2NaHCO3(s) + H2SO4(aq)  Na2SO4(aq) + 2H2O(aq) + 2CO2(g)
+ 2–
2H (aq) + SO4 (aq) + 2e  H2(g) + SO4 (aq)
– 2– Sodium Sodium
bicarbonate sulphate
Zn(s) + 2H+(aq)  Zn++(aq) + H2(g)

PAGE # 14
 (iv) Action with bases :
Acids react with bases to give salt and water. BASE
HCl (aq) + NaOH(aq)  NaCl + H2O Substances with bitter taste and soapy touch are
These reactions are mostly carried out upon heating. regarded as bases. Since many bases like sodium
hydroxide and potassium hydroxide have corrosive
3. Action with metal carbonates and metal bicarbonates : action on the skin and can even harm the body, so
Both metal carbonates and bicarbonates react with according to the modern definition -
acids to evolve CO2 gas and form salts. A base may be defined as a substance capable of
e.g. releasing one or more OH¯ ions in aqueous solution.
CaCO3(s)+ 2HCl(aq)  CaCl2(aq) + H2O()+ CO2(g) (a) Alkalies :
Calcium Calcium
carbonate chloride Some bases like sodium hydroxide and potassium
2NaHCO3(s) + H2SO4(aq)  Na2SO4(aq) + 2H2O(aq) + 2CO2(g) hydroxide are water soluble. These are known as
Sodium Sodium
alkalies. Therefore water soluble bases are known as
bicarbonate sulphate alkalies eg. KOH, NaOH.
Bases like Cu(OH)2, Fe(OH)3 and Al(OH)3 these are
4. Action with bases : not alkalies.
Acids react with bases to give salt and water.
A list of a few typical bases along with their chemical
HCl + NaOH  NaCl + H2O formulae and uses is given below-

Chemical
Name Commercial Name Uses
Formula
In manufacture of soap, paper, pulp, rayon,
Sodium hydroxide Caustic soda NaOH
refining of petroleum etc.
In alkaline storage batteries, manufacture of
Potassium hydroxide Caustic potash KOH
soap, absorbing CO2 gas etc.
In manufacture of bleaching powder,
Calcium hydroxide Slaked lime Ca(OH)2
softening of hard water etc.
Magnesium hydroxide Milk of magnesia Mg(OH)2 As an antacid to remove acidity from stomach.

Aluminium hydroxide – Al(OH)3 As foaming agent in fire extinguishers.

In removing grease stains from clothes and in

Ammonium hydroxide – NH4OH
cleaning window panes.

(b) Chemical Properties :

1. Action with metals :
Metals like zinc, tin and aluminium react with strong
alkalies like NaOH (caustic soda), KOH (caustic
potash) to evolve hydrogen gas.
Zn(s) + 2NaOH(aq)  Na2ZnO2(aq) + H2(g)
Sodium zincate
Sn(s) + 2NaOH(aq)  Na2SnO2(aq) + H2(g)
Sodium stannite
2Al(s)+ 2NaOH + 2H2O  2NaAlO2(aq) + 3H2(g)
Sodium meta
aluminate
2. Action with non-metallic oxides :
Acids react with metal oxides, but bases react with
oxides of non-metals to form salt and water.
e.g.
2NaOH(aq) + CO2(g)  Na2CO3(aq) + H2O()
Ca(OH)2(s) + SO2(g)  CaSO3(s) + H2O()
Ca(OH)2(s) + CO2(g)  CaCO3(s)
(c) Strong and Weak Bases :
(i) Strong base : A base contains one or more hydroxyl
(OH–) groups which it releases in aqueous solution
upon ionisation. Bases which are almost completely
ionised in water, are known as strong bases.
e.g.
Sodium hydroxide (NaOH), potassium hydroxide
(KOH), barium hydroxide Ba(OH)2 are all strong bases.
NaOH(s) + Water  Na+(aq) + OH–(aq)
KOH(s) + Water  K+(aq) + OH–(aq)
Both NaOH and KOH are deliquescent in nature which
means that they absorb moisture from air and get
liquefied.
(ii) Weak bases : Bases that are feebly ionised on
dissolving in water and produce less concentration of
hydroxyl ions are called weak bases.
e.g. Ca(OH)2, NH4OH
+ H2O()

PAGE # 15
 (A) Limitations of Arrhenius theory :
• It is applicable only to aqueous solutions. For the
acidic or basic properties, the presence of water is
Acids Bases
absolutely necessary.
Sour in taste. Bitter in taste.
Change Colours of indicators Change colours of indicators e.g. • The concept does not explain the acidic or basic
e.g. litmus turns from blue to litmus turns from red to blue properties of acids or bases in non - aqueous solvents.
red, phenolphthalein remains phenolphthalein turns from • It fails to explain the basic nature of compounds like
colourless. colourless to pink.
Show electrolytic conductivity Show electrolytic conductivity in NH3, Na 2CO3 etc., which do not have OH– in their
in aqueous solution. aqueous solution
Acidic properties disappear
molecules to furnish OH– ions.
Basic properties disappear when
when react with bases • It fails to explain the acidic nature of non - protic
react with acids (Neutralization)
(Neutralization) compounds like SO2, P2O5, CO2, NO2 etc., which do not
Acids decompose carbonate No decomposition of carbonate have hydrogen in their molecules to furnish H+ ions.
salts. salts by bases
• It fails to explain the acidic nature of certain salts like
AlCl3 etc., in aqueous solutions.
THEORIES OF ACIDS AND BASES
(a) Arrhenius Theory : (b) Acid Base Concept of Bronsted and
Lowry :
This concept was given in 1884 .
This theory was given by Bronsted, a Danish chemist
According to this theory all substances which give H+
ions when dissolved in water are called acids, while and Lowry, an English chemist independently in 1923.
According to it, an acid is a substance, molecule or ion
those which ionise in water to give OH– ions are called which has a tendency to release the proton
bases. (protogenic) and similarly a base has a tendency to
The main points of this theory are - accept the proton (protophilic).
(i) An acid or base when dissolved in water, splits into e.g.
ions. This is known as ionisation.
HCl + H2O H3O+ + Cl–
(ii) Upon dilution, the ions get separated from each other. In this reaction, HCl acts as an acid because it donates
This is known as dissociation of ions. a proton to the water molecule. Water, on the other
(iii) The fraction of the acid or base which dissociates hand, behaves as a base by accepting a
into ions is called its degree of dissociation and is proton.
denoted by alpha  which can be calculated by the
 Note :
following formula :
Bronsted and Lowry theory is also known as proton
No. of molecules dissociate d at equilibriu m donor and proton acceptor theory.
=
total no. of molecules Other examples :
(iv) The degree of dissociation depends upon the nature (i) CH3COOH + H2O H3O+ + CH3COO–
of acid or base. Strong acids and bases are highly
dissociated, while weak acids and bases are (ii) NH4+ + H2O H3O+ + NH3
dissociated to lesser extent.
(v) The electric current is carried by the movement of (iii) NH3 + H2O NH4+ + OH–
ions. Greater the ionic mobility more will be the
conductivity of the acid or base. In the reactions (i) and (ii) water is acting as a base,
while in reaction (iii) it is acting as an acid.Thus water
(vi) The H+ ions do not exist as such and exist in can donate as well as accept H+ and hence can act as
combination with molecules of H 2O as H 3O + ions
(known as hydronium ion). both acid and base.

H+ + H2O H3O+  Note :

The species like H2O, NH3, CH3COOH which can act
HCl + H2O H3O+ + Cl–
as both acid and base are called amphiprotic.
e.g.
Moreover according to theory, an acid on losing a proton
HA + H2O H3O+ + A¯
becomes a base, called conjugate base, while the
Acid
base by accepting proton changes to acid called
H2SO4 + 2H2O 2H3O+ + SO4–2 conjugate acid.
Acid +
accepts H
Water +
BOH B + OH¯
– +
Base CH3COOH + H2O CH3COO + H3O
Acid Base Base Acid
Water
NaOH Na+ + OH¯
+
Base loses H

Water Here CH3COO– ion is conjugate base of CH3COOH,

NH4OH NH4+ + OH¯
Base while H3O+ ion is conjugate acid of H2O.

PAGE # 16
 (i) Merits :
(A) Besides water any other solvent, which has the
tendency to accept or lose a proton may decide the
acidic or basic behaviour of the dissolved substance.
(B) This theory states that the terms acid and base are
comparative. A substance may act as an acid in one
solvent, while as a base in another solvent.
e.g. Acetic acid acts as an acid in water while as a
base in HF.
(ii) Demerits :
(A) Many acid - base reactions proceed without H+
transfer.
e.g. SO2 + SO3 SO2+ + SO42-
(c) Lewis theory :
The theory was given by G.N. Lewis in 1938. According
to it, an acid is a species which can accept a pair of
electrons, while the base is one which can donate a
pair of electrons.
 Note :
It is also known as electron pair donor and electron
pair acceptor theory.
e.g.
(i) FeCl3 and AlCl3 are Lewis acids, because the central
atoms have only six electrons after sharing and need
two more electrons.
(ii) NH3 is a Lewis base as it has a pair of electrons
which can be easily donated.
Lewis acids :- CH3+, H+, BF3, AlCl3, FeCl3 etc.
Lewis base :- NH3, H2O, R–O–R, R – OH, CN¯, OH¯
etc.
(i) Characteristics of species which can act as Lewis
acids :
(A) Molecules in which the central atom has
incomplete octet : Lewis acids are electron deficient
molecules such as BF3, AlCl3, GaCl3 etc.
H3N •• + AlCl3 [H3N AlCl3]
(B) Molecules in which the central atom has empty
d-orbitals : The central atom of the halides such as
TiCl4, SnCl4, PCl3, PF5, SF4, TeCl4. etc., have vacant d-
orbitals. These can, therefore, accept an electron pair
and act as Lewis acids.
(C) Simple cations : All cations are expected to act as
Lewis acid, since they are electron deficient in nature.
(D) Molecules having a multiple bond between
atoms of dissimilar electronegativity : Typical
examples of molecules belonging to this class of
Lewis acids are CO2, SO2 and SO3.
(ii) Characteristics of species which can act as Lewis
bases :
(A) Neutral species having at least one lone pair of
electrons : For example, ammonia amines, alcohols
etc, act as Lewis bases as they contain a pair of
electrons.
(B) Negatively charged species or simple anions :
For example chloride (Cl–), cyanide (CN–), hydroxide
(OH–) ions etc. act as Lewis bases.
(C) Multiple bonded compounds : The compounds
such as CO, NO, ethylene, acetylene etc. can act as
Lewis bases.
 Note :
It may be noted that all Bronsted bases are also Lewis
bases, but all Lewis acids are not Bronsted acids.
(iv) Limitations of Lewis theory :
(A) Lewis theory fails to explain the relative strength of
acids and bases.
INDICATORS
, An indicator indicates the nature of a particular solution
whether acidic, basic or neutral. Apart from this, indicator
also represents the change in nature of the solution
from acidic to basic and vice versa. Indicators are
basically coloured organic substances extracted from
different plants. A few common acid base indicators are-
(a) Litmus :
Litmus is a purple dye which is extracted from ‘lichen’
a plant belonging to variety Thallophyta. It can also be
applied on paper in the form of strips and is available
as blue and red strips. A blue litmus strip, when dipped
in an acid solution acquires red colour. Similarly a red
strip when dipped in a base solution becomes blue.
(b) Phenolphthalein :
It is also an organic dye and acidic in nature. In neutral
or acidic solution, it remains colourless while in the
basic solution, the colour of indicator changes to pink.
(c) Methyl Orange :
Methyl orange is an orange or yellow coloured dye and
basic in nature. In the acidic medium the colour of
indicator becomes red and in the basic or neutral
medium, its colour remains unchanged.
(d) Red Cabbage Juice :
It is purple in colour in neutral medium and turns red
or pink in the acidic medium. In the basic or alkaline
medium, its colour changes to green.
(e) Turmeric Juice :
It is yellow in colour and remains as such in the neutral
and acidic medium. In the basic medium its colour
becomes reddish or deep brown.
 Note :
Litmus is obtained from LICHEN plant.
PAGE # 17
NEUTRALISATION concentration are inversely proportional to each other.
The relation between them can also be expressed as-
It may be defined as a reaction between acid and
base present in aqueous solution to form salt and  1 
pH = – log [H+] = log  
water.  H 
HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq)  NaCl(aq) + H2O()
So, negative logarithm of hydrogen ion concentration
Basically neutralisation is the combination between
–
H+ ions of the acid with OH ions of the base to form H2O. is known as pH.
e.g. e.g.
– –
H+(aq) + Cl (aq) + Na+(aq) + OH (aq)  Na+(aq) + Cl–(aq) + H2O() Let the [H+] of an acid solution be 10–3 M. Its pH can be
+ – calculated as -
H (aq) + OH (aq)  H2O()
pH = – log [H+]
Neutralisation reaction involving an acid and base is = – log [10–3]
of exothermic nature. Heat is evolved in all = (–) (–3) log 10
neutralisation reactions. If both acid and base are = 3 ( log 10 = 1)
strong, the value of heat energy evolved remains same  Note :
irrespective of their nature. Just as the [H+] of a solution can be expressed in terms
e.g . of pH value, the [OH–] can be expressed as pOH.
HCl (aq) + NaOH (aq)  NaCl (aq) + H2O () + 57.1 KJ 1
Mathematically , pOH = – log [OH–] = log
Strong Strong [OH – ]
acid base Moreover, pH + pOH = 14.
Thus, if pH value of solution is known, its pOH value
HNO3 (aq) + KOH (aq)  KNO3 (aq) + H2O () + 57.1 KJ
can be calculated.
Strong Strong
acid base  Note :
There are some solutions which have definite pH i.e.,
Strong acids and strong bases are completely ionised
of their own in the solution. No energy is needed for their pH do not change on dilution or on standing for
their ionisation. Since the cation of base and anion of long. Such solutions are called buffer solutions.
acid on both sides of the equation cancel out
completely, the heat evolved is given by the following
reaction -
H+ (aq) + OH– (aq)  H2O () + 57.1 KJ

APPLICATIONS OF NEUTRALISATION
(i) People particularly of old age suffer from acidity
problems in the stomach which is caused mainly due
to release of excessive gastric juices containing HCl.
The acidity is neutralised by antacid tablets which
contain sodium hydrogen carbonate (baking soda),
magnesium hydroxide etc.
(ii) The stings of bees and ants contain formic acid. Its
corrosive and poisonous effect can be neutralised by
rubbing soap which contains NaOH (an alkali).
(iii) The stings of wasps contain an alkali and its
poisonous effect can be neutralised by an acid like
acetic acid (present in vinegar).
(iv) Farmers generally neutralize the effect of acidity in
the soil caused by acid rain by adding slaked lime
(Calcium hydroxide) to the soil.

According to Arrhenius theory, an acid releases H+ ion

in aqueous solution. The concentration of these ions
is expressed by enclosing H+ in square bracket i.e. as
[H+]. Thus, greater the [H+] ions, stronger will be the
acid. However, according to pH scale, lesser the pH
value, stronger will be the acid. From the above
discussion, we can conclude that pH value and H+ ion

PAGE # 18
 METALS AND NON-METALS

(iii)  Most reactive metals occur as salts as

OCCURRENCE OF METALS
carbonates, sulphates, halides etc. (e.g., Ca, Mg, K
All metals are present in the earth’s crust either in the etc.).
free state or in the form of their compounds. Aluminium
Some common ores are listed in the table
is the most abundant metal in the earth’s crust. The
second most abundant metal is iron and third one is Nature of
Metal Name of the ore Composition
ore
calcium.
Aluminium Bauxite Al2O3.2H2O
(a) Native and Combined States of Metals : Oxide Copper Cuprite Cu2O
Metals occur in the crust of earth in the following two ores Magnetite Fe3O4
states - Iron
Haematite Fe2O3
(i) Native state or free state : A metal is said to occur Copper pyrites CuFeS2
Copper
in a free or a native state when it is found in the crust Copper glance Cu2S
Sulphide
of the earth in the elementary or uncombined form. ores Zinc Zinc blende ZnS
Lead Galena PbS
The metals which are very unreactive (lying at the
Mercury Cinnabar HgS
bottom of activity series) are found in the free state. CaCO3
Carbonate Calcium Limestone
These have no tendency to react with oxygen and are ores Zinc Calamine ZnCO3
not attacked by moisture, carbon dioxide of air or other Sodium Rock salt NaCl
non-metals. Silver, copper, gold and platinum are Halide Magnesium Carnallite KCl.MgCl2.6H2O
some examples of such metals. ores Calcium Fluorspar CaF2
(ii) Combined state : A metal is said to occur in a Silver Horn silver AgCl
Calcium Gypsum CaSO4.2H2O
combined state if it is found in nature in the form of its
Sulphate Magnesium Epsom salt MgSO4.7H2O
compounds. e.g. Sodium , magnesium etc.
ores Barium Barytes BaSO4
 Note :
Lead Anglesite PbSO4
Copper and silver are metals which occur in the free
state as well as in the combined state.
Important Minerals/Ores of Different elements
MINERALS AND ORES
Name Formula
The natural substances in which metals or their
compounds occur either in native state or combined 1. Alumina Al2O3
state are called minerals. 2. Azurite 2CuCO3.Cu(OH)2
The minerals are not pure and contain different types
of other impurities. The impurities associated with 3. Anhydrite CaSO4
minerals are collectively known as gangue or matrix. 4. Argentite Ag2S
The mineral from which the metal can be conveniently
5. Anglesite PbSO4
and profitably extracted, is called an ore.
For example, aluminium occurs in the earth’s crust 6. Bauxite Al2O3 .2H2O
in the form of two minerals, bauxite (Al2O3.2H2O) and 7. Borax Na2B4O7.10H2O
clay (Al2O3.2SiO2.2H2O). Out of these two, aluminium
can be conveniently and profitably extracted from bauxite 8. Chile salt petre NaNO3
. So, bauxite is an ore of aluminium. 9. Cinnabar HgS
Note : Oxygen is the most abundant element in earth’s
10. Calcia CaO
crust.
11. Carnallite KCl.MgCl26H2O
(a) Types of Ores :
12. Calamine ZnCO3
The most common ores of metals are oxides,
13. Cassiterite SnO2
sulphides, carbonates, sulphates, halides, etc. In
general, very unreactive metals (such as gold, silver, 14. Copper pyrites CuFeS2
platinum etc.) occur in elemental form or free state.
(Chalcopyrite)
(i) Metals which are only slightly reactive occur as 15. Copper glance Cu 2S
sulphides (e.g., CuS, PbS etc.).
16. Cuprite Cu2O
(ii)Reactive metals occur as oxides (e.g., MnO2, Al2O3
(Ruby copper)
etc.).
17. Corundum Al2O3
19
19
PAGE # 19
18. Cryolite Na3AlF6 20. Noble metals : Au, Pt, Ag
21. White gold : Pt
19. Zinc blende ZnS
22. Metalloids elements : B, Si, Ge, As, Sb, Te
20. Chalk CaCO3 23. Poorest conductor of current : Pb (metal), S (non-metal)
(marble, Aragonite) 24. Hardest naturally occurring element: Diamond

21. Siderite FeCO3 25. Most abundant gas : N2

26. Amphoteric oxides : ZnO, PbO, Al2O3, SnO,
22. Dolomite CaCO3.MgCO3
BeO, As2O3, Sb2O3
23. Epsom salt MgSO4.7H2O 27. Neutral oxides of non-metals : CO, N2O, NO, H2O
(Epsomite) 28. Dry ice : CO2 (solid)
24. Fluorspar CaF2
25. Gypsum CaSO4.2H2O Some important Alloys
26. Galena PbS
Alloy Compounds
27. Horn silver AgCl
1. Brass : Cu + Zn
(Chlorargyrite)
2. Bronze : Cu + Sn
28. Haematite Fe2O3
3. Bell metal : Cu + Sn
(Red)
4. Duralumin : Al + Cu + Mg + Mn
29. Iron pyrite FeS2
5. German silver : Cu + Zn + Ni
30. Limonite Fe2O3.3H2O
6. Gun metal : Cu + Sn + Zn
(Brown)
7. Magnalium : Al + Mg
31. Magnesite MgCO3
8. Solder : Pb + Sn
32. Malachite CuCO3.Cu(OH)2
9. Type metal : Pb + Sb + Sn
33. Magnetite Fe3O4
34. Pyrolusite MnO2
35. Salt petre (Indian) KNO3
1. Aqua - regia : Conc. HNO3 + Conc. HCl (1 : 3)
Important facts to remember
2. Blue vitriol : CuSO4. 5H2O
1. Lowest electronegativity: Cs
3. Baking powder : NaHCO3
2. Highest electronegativity : F
3. Three most abundant elements : O, Si, Al 4. Bleaching powder : CaOCl2
4. Lowest m.pt. (metal) : Mercury (Hg)
5. Brine : NaCl solution
(m.pt = –38.9ºC)
5. Highest m.pt. (metal) : Tungsten (W) 6. Coinage metals : Cu, Ag and Au
(m.pt) = 3410ºC)
7. Carborundum : SiC
6. Lowest m.pt. and b.pt. (non-metal):He (b.pt -268.9ºC)
7. Smallest atomic size : H 8. Caustic soda : NaOH
8. Largest atomic size : Cs
9. Caustic potash : KOH
9. Total number of gaseous elements:11 (H2, He, N2, F2, Ne,
in periodic table O2Cl2, Ar, Kr, Xe, Rn) 10. Green vitriol : FeSO4.7H2O
10. Total number of liquid elements : 4 (Ga, Br, Cs, Hg) (Fr
11. Glauber salt : Na2SO4.10H2O
and Uub are also liquid)
11. Total number of solid elements : 89 in periodic table 12. Hydrolith : CaH2
12. Element containing no neutron : H1
1 13. Heavy water : D2O
13. Most abundant element on earth : Oxygen
14. Rarest element on earth : Astatine (At) 14. King of chemicals : H2SO4
15. Most abundant metal on earth : Al
15. Lime (or quick : CaO
16. Element having maximum
lime or burnt lime
tendency for catenation : Carbon
17. Non-metal having highest m.pt. b.pt. : Diamond 16. Lime water : Ca(OH)2

18. Liquid silver or quick silver : Hg 17. Laughing gas : N2O

19. Liquid non-metal : Br2

20
20
PAGE # 20
18. Lunar caustic : AgNO3 These steps are briefly discussed below -

19. Milk of lime : Ca(OH)2 in water (a) Crushing and Grinding of Ore :
Most of the ores occur as big rocks in nature. They are
20. Milk of magnesia : Paste of Mg(OH)2 in water
broken into small pieces with the help of crushers.
(Antacid) These pieces are then reduced to fine powder with the
21. Magnesia : MgO help of a ball mill or a stamp mill.

22. Marsh gas : CH4

23. Oil of vitriol : Conc. H2SO4

24. Oleum : H2S2O7

1
25. Plaster of paris : CaSO4. HO
2 2

26. Washing soda : Na2CO3.10H2O

27. Phosgene : COCl2

28. Phosphine : PH3

29. Producer gas : A mixture of CO + N2 + H2 (a) Crushing in a hammer mill

30. Rust : Fe2O3xH2O (B) Pulverisation in a stamp mill

31. Soda-lime : NaOH + CaO Crushing and pulverisation of an ore

32. Soda ash : Na2CO2 (b) Concentration of Ore or Enrichment of

Ore :
33. Slaked lime : Ca(OH)2
The process of removal of unwanted impurities
34. Water gas : CO + H2
(gangue) from the ore is called ore concentration or
35. White vitriol : ZnSO4.7H2O ore enrichment.

(i) Hydraulic washing (washing with water) :

METALLURGY
The process of extracting metals from their ores and
then refining them for use is called metallurgy.
The ores generally contain unwanted impurities such
as sand, stone, earthy particles, limestone, mica etc.,
these are called gangue or matrix.
Principle : This method is based upon the difference
in the densities of the ore particles and the impurities
(gangue).
Ores of iron, tin and lead are very heavy and, therefore,
they are concentrated by this method.

The process of metallurgy depends upon the nature of

the ore, nature of the metal and the types of impurities
present. Therefore, there is not a single method for the
extraction of all metals. However, most of the metals
can be extracted by a general procedure which involves
the following steps.
Various steps involved in metallurgical processes are -

(a) Crushing and grinding of the ore.

A hydraulic classifier
(b) Concentration of the ore or enrichment of the ore.
(ii) Froth floatation process :
(c) Extraction of metal from the concentrated ore. Principle : This method is based on the principle of

(d) Refining or purification of the impure metal. difference in the wetting properties of the ore and
gangue particles with oil and water respectively.
This method is commonly used for sulphide ores.

21
21
PAGE # 21
 (iii) Magnetic separation : For example :
Principle : This method depends upon the difference Calcination
ZnCO3(s) 
in the magnetic properties of the ores and gangue.
  ZnO(s) + CO2(g)
Calamine Zinc oxide Carbon dioxide
This method is used for the concentration of haematite,
an ore of iron. Calcination
FeCO3(s)    
 FeO(s) + CO2(g)
Siderite Iron (II) Carbon

Ore oxide dioxide

(ii) Roasting: It is the process of heating the concentrated
ore strongly in the presence of excess air.
Electromagnet
This process is used for converting sulphide ores to
metal oxide. In this process, the following changes
Nonmagnetic
particles
take place :
Moving belt

Magnetic
• the sulphide ores undergo oxidation to their oxides.
particles • moisture is removed.
Magnetic separation method • volatile impurities are removed.
 Note : For example :
The froth floatation process is commonly used for the
sulphide ores of copper, zinc, lead etc. 2ZnS(s) + 3O2 (g) Roasting
 2ZnO(s) + 2SO2(g)
Zinc Oxygen Zinc oxide Sulphur
EXTRACTION OF METAL FROM sulphide (from air) dioxide
THE CONCENTRATED ORE (Zinc blende)

Metal is extracted from the concentrated ore by the 4FeS2(s) + 11O2(g)    2Fe2O3(s) + 8SO2(g)
Roasting

following steps : Iron Oxygen Ferric Sulphur

(a) Conversion of the concentrated ore into its oxide :
The production of metal from the concentrated ore
mainly involves reduction process. This can be usually
done by two processes known as calcination and
roasting . The method depends upon the nature of the
ore.
(b) Conversion of oxide to metal by reduction process
(a) Conversion of Ore into Metal Oxide :
These are briefly discussed below :
(i) Calcination: It is the process of heating the concentrated
ore in the absence of air.
The calcination process is used for the following
changes :
• to convert carbonate ores into metal oxide.
• to remove water from the hydrated ores.
• to remove volatile impurities from the ore.
pyrites oxide dioxide
 Note :
Calcination is used for hydrated and carbonate ores
and roasting is used for sulphide ores.
(b) Conversion of Metal Oxide into Metal :
The metal oxide formed after calcination or roasting is
converted into metal by reduction. The method used
for reduction of metal oxide depends upon the nature
and chemical reactivity of metal.
The metals can be grouped into the following three
categories on the basis of their reactivity :
• Metals of low reactivity.
• Metals of medium reactivity.
• Metals of high reactivity.
These different categories of metals are extracted by
different techniques. The different steps involved in
separation are as follows :

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PAGE # 22
 (i) Reduction by heating : Metals placed low in the opening at the bottom of the furnace. The molten iron
reactivity series are very less reactive. They can be is allowed to solidify in casts or moulds. It is called Pig
obtained from their oxides by simply heating in air. Iron or Cast Iron.
Roasting
2HgS(s) + 3O2(g)      2HgO(s) + 2SO2(g) The function of adding limestone in the extraction of
Mercuric Oxygen Mercuric Sulphur iron is to remove earthy impurities like sand from the
sulphide oxide dioxide blast furnace by forming fusible slag.
2HgO(s) Heat
  2Hg() + O2(g) Flux is the chemical substance used to remove impu-
Mercuric Mercury metal Oxygen rity from an ore and slag is the chemical substance
oxide formed by the combination of flux with impurity.
(ii) Chemical Reduction (For metals in the middle of (B) Reduction with carbon monoxide : Metals can be
the reactivity series) :
obtained from oxides by reduction with carbon
The metals in the middle of the reactivity series, such monoxide in the furnace.
as iron, zinc, lead, copper etc. are moderately reactive.
Heat
These are usually present as sulphides or carbonates. Fe2O3(s) + 3CO(g)  2Fe(s) + 3CO2(g)
Therefore, before reduction the metal sulphides and Ferric Carbon Iron Carbon
carbonates must be converted to oxides. This is done oxide monoxide dioxide
by roasting and calcination. The oxides of these metals
cannot be reduced by heating alone. Therefore, these (C) Reduction with aluminium : Certain metal oxides
metal oxides are reduced to free metal by using are reduced by aluminium to metals.
chemical agents like carbon, aluminium, sodium or Heat
3MnO2 (s) + 4Al(s)  3Mn() + 2Al2O3 (s)
calcium.
Manganese Aluminium Manganese Aluminium
(A) Reduction with carbon : The oxides of moderately dioxide oxide
reactive metals (occurring in the middle of reactivity Cr2O3 (s) + 2Al (s) Heat
  2Cr() + Al2O3 (s)
series) like zinc, copper, nickel, tin, lead etc. can be
Chromium Aluminium Chromium Aluminium
reduced by using carbon as reducing agent. oxide oxide
Heat
ZnO(s) + C(s)  Zn (s) + CO(g) Heat
Fe2O3 (s) + 2Al (s)   2Fe() + Al2O3 (s)
Zinc Carbon Zinc Carbon
Iron Aluminium Iron Aluminium
oxide (Reducing agent) metal monoxide oxide oxide

Fe2O3(s) + 3C(s) 2Fe(s) + 3CO(g)  Note :

Ferric Carbon Iron Metal Carbon Reduction of metal oxides with aluminium is known
oxide monoxide as aluminothermy or thermite process.

PbO(s) + C(s) Pb(s) + CO(g) (iii) Reduction by electrolysis or electrolytic

Lead oxide Carbon Lead metal Carbon
monoxide
One disadvantage of using carbon as reducing agent
is that small traces of carbon are added to metal as
impurity. Therefore, it contaminates the metals.
 Note :
(i) Coke is very commonly used as a reducing agent
because it is cheap.
(ii) Formation of slag :
Calcium Silicate
The molten slag flows down the furnace. It is lighter
than molten iron. It does not mix with iron. Therefore,
the slag floats on the surface of molten layer of iron in
the blast furnace. It thus protects the freshly prepared
 Note :
iron from oxygen, which otherwise would be converted
into its oxide. It is also drawn off through a separate
reduction: The oxides of active metals (which are high
up in the activity series) are very stable and cannot be
reduced by carbon or aluminium. These metals are
commonly extracted by the electrolysis of their fused
salts using suitable electrodes. This is also called
electrolytic reduction i.e. reduction by electrolysis.
For example, aluminium oxide is very stable and
aluminium cannot be prepared by reduction with
carbon. It is prepared by the electrolysis of molten
alumina (Al2O3).
Heat
Al 3+ + 3e–  Al
Aluminium ion Electrons Aluminium
(From molten (From cathode) (At cathode)
alumina)
It may be noted that during electrolytic reduction of
molten salts, the metals are always obtained at the
cathode (negative electrode).
The process of extraction of metals by electrolysis
process is called electrometallurgy.

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PAGE # 23

PURIFICATION OR REFINING OF METALS
The metal obtained by any of the above methods is
usually impure and is known as crude metal. The
process of purifying the crude metal is called refining.
(a) Liquation :
This is based on the principle that the metal to be
refined is easily fusible (melt easily) but the impurities
do not fuse easily. The impure metal is placed on the
sloping hearth of a furnace and gently heated. The
metal melts and flows down leaving behind the
impurities on the hearth. This method is used for
refining the metals having low melting points, such as
tin, lead, bismuth etc.
(b) Distillation :
This method is used for the purification of volatile
metals (which form vapours readily). Impure metal is
heated and its vapours are separately condensed in a
receiver. The non-volatile impurities are left behind.
This is used for mercury, cadmium and zinc.
(c) Electrolytic Refining :
This is most general and widely used method for the
refining of impure metals. Many metals such as copper,
zinc, tin, nickel, silver, gold etc. are refined electrolytically.
It is based upon the phenomenon of electrolysis. In
this method, the crude metal is cast into thick rods and
are made as anodes, while the thin sheets of pure
metal are made as cathodes. An aqueous solution of
salt of the same metal is used as an electrolyte. On
passing current through the electrolyte, the pure metal
from the anode dissolves into the electrolyte. An
equivalent amount of pure metal from the electrolyte is
deposited on the cathode. The soluble impurities go
in the solution whereas the insoluble impurities settle
down at the bottom of the anode and are known as
anode mud. In this way, the pure metal from anode
goes into electrolyte and from electrolyte it goes to the
cathode.
At anode : Cu Oxidation
  Cu+2 + 2e–
Copper Copper
(from impure anode) ion
At cathode : Cu2+ + 2e– Reduction
   Cu
Copper Copper
ion (deposited at cathode)
 Note :
In electrolytic refining impure metal is made anode
and pure metal is made cathode.
 Note :
Zone refining and Van Arkel method are used for
obtaining metals (Si, Ge etc.) of very high purity for
certain specific applications.
CORROSION OF METALS
Surface of many metals is easily attacked when
exposed to atmosphere. They react with air or water
present in the environment and form undesirable
compounds on their surfaces. These undesirable
compounds are generally oxides.
Thus, corrosion is a process of deterioration of metal
as a result of its reaction with air or water (present in
environment) surrounding it.
(a) Corrosion of Iron :
Iron corrodes readily when exposed to moisture and
gets covered with a brown flaky substance called rust.
This is also called Rusting of Iron. Chemically, the rust
is hydrated iron (III) oxide, Fe2O3.xH2O. Rusting is an
oxidation process in which iron metal is slowly oxidized
by the action of air (in presence of water). Therefore,
rusting of iron takes place under the following
conditions:
• Presence of air (or oxygen)
• Presence of water (moisture)
• More the reactivity of the metal, the more will be the
possibility of the metal getting corroded.
(i) Experiment to show that rusting of iron requires
both air and water -
We take three test tubes and put one clean iron nail in
each of the three test tubes:
(A) In the first test tube containing iron nail, we put
some anhydrous calcium chloride to absorb water (or
moisture) from the damp air present in the test tube
and make it dry.
(B) In the second test tube containing iron nail, we put
boiled water because boiled water does not contain
any dissolved air or oxygen in it. A layer of oil is put over
boiled water in the test tube to prevent the outside air
from mixing with boiled water.
(C) In the third test tube containing an iron nail, we put
unboiled water so that about two-third of the nail is
immersed in water and the rest is above water exposed
to damp air.
After one week, we observe the iron nails kept in all the
three test tubes.
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24
PAGE # 24
(ii) We will obtain the following observations from
the experiment :
(A) No rust is seen on the surface of iron nail kept in
dry air in the first test tube. This tells us that rusting of
iron does not takes place in air alone.
(B) No rust is seen on the surface of iron nail kept in air
free boiled water in the second test tube. This tells us
that rusting of iron does not take place in water alone.
(C) Red brown rust is seen on the surface of iron nail
kept in the presence of both air and water in the third
test tube. This tells us that rusting of iron takes place
in the presence of both air and water together.
(iii) Prevention of rusting :
(A) Corrosion of metals can be prevented by coating
the metal surface with a thin layer of paint, varnish or
grease.
(B) Iron is protected from rusting by coating it with a
thin layer of another metal which is more reactive than
iron. This prevents the loss of electrons from iron
because the active metal loses electrons in preference
to iron. Zinc is commonly used for covering iron surface
of iron. The process of covering iron with zinc is called
galvanization. Iron is also coated with other metals
such as tin known as tin coating.
(C) By alloying : Some metals when alloyed with other
metals become more resistant to corrosion. For
example, when iron is alloyed with chromium and
nickel, it forms stainless steel. This is resistant to
corrosion and does not rust at all.
(D) To decrease rusting of iron, certain antirust
solutions are used. For example, solutions of alkaline
phosphates are used as antirust solutions.
(b) Corrosion of Aluminium :
Due to the formation of a dull layer of aluminium oxide
when exposed to moist air, the aluminium metal loses
its shine very soon after use. This aluminium oxide
layer is very tough and prevents the metal underneath
from further corrosion (because moist air is not able to
pass through this aluminium oxide layer). This means
sometimes corrosion is useful.
(c) Corrosion of Copper :
When a copper object remains in damp air for a
considerable time, then copper reacts slowly with
carbon dioxide and water of air to form a green coating
of basic copper carbonate [CuCO3.Cu(OH)2] on the
surface of the object. Since copper metal is low in the
reactivity series, the corrosion of copper metal is very,
very slow.
(d) Corrosion of Silver :
Silver is a highly unreactive metal, so it does not reacts
with oxygen of air easily. But, air usually contains a little
of sulphur compounds such as hydrogen sulphide gas
(H2S), which reacts slowly with silver to form a black
coating of silver sulphide (Ag2S). Silver ornaments
gradually turn black due to the formation of a thin silver
sulphide layer on their surface and silver is said to be
tarnished.
ALLOY
An alloy is a homogenous mixture of two or more metals
or a metal and a non-metal.
For example, iron is the most widely used metal. But it
is never used in the pure form. This is because iron is
very soft and stretches easily when hot. But when it is
mixed with a small amount of carbon (about 0.5 to
1.5%), it becomes hard and strong. The new form of
iron is called steel.
(a) Objectives of Alloy Making :
Alloys are generally prepared to have certain specific
properties which are not possessed by the constituent
metals. The main objects of alloy-making are:
(i) To increase resistance to corrosion : For example,
stainless steel is prepared which has more resistance
to corr osion than iron.
(ii) To modify chemical reactivity : The chemical
reactivity of sodium is decreased by making an alloy
with mercury which is known as sodium amalgam.
(iii) To increase the hardness : Steel, an alloy of iron
and carbon is harder than iron.
(iv) To increase tensile strength : Magnalium is an
alloy of magnesium and aluminium. It has greater
tensile strength as compared to magnesium and
aluminium.
(v) To produce good casting : Type metal is an alloy of
lead, tin and mercury.
(vi) To lower the melting point : For example, solder is
an alloy of lead and tin (50% Pb and 50% Sn). It has a
low melting point and is used for welding electrical
wires together.
(b) Some Important Alloys :
The approximate composition and uses of some
important alloys are given below:
(i) Steel : Steel is an alloy of iron and carbon containing
0.5 to 1.5% carbon. Steel is very hard, tough and strong.
It is used for making rails, screws, girders, bridges
etc. Steel can also be used for the construction of
buildings, vehicles, ships, etc.
(ii) Alloy Steels : Steel obtained by the addition of some
other elements such as chromium, vanadium, titanium,
molybdenum, manganese, cobalt or nickel to carbon
steel are called Alloy Steels.
(iii) Alloys of Aluminium : The common alloys of
aluminium are:
(A) Duralumin : It is an alloy containing aluminium,
copper and traces of magnesium and manganese. Its
percentage composition is - Al=95%, Cu=4%,
Mg=0.5%, Mn=0.5% It is stronger than pure aluminium.
Since duralumin is light and yet strong, it is used for
making bodies of aircrafts, helicopters, jets and
kitchenwares like pressure cookers etc.
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25
PAGE # 25
 (B) Magnalium : It is an alloy of aluminium and
magnesium having the composition: Al=95%, Mg=5% It
is very light and hard. It is more hard than pure
aluminium. It is used for making light instruments,
balance beams, pressure cookers etc.

(C) Alnico : It is an alloy containing aluminium, iron,

nickel, and cobalt. It is highly magnetic in nature and
can be used for making powerful magnets.

(iv) Alloys of Copper : The important alloys of copper

are Brass and Bronze.

(A) Brass : It is an alloy of copper and zinc having the

composition - Cu=80%, Zn=20%. Brass is more
malleable and more strong than pure copper. It is used
for making cooking utensils, pipes, hardware, nuts,
bolts, screws, springs etc.

(B) Bronze : It is an alloy of copper and tin having the

composition: Cu=90%, Sn=10% Bronze is very tough
and highly resistant to corrosion. It is used for making
utensils, statues, coins, hardware etc.

(C) German Silver : It is an alloy of copper, zinc and nickel

having the composition: Cu=60%, Zn=20%, Ni=20%. It is
used for making silverware, utensils and for
electroplating.

(v) Alloying of Gold : Pure gold is very soft and cannot

be used as such for jewellery. Therefore, it is generally
alloyed with other metals commonly copper or silver to
make it harder and modify its colour. The purity of gold
is expressed as carats. Pure gold is of 24 carat. A 18
carat gold means that it contains 18 parts of gold in 24
parts by weight of alloy. Most of the jewellery is made of
22 carat gold.

AMALGAM

Amalgams are homogenous mixtures of a metal and

mercury. For example, sodium amalgam contains
sodium and mercury.
Different amalgams are prepared according to their
uses. For example,

(i) Sodium amalgam is produced to decrease the

chemical reactivity of sodium metal. It is also used as
a good reducing agent.

(ii) Tin amalgam is used for silvering cheap mirrors.

(iii) The process of amalgamation is used for the

extraction of metals like gold or silver from their native
ores.

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26
PAGE # 26
 STRUCTURE OF ATOM

ELECTRON

Electrons are the fundamental particles of all

substances.

(a) Cathode Rays - Discovery of Electron :

The nature and existence of electron was established

by experiments on conduction of electricity through
gases.
 Note :
In 1859, Julius Plucker started the study of conduction
of electricity through gases at low pressure in a
discharge tube.
(iii) They consist of negatively charged particles. When
the cathode rays pass through an electric field, they
bent towards the positive plate of the electric field.
This indicates that cathode rays are negatively
charged.

A number of interesting things happen when a high

voltage (say, 10,000 V) is applied across the
electrodes of the discharge tube, and the pressure of
the gas inside the tube is lowered.
Thus, some sort of invisible rays travel from the
negative electrode to the positive electrode. Since the
negative electrode is called cathode, these rays were
called cathode rays. The colour of glow depends upon
the nature of the glass used. For soda glass the (iv) Cathode rays can affect the photographic plate.
fluorescence is of yellowish green colour. (v) The nature of cathode rays is independent of the
nature of gas used in discharge tube or material of
(b) Properties of cathode rays : cathode.
(i) Cathode rays travel in a straight line at a high (vi) Cathode rays are deflected in the magnetic field
velocity and generate normally from the surface of also.
the cathode. If an opaque object is placed in the path S
of cathode rays its shadow falls on opposite side of
the cathode. It shows that cathode rays travel in – +
straight lines.
N Deflection of
To vacuum cathode rays
pump Shadow in magnetic field
High
voltage

Cathode
– (vii) If cathode rays are focused on a thin metal foil,
the metal foil gets heated up to incandescence.
Object
(viii) When cathode rays fall on materials having high
High
+ Anode atomic mass, new type of penetrating rays of very
voltage
small wavelength are emitted which are called X -
rays.
(ii) They are a beam of minute material particles having Thus, investigations on cathode rays showed that
definite mass and velocity. When a light paddle wheel these consisted of negatively charged particles.
is placed in the path of the cathode rays, the blades
 Note :
of the paddle wheel begin to rotate. This also proves
that cathode rays have mechanical energy. The negatively charged particles of cathode rays were
called ‘negatrons‘ by Thomson. The name negatron
was changed to ‘electron‘ by Stoney.

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27
PAGE # 27
 (c) Characteristics of electron :
(i) Electrons are sub - atomic particles which
constitute cathode rays.
(ii) In 1897, J.J.Thomson determined the charge to
mass (e/m) ratio of electron by studying the deflections
of cathode rays in electric and magnetic fields. The
value of e/m has been found to be 1.7588 × 108
coulombs/g. The e/m for electrons from different
gases was found to be the same. This indicates that
atoms of all kinds have the same kind of negatively
charged particles. Thus electrons are the common
constituents of all atoms.
 Note :
A cathode ray tube is used to measure the charge to
mass ratio of the electrons.
(iii) Charge on the electron :
The charge (e) on an electron was determined by
Robert Millikan in 1909. Millikan found the charge on
oil drops to be -1.6 × 10-19 C or its multiples. So, the
charge on an electron is to be -1.6 × 10-19 coulombs / unit.
(iv) Mass of an electron :
By Thomson’s experiment e/m = 1.76 × 1011 C/kg
By Millikan’s experiment e = – 1.6 × 10-19 C
1.6  10 19
So mass of electron (m) = 11
1.76  10
= 9.1096 × 10-31 kg
Mass of an electron in amu = 0.000549
(v) Mass of electron in comparison to that of
hydrogen :
Mass of hydrogen = 1.008 amu
= 1.008 × 1.66 × 10-24 g ( since 1 amu = 1.66 × 10-24 g )
= 1.673 × 10-24 g
Mass of hydrogen atom 1.6 73  10 24
= = 1837
Mass of electron 9.1096  10 – 28
 Note :
1 particles given by hydrogen represent fundamental
Thus, the mass of an electron is times the
1837
mass of a hydrogen atom.
PROTON
(a) Anode Rays (Canal rays) :
It has been established that electron is a negatively
charged particle and present in all the atoms. As an
atom is electrically neutral, there must be some
positively charged particles present in the atom to
neutralize the negative charges of the electrons. It
has been confirmed by experiments. Scientist
Goldstein in 1886 discovered the existence of a new
type of rays in the discharge tube. He carried out the
experiment in discharge tube containing perforated
cathode. It was observed that when high potential
difference was applied between the electrodes, not
only cathode rays were produced but also a new type
of rays were produced simultaneously from anode,
moving from anode towards cathode and passed
through the holes of cathode.
Anode rays
Fluorescence
Anode
Perforated cathode
High voltage source
 Note :
Anode rays are called canal rays because they pass
through the canals or holes of the cathode. These
rays are also called anode rays since they originate
from the anode side. Anode rays are produced from a
positively charged electrode, therefore these were
named positive rays by J.J.Thomson.
(b) Characteristics of Anode Rays :
(i) Anode rays travel in straight lines.
(ii) These rays rotate the light paddle wheel placed in
their path. This shows that anode rays are made up
of material particles.
(iii) Anode rays are deflected by magnetic or electric
field. In the electric field they get deflected towards
negatively charged plate. This indicates that these
rays are positively charged.
(iv) The anode rays affect photographic plate.
(v) The nature of anode rays depend upon the type of
gas used.
(c) Discovery of Proton :
J.J.Thomson in 1906, found that particles obtained
in the discharge tube containing hydrogen have e/m
value as 9.579 × 10 4 coulomb/g. This was the
maximum value of e/m observed for any positive
particle. It was thus assumed that the positive
particle of positive charge. This particle was named
proton.
e
 H+ (Proton)
H 
 Note :
The name ‘proton’ was given by Rutherford in 1911.
(d) Characteristics of Proton :
(i) A proton is a sub - atomic particle which constitute
anode rays produced when hydrogen is taken in the
discharge tube.
(ii) Charge of a proton :
Proton is a positively charged particle. The charge on
a proton is equal but opposite to that on an electron.
Thus, the charge on a proton is +1.602 × 10 –19
coulombs/ unit.
(iii) Mass of a proton :
The mass of a proton is equal to the mass of a
hydrogen atom.
m p = 1.0073 amu
= 1.673 × 10-24 g
= 1.673 × 10-27 kg
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28
PAGE # 28
 (iv) Mass of proton relative to mass of electron :
Mass of a proton 1.673 10 g 24
= = 1837
Mass of an electron 9.110  28 g
Thus, the mass of a proton is 1837 times larger than
the mass of an electron.
(v) Charge to mass ratio for a proton : The e/m of
particles constituting the anode rays is different for
different gases.
e 1.602  10 19
of proton = = 9.579 × 104 C/g
m 1.673  10  24
THOMSON MODEL OF AN ATOM
J.J. Thomson (1898) tried to explain the structure of
atom. He proposed that an atom consists of a sphere
of positive electricity in which electrons are embedded
like plum in pudding or seeds evenly distributed in
red spongy mass in case of a watermelon. The radius
of the sphere is of the order 10–8 cm.
(a) Merits :
(i) Thomson’s model could explain the electrical
neutrality of an atom.
(ii) Thomson’s model could explain why only
negatively charged particles are emitted when a metal
is heated as he considered the positive charge to be
immovable by assuming it to be spread over the total
volume of the atom.
(iii) He could explain the formation of ions and ionic
compounds.
(b) Demerits :
This model could not satisfy the facts proposed by
Rutherford through his alpha particle scattering
experiment and hence was discarded.
RUTHERFORD MODEL OF AN ATOM
(a) Rutherford’s Alpha Particle Scattering
Experiment (1909) :
Ernest Rutherford and his coworkers performed
numerous experiments in which - particles emitted
from a radioactive element such as polonium were
allowed to strike thin sheets of metals such as gold or
platinum.
(i) A beam of -particles (He2+) was obtained by placing
polonium in a lead box and letting the alpha particles
come out of a pinhole in the lead box. This beam of -
rays was directed against a thin gold foil (0.0004 cm).
A circular screen coated with zinc sulphide was placed
on the other side of the foil.
(ii) About 99.0% of the -particles passed undeflected
through the gold foil and caused illumination of zinc
sulphide screen.
(iii) Very few -particles underwent small and large
deflections after passing through the gold foil.
(iv) A very few (about 1 in 20,000) were deflected
backward on their path at an angle of 180º.
Rutherford was able to explain these observations
as follows:
(i) Since a large number of -particles pass through
the atom undeflected, hence, there must be large
empty space within the atom.
(ii) As some of the -particles got deflected, therefore,
there must be something massive and positively
charged structure present in the atom.
(iii) The number of -particles which get deflected is
very small, therefore, the whole positive charge in the
atom is concentrated in a very small space.
(iv) Some of the -particles retracted their path i.e.
came almost straight back towards the sources as a
result of their direct collisions with the heavy mass.
 Note :
 - particles are made up of two protons and two
neutrons and are Helium (He) nuclei.
(b) Rutherford Nuclear Model of Atom (1911) :
Rutherford proposed a new picture of the structure of
atom.
Main features of this model are as follows-
(i) The atom of an element consists of a small
positively charged “Nucleus” which is situated at the
centre of the atom and which carries almost the entire
mass of the atom.
(ii) The electrons are distributed in the empty space
of the atom around the nucleus in different concentric
circular paths (orbits).
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29
PAGE # 29
 (iii) The number of electrons in the orbits is equal to
the number of positive charges (protons) in the
nucleus.
(iv) Volume of nucleus is very small as compared to
the volume of atom.
(v) Negatively charged electrons revolves around the
nucleus in circular path. The force of attraction
between the nucleus and the electron is equal to
centrifugal force of the moving electron.
Force of attraction towards nucleus = Centrifugal force

(v) Most of the space in the atom is empty. (vi) Out of infinite number of possible circular orbits
around the nucleus, the electron can revolve only in
 Note : those orbits whose angular momentum is an integral
Rutherford’s model is also called “Planetary model’. h h
multiple of , i.e. mvr = n
(c) Defects in Rutherford’s Model : 2 2
where :
(i) Rutherford did not specify the number of electrons m = mass of the electron
in each orbit. v = velocity of electron
(ii) According to electromagnetic theory, if a charged r = radius of the orbit, and
particle (like electron) is accelerated around another n =1,2,3 ---- number of the orbit.
charged particle (like protons in nucleus) then there The angular momentum can have values such as
would be continuous loss of energy due to continuous h 2h 3h
emission of radiations. This loss of energy would , , , but it cannot have a fractional value.
2 2 2
slow down the speed of electron and eventually the Thus, the angular momentum is quantized. The
electron would fall into the nucleus. But such a specified circular orbits (quantized) are called
collapse does not occur. Rutherford’s model could stationary orbits.
not explain this theory.
(iii) If the electron loses energy continuously, the RADII OF VARIOUS ORBITS
observed spectrum should be continuous but the
actual observed spectrum consists of well defined n2
lines of definite frequencies. Hence the loss of energy rn = 0.529 × Å (for hydrogen like species).
Z
is not continuous in an atom.

BOHR MODEL OF AN ATOM (1913)

21.79  10 –19
E=– Z2 J per atom
To overcome the objections to Rutherford’s model n2
and to explain the hydrogen spectrum, Bohr proposed 13.6
= – Z2 eV per atom (1 J = 6.2419 × 1018 eV)
a quantum mechanical model of the atom. n2
The important postulates on which Bohr’s model is 313.6
based are the following - =– Z2 kcal/mol (1 eV = 23.06 kcal/mol)
n2
(i) The atom has a nucleus where all the protons are
1312
present. The size of the nucleus is very small. It is =– Z2 kJ/mol
present at the centre of the atom. n2
(ii) Each stationary orbit is associated with a definite
VELOCITY OF AN ELECTRON IN BOHR'S ORBIT
amount of energy. The greater is distance of the orbit
from the nucleus, more shall be the energy associated
Z
with it. These orbits are also called energy levels and v= × 2.188 × 108 cm/sec
are numbered as 1, 2, 3, 4 ------or K, L, M, N ---- from n
nucleus to outwards.
NEUTRONS
(iii) By the time, the electron remains in any one of the
allowed stationary orbits, it does not lose energy. In 1932, James Chadwick bombarded the element
Such a state is called ground or normal state. beryllium with  - particles. He observed the emission
(iv) The emission or absorption of energy in the form of a radiation with the following properties -
of radiation can only occur when an electron jumps (i) The radiation was highly penetrating.
from one stationary orbit to another.
E = Efinal - Einitial = h (ii) The radiation remained unaffected in the electric
Where h is Planck’s constant (h = 6.625 × 10–34 Js) or magnetic field i.e. the radiation was neutral.
Energy is absorbed when the electron jumps from (iii) The particle constituting the radiation had the same
lower to higher orbit and is emitted when it moves mass as that of the proton. These neutral particles
from higher to lower orbit. were called neutrons.
When the electron moves from inner to outer orbit by
9 4 12 1
absorbing definite amount of energy, the new state of 4 Be + 2 He  6C
+ 0n

the electron is said to be excited state. (Beryllium) (á  particle) (Carbon) (Neutron)

30
30
PAGE # 30
 COMPARATIVE STUDY OF ELECTRON,
PROTON AND NEUTRON

Property Electron Proton Neutron

Symbol e p n

Nature Negatively charged Positively charged Neutral

Relative
-1 +1 0
charge
Absolute
–1.602 × 10-19 C +1.602 × 10 -19 C 0
charge
Relative 1
1 1
mass 18 37
Absolute
9.109 × 10 -28 g 1.6725 × 10 -24 g 1.6748 × 10 -24 g
mass

(ii) Each energy level is further divided into subshells

ATOMIC STRUCTURE
designated as s,p,d,f .
An atom consists of two parts - 1st shell (K) contains 1 subshell (s)
2nd shell (L) contains 2 subshells (s,p)
(a) Nucleus :
3rd shell (M) contains 3 subshells (s,p,d)
Nucleus is situated at the centre of an atom. All the 4th shell (N) contains 4 subshells (s,p,d,f).
protons & neutrons are situated in the nucleus,
therefore, the entire mass of an atom is almost (iii) Shells are divided into sub-shells, sub shells
concentrated in the nucleus. The overall charge of further contain orbitals.
nucleus is positive due to the presence of positively (A) An orbital may be defined as
charged protons (neutrons have no charge). The
protons & neutrons are collectively called nucleons. “A region in the three - dimensional space around the
nucleus where the probability of finding the electron is
 Note : maximum.”
The radius of the nucleus of an atom is of the order of
(B)The maximum capacity of each orbital is that of two
10–13 cm and its density is of the order of 1014 g/cm3.
electrons.
(b) Extra Nuclear Region :
 Note :
In extra nuclear part or in the region outside the
nucleus, electrons are present which revolve around The maximum number of orbitals that can be present
the nucleus in orbits of fixed energies. These orbits in a shell is given by the formula n2.
are called energy levels. These energy levels are (C) Types of orbitals :
designated as K, L, M, N & so on.
(1) s-orbitals : The s-subshell contains just one orbital
(i) The maximum number of electrons that can be which is non-directional & spherically symmetrical in
accommodated in a shell is given by the formula shape. The maximum number of electrons which can
2n2.(n = number of shells i.e. 1,2,3 -------)
be accommodated in s-orbital is 2.
Shell n 2n2 max. no.of electrons
2 Y
K 1 2(1) 2 Z
2
L 2 2(2) 8 X
2
M 3 2(3) 18
2
N 4 2(4) 32 s- orbital

(2) p - orbitals : The p-subshell contains three

orbitals which have dumb-bell shape and a directional
u cl e K L M N Electron shells
us
N

First energy level

Second energy level
+ 2 8 18 32 Maximum number of
character. The three p-orbitals are designated as px,
Third energy level electrons which can be py & pz which are oriented in the perpendicular axis
Fourth energy level accommodated in the
various shells (x,y,z). The maximum number of electrons which can
be accommodated in the p subshell is 6 (2 electrons
in each of three orbitals).

31
31
PAGE # 31
 z z z z z

x x x
y y y y x y x y
px
py pz dx – y
2 2

dz 2

(3) d - orbitals : The d-subshells contains 5 orbitals which (4) f-orbitals : The f-subshell contains 7 orbitals which
are double dumb-bell in shape. These orbitals are
are complex in structure.The f-subshell can
designated as dxz, dxy, dyz, d x 2  y 2 , d 2 . The d-subshell
z accommodate a maximum of 14 electrons.
can accommodate a maximum of 10 electrons.
z z z  Note :

Letters s, p, d & f have originated from the words

sharp, principle, diffused & fundamental respectively.
x y x y x y
dxy dxz dyz

(iv) Differences between orbit and orbital :

S.No. Orbit Orbital

It is a region in three dimensional space
It is well defined circular path around the
1 around the nucleus where the probability
nucleus in which the electron revolves.
of finding electron is maximum.
s,p and d-orbitals are spherical, dumb-bell
2 It is circular in shape.
and double dumb-bell in shape respectively.
It represents that an electron can move around
It represents that an electron moves
3 nucleus along three dimensional space (x,y and z
around the nucleus in one plane.
axis).

It represents that position as well as It represents that position as well as momentum

momentum of an electron can be known of an electron cannot be known simultaneously
4
simultaneously with certainty. It is against with certainty. It is in accordance with Heisenberg's
Heisenberg's uncertainty principle. uncertainty principle.

The maximum number of electrons in an

2 The maximum number of electrons in an orbital is
5 orbit is 2n where 'n' is the number of the two.
orbit.

 Note :  Note :
If the outermost shell has its full quota of 8 electrons
Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle - “It is impossible
it is said to be an octet. If the first shell has its full
to determine exactly both the position and momentum
quota of 2 electrons, it is said to be duplet.
(or velocity) of an electron or of any other moving The pictorial representation of Bohr’s model of
particle at the same time.” hydrogen, helium, carbon, sodium and calcium atoms
having 1, 2, 6, 11 and 20 electrons respectively are
ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION OF AN ATOM shown in the figure where the centre of the circle
represents the nucleus.
(i) The arrangement of the electrons in different shells
is known as the electronic configuration of the
element.
(ii) Each of the orbits can accommodate a fixed
number of electrons. Maximum number of electrons
in an orbit is equal to 2n2, where ‘n’ is the number of
the orbit.
(iii) Electrons are filled in the increasing order of
energy, i.e. K < L < M < N ......
(iv) In the outermost shell of any atom, the maximum
possible number of electrons is 8, except in the first
shell which can have at the most 2 electrons.

32
32
PAGE # 32
 (a) Significance of Electronic Configuration : (b) Pauli’s Exclusion Principle :
The electronic configuration of an atom plays an According to Pauli’s exclusion principle “an orbital
important role in determining the chemical behaviour cannot accommodate more than two electrons. If
there are two electrons in an orbital they must have
of an element. opposite spins.”
(i) When the atoms of an element have completely (c) Hund’s Rule of Maximum Multiplicity :
filled outermost shell, the element will be chemically
According to this rule :
unreactive. For example the noble gases (He, Ne, Ar, “no electron pairing takes place in the orbitals with
Kr, Xe and Rn) have completely filled outermost shell equivalent energy until each orbital in the given
i.e. contains 8 electrons (except helium which has subshell contains one electron & the spins of all
two valence electrons) in outermost shell. unpaired electrons are parallel i.e. in the same
(ii) When the atom of an element has less than 8 direction”.
electrons in its outermost shell, the element will be Electronic configuration of some elements -
reactive. Atom ic Sym bol of Nam e of Electronic
num ber the elem ent the elem ent configuration
1 H Hydrogen 1s 1
ORDER OF FILLING OF ELECTRONS IN SUBSHELLS 2 He Helium 1s
2

2 1
3 Li Lithium 1s , 2s
There are different rules governing the filling of 4 Be Beryllium
2
1s , 2s
2

subshells. They are described briefly as follows - 5 B Boron

2 2
1s , 2s , 2p
1

6 C Carbon 1s 2, 2s 2 , 2p 2
(a) Aufbau Principle : 7 N Nitrogen 1s 2, 2s 2 , 2p 3
8 O Oxygen 1s 2, 2s 2 , 2p 4
The filling of subshells in atoms is based on their 9 F Fluorine 1s 2, 2s 2 , 2p 5
10 Ne Neon 1s 2, 2s 2 , 2p 6
energies. Electrons first occupy the subshell with 2 2 6 1
11 Na Sodium 1s , 2s , 2p ,3s
lowest energy and progressively fill the other 12 Mg Magnes ium
2 2
1s , 2s , 2p ,3s
6 2

2 2 6 2 1
subshells in increasing order of energy. 13 Al Alum inium 1s , 2s , 2p ,3s ,3p
2 2 6 2 2
14 Si Silicon 1s , 2s , 2p ,3s ,3p
 Note :
15 P Phos phorus 1s 2, 2s 2 , 2p 6 ,3s 2 ,3p 3
The subshell with lowest energy is filled first. 16 S Sulphur 1s 2, 2s 2 , 2p 6 ,3s 2 ,3p 4
17 Cl Chlorine 1s 2, 2s 2 , 2p 6 ,3s 2 ,3p 5
The order of energy of different subshells of an atom is -
18 Ar Argon 1s 2, 2s 2 , 2p 6 ,3s 2 ,3p 6
1s < 2s < 2p < 3s < 3p < 4s < 3d < 4p < 5s < 4d < 5p 19 K Potas s ium 1s 2, 2s 2 , 2p 6 ,3s 2 ,3p 6, , 4s 1
2 2 6 2 6, 2
20 Ca Calcium 1s , 2s , 2p ,3s ,3p , 4s
< 6s < 4f < 5d < 6p < 7s < 5f < 6d < 7p. 21 Sc Scandium
2 2 6 2
1s , 2s , 2p ,3s ,3p 3d , 4s
6, 1 2

2 2 6 2 6, 2 2
22 Ti Titanium 1s , 2s , 2p ,3s ,3p 3d , 4s
The number present before the subshells like 1,2,3 2 2 6 2 6, 3 2
23 V Vanadium 1s , 2s , 2p ,3s ,3p 3d , 4s
------ represents the number of the shell i.e. n. 24 Cr C hrom ium 1s 2, 2s 2 , 2p 6 ,3s 2 ,3p 6, 3d 5, 4s 1
The order of filling of different sub-shells is 25 Mn Manganes e 1s 2, 2s 2 , 2p 6 ,3s 2 ,3p 6, 3d 5, 4s 2
26 Fe Iron 1s 2, 2s 2 , 2p 6 ,3s 2 ,3p 6, 3d 6, 4s 2
represented diagrammatically as follows :
27 Co Cobalt 1s 2, 2s 2 , 2p 6 ,3s 2 ,3p 6, 3d 7, 4s 2
28 Ni Nickel 1s 2, 2s 2 , 2p 6 ,3s 2 ,3p 6, 3d 8, 4s 2
2 2 6 2 6, 10 1
29 Cu Copper 1s , 2s , 2p ,3s ,3p 3d , 4s
1s 30 Zn Zinc
2 2 6 2
1s , 2s , 2p ,3s ,3p 3d , 4s
6, 10 2

2s 2p VALENCE SHELL AND VALENCE ELECTRONS

The outermost shell of an atom is known as the

3s 3p 3d
valence shell. The electrons present in the valence
shell of an atom are known as valence electrons.
4s 4p 4d 4f
The remainder of the atom i.e. the nucleus and other
electrons is called the core of the atom. Electrons
5s 5p 5d 5f present in the core of an atom are known as core
electrons.
e.g.
6s 6p 6d The electronic configuration of the sodium (Na) atom
is :-
7s Na (11) K L M
7p
2 8 1
Thus, valence electron in Na atom = 1 and core
electrons in Na atom = 2 + 8 = 10

33
33
PAGE # 33
 (a) Significance of Valence Electrons :
(i) The valence electrons of an atom are responsible
for, and take part in, chemical changes. Valency of an element is the combining capacity of
(ii) The valence electrons in an atom determine the the atoms of the element with atoms of the same or
mode of chemical combination. different elements. The combining capacity of the
(iii) The valence electrons determine the combining atoms was explained in terms of their tendency to
capacity or the valency of the atom. The number of attain a fully filled outermost shell (stable octet or
electrons in an atom that actually take part in bond duplet)
formation is known as the valency of the element.
e.g. In the carbon atom, there are four valence  Note :
electrons. The number of electrons gained, lost or contributed
C(6) K L
2 4 for sharing by an atom of the element gives us directly
the combining capacity or valency of the element.
The carbon atom is capable of forming four bonds.
Hence, the valency of carbon is four. Valency of an element is determined by the number
(iv) If the outermost shell of an atom is completely of valence electrons in an atom of the element.
filled, its valency is zero. The valency of an element = number of valence
The outermost shells of helium, neon, argon, krypton electrons (if the number of valence electrons is1 to 4)
etc. are completely filled. Hence the valency of these
The valency of an element = 8– number of valence
elements is zero.
electrons. (if the number of valence electrons is 4 to 8)
(v) Elements having the same number of valence
electrons in their atoms possess similar chemical
properties.
e.g. All alkali metals have one valence electron in
their atoms. Hence, their chemical properties are The isotopes of an element have the same atomic
similar. number but different atomic masses.
(vi) Elements having different number of valence  Note :
electrons in their atoms show different chemical
properties. The term isotope was given by Margaret Todd.
e.g. Let us consider the electronic configuration of The difference in their masses is due to the presence
alkali metals and halogens. Alkali metal atoms have of different number of neutrons.
single valence electron whereas halogen atoms have
seven valence electrons. It is observed that the e.g. Isotopes of hydrogen :
chemical properties of the alkali metals are entirely
different from those of halogens. Hydrogen Pr ot iu m De u t e r iu m T r itium
(vii) The number of the valence shell in the atom of an 1H 3
isotopes 2
element determines the period number of the 1 1H 1H
element in the periodic table. 1. Atomic number 1 1 1
e.g. Sodium (Na) :
Valence shell number = 3. 2. No. of protons 1 1 1
period number = 3 3. No. of electrons 1 1 1
Calcium (Ca)
Valence shell number = 4 4. Mass number 1 2 3
period number = 4 5. No. of neutrons 0 1 2
(viii) Elements with 1, 2 or 3 valence electrons in their
atoms are metals.
Isotopes of oxygen :
 Note :
Hydrogen and helium are exceptions to this rule.
Hydrogen and helium atoms have 1 and 2 valence
16 17 18
8O
electrons respectively, but they are non-metals. 8O 8O
Oxygen isotopes

(ix) Elements with 4, 5, 6, 7 or 8 valence electrons in 1. Atomic number 8 8 8

their atoms are non metals.
2. No. of protons 8 8 8
e.g. carbon (C), nitrogen (N) and oxygen (O) are non
metals. 3. No. of electrons 8 8 8

6
C = 2,4 4. Mass number 16 17 18
7
N = 2,5 5. No. of neutrons 8 9 10
8
O = 2,6
 Note :
Whether the atom while combining with other atoms  Note :
can form ionic or covalent bonds is determined by All the isotopes of an element have identical chemical
the number of valence electrons present in the atom. properties.

34
34
PAGE # 34
 (a) Characteristics of Isotopes :
(i) The physical properties of the isotopes of an
element are different. This is due to the fact that
isotopes have different numbers of neutrons in their The atoms of different elements with different atomic
nuclei. Hence mass, density and other physical numbers, which have same mass number are called
properties of the isotopes of an element are different. isobars.
(ii) All the isotopes of an element contain the same 14 14
e.g. 6C and 7N are isobars.
number of electrons. So, they have the same
electronic configuration with the same number of 40 40
18 Ar and 20 Ca are isobars.
valence electrons. Since the chemical properties of
an element are determined by the number of valence
Isobars 40 40
electrons in its atom, all the isotopes of an element 18 Ar 20 Ca
have identical chemical properties.
1. Atomic number 18 20
(b) Reason for the Fractional Atomic 2. Mass number 40 40
Masses of Elements : 3. No. of electrons 18 20

The atomic masses of many elements are in fraction 4. No. of protons 18 20

and not whole number. The fractional atomic 5. No. of neutrons 22 20
masses of elements are due to the existence of 6. Electronic configuration 2, 8, 8 2, 8, 8, 2
their isotopes having different masses.
e.g.  Note
The atomic mass of chlorine is 35.5 u. Chlorine has
Isobars contain different number of electrons,
35 37
two isotopes 17 Cl and 17 Cl with abundance of 75% protons and neutrons.
and 25% respectively. Thus the average mass of a
chlorine atom will be 75% of 35 and 25% of 37,
which is 35.5 u.
So, Average atomic mass of chlorine Isotones may be defined as the atoms of different
75 25 elements containing same number of neutrons.
= 35 × + 37 ×
100 100
13 14
2625 925 e.g. 6C and 7N (Both contain 7 neutrons)
= +
100 100 30 31 32
= 26.25 + 9.25 14 Si , 15 P and 16 S (All three contain 16 neutrons)
= 35.5 u.
Thus, the average atomic mass of chlorine is 35.5
u.
(c) Applications of Radioactive Isotopes: Ion or atom or molecule which have the same number
(i) In agriculture : Certain elements such as boron, of electrons are called as isoelectronic species.
cobalt, copper, manganese, zinc and molybdenum
– 2
are necessary in very minute quantities for plant Cl 18 Ar

e.g. 17 19 K 20 Ca
nutrition. By radioactive isotopes we can identify the
presence and requirement of these element in the No. of electrons 18 18 18 18
nutrition of plants.
(ii) In industry : Isotopes are used for coating on the
QUANTUM NUMBERS
arm of clock to see in dark. To identify the cracks in To describe the position and energy of electron in an
metal casting. atom, four numbers are required, which are known
(iii) In medicine :Thyroid, bone diseases, brain as quantum numbers.
tumors and cancer are controlled or destroyed with Four quantum numbers are :
24 (a) Principal quantum number
the help of radioactive isotope 11 Na, 131 32
53 É, 15P etc.
(b) Azimuthal quantum number
(iv) Determination of the mechanism of chemical (c) Magnetic quantum number
reaction by replacing an atom or molecule by its (d) Spin quantum number
isotopes.
(a) Principal Quantum Number :
(v) In carbon dating : W ill and Libby (1960)
developed the technique of radiocarbon to (i) It is denoted by ‘n’.
determine the age of plant, fossil and archeological (ii) It represents the name, size and energy of the
sample. orbit or shell to which the electron belongs.
 Note : (iii) Higher is the value of ‘n’ , greater is the distance
Isotopes (Like Uranium-238) are used in Nuclear of the shell from the nucleus.
reactor to produce energy and power. r1 < r2 < r3 < r4 < r5 < ----

35
35
PAGE # 35
 (iv) Higher is the value of ‘n’, greater is the magnitude (viii) Maximum no. of electrons present in a subshell
of energy. = 2 (2 +1)
E1 < E2 < E3 < E4 < E5 ----
Subshell Max. electrons
(v) Maximum number of electrons in a shell is given s ( = 0) 2 (2 × 0 +1) = 2
by 2n2. p ( = 1) 2 (2 × 1 +1) = 6
Shell Max. number of electrons
d ( = 2) 2 (2 × 2 +1) = 10
First (n =1) 2 × 12 = 2
Second (n = 2) 2 × 22 = 8 f ( = 3) 2 (2 × 3 +1) = 14
Third ( n = 3) 2 × 32 = 18  Note :
Fourth ( n = 4) 2 × 42 = 32
Azimuthal quantum number was given by
(vi) Angular momentum can also be calculated using Sommerfeld.
principal quantum number.
(c) Magnetic quantum number :
nh
mvr 
2ð (i) It is denoted by ‘m’.
(vii) Value of n is from 1 to  (ii) It represents the orbitals present in sub-shell. An
(viii) Every shell is given a specific alphabetic name. orbital can be defined as :
First shell (n = 1) is known as K shell. “Region in the three - dimensional space around the
Second shell (n = 2) is known as L shell. nucleus where the probability of finding an electron is
Third shell (n = 3) is known as M shell and so on. maximum”.
 Note :
Principal quantum number was given by Bohr. (iii) For a given value of , values of m are from –
through 0 to +.
(b) Azimuthal Quantum Number :
 m
(i) It is represented by ‘’. 0 0
 Note : 1 –1, 0, +1
2 –2, –1, 0, +1, +2
Azimuthal quantum number is also called angular
3 –3, –2, –1, 0, +1, +2, +3
quantum number, subsidiary quantum number or
secondary quantum number. (iv) Maximum number of orbitals in a sub-shell
(ii) For a given value of n values of  is 0 to n – 1 = (2+1)
Value of n Values of  Sub shell Orbitals
1 (1st shell) 0 s ( = 0) (2 × 0 +1) = 1
2 (2nd shell) 0,1 p ( = 1) (2 × 1 +1) = 3
3 (3rd shell) 0,1,2
d ( = 2) (2 × 2 +1) = 5
4 (4th shell) 0,1,2,3
(iii) It represents the sub-shell present in shell. f ( = 3) (2 × 3 +1) = 7
 = 0 represents s sub shell. (v) Maximum number of orbitals in a shell = n2
 = 1 represents p sub shell. Shell Max. orbitals
 = 2 represents d sub shell. First (n = 1) 12 = 1
 = 3 represents f sub shell. Second (n = 2) 22 = 4
 Note : Third (n = 3) 32 = 9
s,p,d and f signify sharp, principal, diffused and Fourth (n = 4) 42 = 16
fundamental respectively. (vi) It represents the orientation of orbital in three
(iv) Number of sub-shell in a shell = Principal quantum dimensional space.
number of shell. When l = 0, m = 0, i.e. one value implies that ‘s’
(v) Maximum value of  is always less than the value subshell has only one space orientation and hence,
of n. So 1p, 1f, 2d, 2f, 3f subshells are not possible. it can be arranged in space only in one way along x,y
s will start from 1s or z axis. Thus, ‘s’ orbital has a symmetrical spherical
p will start from 2p shape.
d will start from 3d Y
Z
f will start from 4f
(vi) Relative energy of various sub-shell in a shell are X
as follows -
s<p<d<f s- orbital
(vii) Subshells having equal values but with different n When  = 1,’m’ has three values –1, 0, +1 . It implies
values have similar shapes but their sizes increases that ‘p’ subshell of any energy shell has three space
as the value of ‘n’ increases. 2s-subshell is greater in orientations, i.e. three orbitals. Each p-orbital has
size than 1s- subshell. Similarly 2p, 3p, 4p subshells dumb-bell shape. Each one is disposed
have similar shapes but their sizes increase in symmetrically along one of the three axis. p orbitals
order 2p < 3p < 4p.
have directional character.
36
36
PAGE # 36
 orbital Pz Px Py
m 0 ±1 ±1
z z z

x x x

y y y y
px py pz

When  = 2 ‘m’ has five values –2, –1, 0, +1, +2. It

implies that d-subshell of any energy shell has five
orientations, i.e. five orbitals. All the five orbitals are
not identical in shape. Four of the d-orbitals
dxy, dyz, dzx, d contain four lobes while fifth orbital
x 2 – y2
dz2 consists of only two lobes.
z z z

x y x y x y

dxy dxz dyz

z z

x y x y
2
dx – y 2

dz 2

There are seven f-orbitals designated as

f f , fx ( x2 – y2 ), fy ( x2 – y2 ), fz( x2 –y2 ), and fxyz .
f
yz2 , xz2 , z3
Their shapes are complicated ones.
(vii) Characteristics of orbitals :
(A) All orbitals of a subshell possess same energy
i.e., they are degenerate.
(B) All orbitals of the same shell differ in the direction
of their space orientation.
(C) Total number of orbitals in a shell is equal to n2.
 Note :
Magnetic quantum number was given by Zeeman.
(d) Spin Quantum Number :
(i) It is denoted by ‘s’.
(ii) It represents the direction of spin of electron around
its own axis.
(iii) Clockwise spin is represented by +1/2 or  and
anticlockwise by –1/2 or .
(iv) Maximum two electrons with opposite spin can
be placed in an orbital.

(v) Electrons with same spin are called spin parallel

and those with opposite spin are called spin paired.
 Note :
Spin quantum number was given by Gold Schmidt.

37
37
PAGE # 37
 PERIODIC TABLE

DEFINITION (ii) Limitations of Dobereiner’s Classification :

(A) Atomic mass of the three elements of some triads

A periodic table may be defined as the table giving
are almost same.
the arrangement of all the known elements according
e.g. Fe, Co, Ni
to their properties so that elements with similar
properties fall within the same vertical column and (B) It was restricted to few elements, therefore
elements with dissimilar properties are separated. discarded.

(c) Newlands’ Law of Octaves :

EARLY ATTEMPTS TO CLASSIFY ELEMENTS
(a) Metals and Non-Metals :
Among the earlier classifications, Lavoisier classified
the elements as metals and non-metals. However,
this classification proved to be inadequate. In 1803,
John Dalton published a table of relative atomic
weights (now called atomic masses). This formed
an important basis of classification of elements.
(b) Dobereiner’s Triads:
In 1866, an English chemist, John Newlands,
proposed a new system of grouping elements with
similar properties. He tried to correlate the properties
of elements with their atomic masses. He arranged
the then known elements in the order of increasing
atomic masses. He started with the element having
the lowest atomic mass (hydrogen) and ended at
thorium which was the 56th element. He observed
that every eighth element had properties similar to
that of the first.

(i) In 1817, J.W. Dobereiner a German Chemist gave Newlands called this relation as a law of octaves
due to the similarity with the musical scale.
this arrangement of elements.
(A) He arranged elements with similar properties in (i) Newlands’ arrangement of elements into ‘Octaves’:
the groups of three called triads. Notes of
Music sa (do) re (re) ga (mi) ma (fa) pa (so) dha (la) ni (ti)
(B) According to Dobereiner the atomic mass of the
H Li Be B C N O
central element was merely the arithmetic mean of
F Na Mg Al Si P S
atomic masses of the other two elements. Elements Cl K Ca Cr Ti Mn Fe
e.g. Co and Ni Cu Zn Y In As Se
Br Rb Sr Ce and La Zr – –
Elements of
the triad Symbol Atomic mass (ii) Limitations of law of octaves : The law of octaves
has the following limitations :
Lithium Li 7
(A) The law of octaves was found to be applicable
Sodium Na 23
only upto calcium. It was not applicable to elements
Potassium K 39 of higher atomic masses.

Atomic mass of sodium = (B) Position of hydrogen along with fluorine and
Atomi c mass of lithium  Atomic mass of potassium chlorine was not justified on the basis of chemical
2 properties.
7  39 (C) Newlands placed two elements in the same
= = 23
2 slot to fit elements in the table. He also placed some
Some examples of triads are given in the table : unlike elements under the same slot. For example,
cobalt and nickel are placed in the same slot and in
the column of fluorine, chlorine and bromine. But
cobalt and nickel have properties quite different from
fluorine, chlorine and bromine. Similarly, iron which
has resemblances with cobalt and nickel in its
properties has been placed far away from these
elements.

Thus, it was realized that Newlands’ law of octaves

worked well only with lighter elements. Therefore,
this classification was rejected.
38
38
PAGE # 38
 (i) Mendeleev’s periodic law : This law states that
(d) Lother Meyer’s Classification :
the physical and chemical properties of the elements
In 1869, Lother Meyer studied the physical properties
are the periodic function of their atomic masses.
like volume, melting point, boiling point etc. of different
elements. This means that when the elements are arranged in
He plotted a graph between atomic masses against the order of their increasing atomic masses, the
their respective atomic volumes for a number of elements with similar properties recur at regular
elements. He found the following observations -
intervals. Such orderly recurring properties in a cyclic
(i) Elements with similar properties occupied
fashion are said to be occurring periodically. This is
similar positions on the curve.
responsible for the name periodic law or periodic
(ii) Alkali metals (Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs etc.) having larger table.
atomic volumes occupied the crests .
(ii) Merits of Mendeleev’s periodic table : Mendeleev’s
(iii) Transition elements (V, Fe, Co, Cu etc.) occupied
periodic table was one of the greatest achievements in
the troughs.
the development of chemistry. Some of the important
(iv) The halogens (F, Cl, Br,  etc.) occupied the contributions of his periodic table are given below :
ascending portions of the curve before the inert
gases. (A) Systematic study of elements : He arranged
known elements in order of their increasing atomic
(v) Alkaline earth metals (Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba etc.)
masses considering the fact that elements with
occupied positions at about the mid points of
similar properties should fall in the same vertical
descending portions of the curve.
column.

(B) Correction of atomic masses : The Mendeleev’s

70 Cs
• periodic table could predict errors in the atomic
60 masses of elements based on their positions in the
Atomic Volume (cm per mole of atoms)

Rb
50
• table. Therefore atomic masses of certain elements
K • were corrected. For example, atomic mass of
40 • • • Sr • Ba beryllium was corrected from 13.5 to 9. Similarly, with
Li
30 • Na
Br • I• the help of this table, atomic masses of indium, gold,
3

• Ca
20
F
•• Cl • • • • platinum etc. were corrected.
• •Be •• • •• VFe Co ••••Zn •
Mg
•
10
• ••• •••• ••••Cu •• •• • • (C) Mendeleev predicted the properties of those
•• ••• •••• ••
•
0
missing elements from the known properties of the
20 40 60 80 100 120 140 other elements in the same group. Eka-boron, eka -
Atomic mass aluminium and eka -silicon names were given for
Change of Atomic Volume with Atomic Mass. scandium , gallium and germanium (not discovered
at the time of Mendeleev ).
Drawback of Lother Meyer’s classification : This
was a hypothetical classification and it was difficult to (D) Position of noble gases : Noble gases like helium
remember the positions of different elements. (He), neon (Ne) and argon (Ar) were mentioned in
(e) Mendeleev’s Periodic Table : many studies. However, these gases were discovered
very late because they are very inert and are present
The major credit for a systematic classification of
in extremely low concentrations. One of the
elements goes to Mendeleev. He tried to group the
elements on the basis of some fundamental property achievements of Mendeleev’s periodic table was that
of the atoms. When Mendeleev started his work, only when these gases were discovered, they could be
63 elements were known. He examined the placed in a new group without disturbing the existing
relationship between atomic masses of the elements order.
and their physical and chemical properties.
(iii) Limitations of Mendeleev’s periodic table :
Among chemical properties, Mendeleev concentrated
mainly on the compound formed by elements with Inspite of many advantages, the Mendeleev’s periodic
oxygen and hydrogen. He selected these two table has certain defects also. Some of these are
elements because these are very reactive and formed given below -
compound with most of the elements known at that
(A) Position of hydrogen : Position of hydrogen in
time. The formulae of the compounds formed with
the periodic table is uncertain. It has been placed in
these elements (i.e. oxides and hydrides) were
regarded as one of the basic properties of an element 1A group with alkali metals, but certain properties of
for its classification. hydrogen resemble those of halogens. So, it may be
placed in the group of halogens as well.

39
39
PAGE # 39
 (B) Position of isotopes : Isotopes are the atoms of
the same element having different atomic masses.
Therefore, according to Mendeleev’s classification
these should be placed at different places depending
upon their atomic masses. For example, hydrogen
isotopes with atomic masses 1, 2 and 3 should be
placed at three places. However, isotopes have not
been given separate places in the periodic table
because of their similar properties.
(C) Anomalous pairs of elements : In certain pairs
of elements, the increasing order of atomic masses
was not obeyed. In these, Mendeleev placed
elements according to similarities in their properties
and not in increasing order of their atomic masses.
 For example :
• The atomic mass of argon is 39.9 and that of
potassium 39.1. But argon is placed before
potassium in the periodic table. 51
Z r = 90
• The positions of cobalt and nickel are not in proper
order. Cobalt (at. mass = 58.9) is placed before nickel
( at. mass = 58.7).
• Tellurium (at. mass = 127.6) is placed before
iodine (at. mass = 126.9).
(D) Some similar elements are separated, in the
periodic table. For example copper (Cu) and mercury
(Hg). On the other hand, some dissimilar elements
have been placed together in the same group.
e.g. Copper (Cu), silver (Ag) and gold (Au) have been
placed in group 1 along with alkali metals. Similarly,
manganese (Mn) is placed in the group of halogens.
(E) Cause of periodicity : Mendeleev could not
explain the cause of periodicity among the elements.
40
40
PAGE # 40
 (e) Long Form of Periodic Table :
MODERN PERIODIC TABLE
(i) The long form of periodic table is based upon
Modern periodic law. Long form of periodic table is
(a) Introduction : the contribution of Range, Werner, Bohr and Bury.
In 1913, an English physicist, Henry Moseley showed (ii) This table is also referred to as Bohr’s table since
that the physical and chemical properties of the atoms it follows Bohr’s scheme of the arrangement of
of the elements are determined by their atomic elements into four types based on electronic
configuration of elements.
number & not by their atomic masses. Consequently,
the periodic law was modified. (iii) Long form of periodic table consists of horizontal
rows (periods) and vertical columns (groups).
(b) Modern Periodic Law (Moseley’s
(f) Description of Periods :
Periodic Law) :
(i) A horizontal row of periodic table is called a period.
“Physical and chemical properties of an element are (ii) There are seven periods numbered as 1, 2 , 3 , 4,
the periodic function of its atomic number’’.The 5, 6 and 7.
atomic number gives us the number of protons in
(iii ) Each period consists of a series of elements
the nucleus of an atom and this number increases having the same outermost shell.
by one in going from one element to the next.
(iv) Each period starts with an alkali metal having
Elements, when arranged in the order of increasing
outermost shell electronic configuration ns1.
atomic number Z, lead us to the classification known
as the Modern Periodic Table. Prediction of properties (v) Each period ends with a noble gas with outermost
shell electronic configuration ns2 np6 except helium
of elements could be made with more precision when
having outermost electronic configuration 1s2.
elements were arranged on the basis of increasing
(vi) Each period starts with the filling of a new energy
atomic number.
level.
(c) Periodicity : (A) 1st period : This period is called very short period
because this period contains only 2 elements H and
The repetition of elements with similar properties after
He.
certain regular intervals, when the elements are
arranged in order of increasing atomic number, is (B) 2nd and 3rd periods : These periods are called
short periods because these periods contain 8
called periodicity.
elements. 2nd period starts from 3Li to 10Ne and 3rd
(d) Cause of Periodicity : period starts from 11Na to 18Ar.
(C) 4th and 5th periods : These periods are called
The periodic repetition of the properties of the
long periods because these periods contain 18
elements is due to the recurrence of similar valence elements. 4th period starts from 19K to 36Kr and 5th
shell (outermost shell) electronic configuration after period starts from 37Rb to 54Xe.
certain regular intervals. (D) 6th period : This period is called very long period.
e.g. Alkali metals have similar electronic configuration This period contains 32 elements. Out of the 32
elements 14 elements belong to Lanthanoid series
(ns1) and therefore, have similar properties.
(58Ce to 71Lu). 6th period starts from 55Cs to 86Rn.
Alkali Metals (E) 7th period : This period is called as incomplete
Electronic period. It contains 25 elements. Out of the 25
Atomic Symbol
number
Element configuration elements 14 elements belong to Actinoid series (90Th
to 103Lr). 7th period starts from 87Fr to 111Rg.
3 Lithium Li 2,1
 Note : Modern periodic table consists of seven periods
and eighteen groups.
11 Sodium Na 2,8,1
No. of
Periods Called as
Elements
19 Potassium K 2,8,8,1 st
(1 ) n = 1 2 Very short period
nd
(2 ) n = 2 8 Short period
37 Rubidium Rb 2,8,18,8,1 rd
(3 ) n = 3 8 Short period
(4 th ) n = 4 18 Long period
55 Caesium Cs 2,8,18,18,8,1
(5 th) n = 5 18 Long period
th
(6 ) n = 6 32 Very long period
87 Francium Fr 2,8,18,32,18,8,1 th
(7 ) n = 7 25 Incomplete period

41
41
PAGE # 41
 Different elements belonging to a particular period
have different electronic configurations and have
different number of valence electrons. That is why
elements belonging to a particular period have
different properties.
(g) Description of Groups :
(i) A vertical column of elements in the periodic table
is called a group.
(ii) There are eighteen groups numbered as 1, 2 , 3,
4, 5, ------------ 13, 14, 15, 16,17,18.
(iii) A group consists of a series of elements having
similar valence shell electronic configuration and
hence exhibit similar properties.
e.g. Li, Na, K belong to the same group and have 1
electron in their valence shell.
(iv) The group 18 is also known as zero group because
the valency of the elements of this group is zero.
 Note : The elements of 18th or zero group are called
noble gases.
(v) The elements present in groups 1,2,13 to 17 are
called normal or representative elements.
(vi) Elements of group 1 and 2 are called alkali metals
and alkaline earth metals respectively.
(vii) Elements present in group 17 are called
halogens.
 Note : Elements present in a period have different
properties, while elements present in a group have
similar properties.
 Note : Modern periodic table is based on atomic
number, not on atomic mass.
(h) Merits of Modern Periodic Table :
(i) Anomalous pairs : The original periodic law based
on atomic masses is violated in case of four pairs of
elements in order to give them positions on the basis
of properties. The elements having higher atomic
masses have been assigned position before the
elements having lower atomic masses at four places
as shown below -
(a) (b) (c) (d)
Ar K Co Ni Te I Th Pa
At. Mass 40 39 60 59 128 127 232 231
At. No. 18 19 27 28 52 53 90 91
The discrepancy disappears, if the elements are
arranged in order of increasing atomic numbers.
(ii) Position of isotopes : Isotopes are atoms of the
same element having different atomic masses, but
same atomic number. All the isotopes of an element
will be given different positions, if atomic mass is
taken as a basis. This shall disturb the symmetry of
the table. In modern table, one position is fixed for
one atomic number and since all the isotopes of an
element have the same atomic number, these are
assigned only one position.
(iii) Elements with similar properties were placed
together and elements with dissimilar properties were
separated in modern periodic table.
(iv) Cause of periodicity : Modern periodic table
explains the cause of periodicity among the elements.
(i) Demerits of Modern Periodic Table :
Following are the demerits of modern periodic table -
(i) Position of hydrogen : Position of hydrogen was
uncertain in the periodic table.
(ii) Position of lanthanides and actinides : The
positions of lanthanides and actinides were also
uncertain in the periodic table.
CLASSIFICATION OF THE ELEMENTS
It is based on the type of subshells which receives
the differentiating electron (i.e. last electron).
(a) s- Block Elements :
W hen last electron enters the s- orbital of the
outermost (nth) shell, the elements of this class are
called s- block elements.
Characteristics :
(i) Group 1 & 2 elements constitute the s - block.
(ii) General electronic configuration is ns1–2 .
(iii) s - block elements lie on the extreme left of the
periodic table.
(iv) This block includes metals only, except H.
 Note : The total number of elements in s-block is 13
(including hydrogen).
(b) p-Block Elements :
When differentiating electron enters the p - orbital of
the nth orbit, elements of this class are called p - block
elements.
 Characteristics :
(i) Elements of group 13 to 18 constitute the p - block.
(ii) General electronic configuration is ns2np1-6 .
(iii) p - block elements lie on the extreme right of the
periodic table.
(iv) This block includes some metals, all non-metals
and metalloids.
 Note : The total number of elements in p-block is 31.
42
42
PAGE # 42
 (c) d - Block Elements:
When differentiating electron enters the (n–1)d orbital,
then elements of this class are called d - block
elements.
 Characteristics :
(i) Elements of group 3 to 12 constitute the d - block.
(ii) General electronic configuration is (n – 1)d1–10 ns0- 2.
(iii) d - block elements lie in the centre of the
periodictable.
(iv) All the d - block elements are metals and most of
them form coloured complexes or ions.
 Note : The total number of elements in d-block is 39.
(d) f - block elements :
When last electron enters into f - orbital of (n – 2)th
shell, elements of this class are called f - block
elements.
Division of the periodic table into various blocks :
Different Types of Elements :
(i) Noble gases : The elements belonging to group
18 are called noble gases or aerogenous. They are
also known as inert gases because their outermost
orbitals are completely filled. Helium (He) is an
exception. It has only two electrons which are present
in s-orbital.
(ii) Representative elements : Elements in which
atoms have all shells complete except outermost shell
which is incomplete. Except 18th group, all s - block
and p - block elements are collectively called normal
or representative elements.
(iii) Transition elements : Those elements which
have partially filled d - orbitals in neutral state or in
any stable oxidation state are called transition
elements.
 Characteristics :
(i) All f - block elements belong to 3rd group.
(ii) General electronic configuration is (n – 2)f 1 – 14
(n– 1)d0-1 ns2.
(iii) f-block elements are present in two separate
rows below the periodic table.
(iv) All f-block elements are metals only.
The elements of f- block have been classified into
two series :
(A) Lanthanides : 14 elements present after element
lanthanum (57La) are called lanthanides.1 st inner
transition series of metals or 4f - series, contains 14
elements i.e. 58Ce to 71Lu .
(B) Actinides : 14 elements present after element
actinium (89Ac) are called actinides. 2nd inner transition
series of metals or 5f- series, also contains 14 elements
i.e. 90Th to 103Lr.
 Note : The total number of elements in f-block is 28.
 Note : Zn, Cd and Hg are d-block elements , but not
transition elements, because they do not contain
partially filled d-orbitals.
(iv) Inner transition elements :- They contain three
incomplete outermost shell and were also referred
to as rare earth elements, since their oxides were
rare in earlier days.
(v) Diagonal relationship : Some elements of 2nd
and 3 rd period show diagonal relationship among
them. They represent the same properties of two
periods. This relation is known as diagonal relation.
(vi) Transuranium elements : The elements with
atomic number greater than 92 (Z > 92) are known as
transuranium elements.
43
43
PAGE # 43
 PERIODIC TABLE OF THE ELEMENTS
Relative atomic mass

s–Block Elements Group IUPAC

p–Block Elements
13 IIIA
Atomic number 5 10.811
Group Symbol B
1 IA Boron 18 VIIIA
1 1.0079 2 4.0026
Element name
Period 1 H He
Hydrogen 2 IIA 13 IIIA 14 IVA 15 VA 16 VIA 17 VIIA Helium
3 6.941 4 9.0122 5 10.811 6 12.011 7 14.007 8 15.999 9 18.998 10 20.180
Transition Metals (d –Block Elements)
2 Li Be B C N O F Ne
Lithium Beryllium Boron Carbon Nitrogen Oxygen Fluorine Neon
11 22.990 12 24.305 13 26.982 14 28.086 15 30.974 16 32.065 17 35.453 18 39.948
3 Na Mg VIIIB Al Si P S Cl Ar
Sodium Magnesium 3 IIIB 4 IVB 5 VB 6 VIB 7 VIIB 8 9 10 11 IB 12 IIB Aluminium Silicon Phosphorus Sulphur Chlorine Argon
19 39.098 20 40.078 21 44.956 22 47.867 23 50.942 24 51.996 25 54.938 26 55.845 27 58.933 28 58.963 29 63.546 30 65.39 31 69.723 32 72.64 33 74.922 34 78.96 35 79.904 36 83.80
4 K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
Potassium Calcium Scandium Titanium Vanadium Chromium Manganese Iron Cobalt Nickel Copper Zinc Gallium Germanium Arsenic Selenium Bromine Krypton
37 85.468 38 87.62 39 88.906 40 91.224 41 92.906 42 95.94 43 (98) 44 101.07 45 102.91 46 106.42 47 107.87 48 112.41 49 114.82 50 118.71 51 121.76 52 127.60 53 126.90 54 131.29
5 Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
Rubidium Strontium Yttrium Zirconium Niobium Molybdenum Technetium Ruthenium Rhodium Palladium Silver Cadmium Indium Tin Antimony Tellurium Iodine Xenon
55 132.91 56 137.33 57 138.91 72 178.49 73 180.95 74 183.84 75 186.21 76 190.23 77 192.22 78 195.08 79 196.97 80 200.59 81 204.38 82 207.2 83 208.98 84 (209) 85 (210) 86 (222)
6 Cs Ba La Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Ti Pb Bi Po At Rn
Caesium Barium Lanthanum Hafnium Tantalum Tungsten Rhenium Osmium Iridium Platinum Gold Mercury Thallium Lead Bismuth Polonium Astatine Radon
87 (223) 88 (226) 89 (227) 104 (261) 105 (262) 106 (266) 107 (264) 108 (277) 109 (268) 110 (281) 111 (272)
7 Fr Ra Ac Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg
Francium Radium Actinium Rutherfordium Dubnium Seaborgium Bohrium Hassium Meitnerium Darmstadtium Roentgenium

Inner - Transition Metals (f-Block Elements)

58 140.12 59 140.91 60 144.24 61 (145) 62 150.36 63 151.96 64 157.25 65 158.93 66 162.50 67 164.93 68 197.26 69 168.93 70 173.04 71 174.97
LANTHANOIDES Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu
Cerium Praseodymium Neodymium Promethium Samarium Europium Gadolinium Terbium Dysprosium Holmium Erbium Thulium Ytterbium Lutetium

90 232.04 91 231.04 92 238.03 93 (237) 94 (244) 95 (243) 96 (247) 97 (247) 98 (251) 99 (252) 100 (257) 101 (258) 102 (259) 103 (262)
ACTINOIDES Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Md No Lr
Th Pa U Np Fm
Thorium Protactinium Uranium Neptunium Plutonium Americium Curium Berkelium Californium Einsteinium Fermium Mendelevium Nobelium Lawrencium

PAGE # 44
44
44
 (iv) Variation of atomic radii in a period : As we move
PERIODICITY IN PROPERTIES
from left to right across a period, there is a regular
(a) Atomic Radius : decrease in atomic radii of the representative
(i) Covalent radius : It may be defined as one - half of
elements. This is due to the fact that number of energy
the distance between the centres of the nuclei of two
similar atoms bonded by a single covalent bond. shells remains the same in a period, but nuclear
X X charge increases gradually as the atomic number
increases. This increases the force of attraction
A B towards nucleus which brings contraction in size.
This can also be explained on the basis of effective
nuclear charge which increases gradually in a period
1
2 AB = rcovalent i.e. electron cloud is attracted more strongly towards
(of element X) nucleus as the effective nuclear charge becomes
e.g. The internuclear distance between two hydrogen
more and more as we move in a period. The increased
atoms in H 2 molecule is 74 pm. Therefore, the
covalent radius of hydrogen atom is 37 pm. force of attraction brings contraction in size.
(v) Variation of atomic radii in a group : Atomic radii
 Note : Covalent radius is generally used for
non - metals. in a group increase as the atomic number increases.

(ii) Vander Waal’s radius : It may be defined as half The increase in size is due to extra energy shells
of the internuclear distance between two adjacent which outweigh the effect of increased nuclear charge.
atoms of the same element belonging to two nearest The following table illustrates the periodicity in atomic
neighbouring molecules of the same substance.
radii (covalent radii) of representative elements. The
X X X X radii given in the table are in angstrom (Å).
Periodicity in atomic radii (covalent radii)
E H
Period/
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Group
H
1
1 EH = r 0.32
vander Waals
2
 Characteristics :
2 Li Be B C N O F
(A) Covalent radius of the elements is shorter than 1.23 0.89 0.80 0.77 0.75 0.73 0.72
its Vander Waal’s radius.
3 Na Mg Al Si P S Cl

Increases
(B) The formation of covalent bond involves
1.54 1.36 1.20 1.17 1.10 1.04 0.99
overlapping of atomic orbitals, as a result of this, the
internuclear distance between the covalently bonded
4 K Ca Ga Ge As Se Br
atoms is less than the internuclear distance between
2.03 1.74 1.26 1.22 1.20 1.16 1.14
the non bonded atoms.
e.g. Vander Waals radius of helium is 1.20 Å 5 Rb Sr In Sn Sb Te I
2.16 1.91 1.44 1.41 1.40 1.36 1.33
(iii) Metallic radius (Crystal radius) : Metallic radius
may be defined as half of the internuclear distance Cs Ba Tl Pb Bi Po
6
between two adjacent atoms in a metallic lattice. 2.35 1.98 1.48 1.47 1.46 1.46
X X
Decreases
C D Atoms of zero group elements do not form chemical
bonds among themselves. Hence for them Vander
Waals radii are considered.

1 Element He Ne Ar Kr Xe
CD = rcrystal
2
(of element X)
Vander Waals
The metallic radius of an atom is always larger 1.20 1.60 1.91 2.00 2.20
• radii (in Aº )
than its covalent radius.
The sudden increase in atomic radii in comparison
 Note : The order of different radius is - r Vander Waals > rMetallic to the halogens (the elements of 7th group) in case
> rCovalent of inert gases, is due to the fact that, Vander Waals
radii are considered which always possess higher
values than covalent radii. 45 45
PAGE # 45
 The decrease in the size of transition elements is
small since the differentiating electrons enter into
inner ‘d’ levels. The additional electrons into (n–1)d
levels effectively screen much of increased nuclear
charge on the outer ns electrons and therefore, size
remains almost constant.
However, in vertical columns of transition elements,
there is an increase in size from first member to
second member as expected, but from second
member to third member, there is very small change
in size and sometimes sizes are same. This is due
to Lanthanide contraction (in the lanthanide
elements differentiating electrons enter into 4f-levels).
Since these electrons do not effectively screen the
valence electrons from the increased nuclear charge,
the size gradually decreases. This decrease is termed
lanthanide contraction.
Conclusions
(i) The alkali metals which are present at the extreme
left of the periodic table have the largest size in a
period.
Conclusions
(i) The radius of cation (positive ion) is always smaller
than that of the parent atom.
(ii) The radius of anion (negative ion) is always larger
than that of the parent atom.
(iii) The ionic radii in a particular group increase in
moving from top to bottom.
(iv) In a set of species having the same number of
electrons (isoelectronic), the size decreases as the
charge on the nucleus increases.
(v) The size of the cations of the same element
decreases with the increase of positive charge.
(b) Ionisation Energy (IE) :
Ionisation Energy (IE) of an element is defined as the
amount of energy required to remove an electron from
an isolated gaseous atom of that element resulting
in the formation of a positive ion.

(ii) The halogens which are present at the extreme Characteristics :

right of the periodic table have the smallest size. (A) The energy required to remove the outermost
(iii) The size of the atoms of inert gases are, however, electron from an atom is called first ionisation energy
larger than those of preceding halogens because in
(IE)1.
inert gases van der Waals' radii are taken into
consideration. After removal of one electron, the atom changes into
monovalent positive ion.
(iv) In a group of transition elements, there is an
increase in size from first member to second member M(g) + IE1  M+(g) + e–
as expected but from second member to third (B) The minimum amount of energy required to
member, there is very small change in size and remove an electron from monovalent positive ion of
sometimes sizes are same. This is due to Lanthanide the element is known as second ionisation energy
contraction.
(IE)2.
• Ionic radius : It is the distance between the nucleus M+(g) + IE2  M2+(g) + e–
and outermost shell of an ion or it is the distance
between the nucleus and the point where the nucleus (C) The first, second etc. ionisation energies are
exerts its influence on the electron cloud. collectively known as successive ionisation energies.
M2+(g) + IE3  M3+(g) + e–
(a) The radius of the cation is always smaller than
the atomic radius of its parent atom. This is due to In general (IE)1 < (IE)2 < (IE)3 so on, because, as the
the fact that nuclear charge in the case of a cation is number of electrons decreases, the attraction
acting on a lesser number of electrons and pulls them between the nucleus and the remaining electrons
closer. increases considerably and hence subsequent
(b) The radius of the anion is always larger than the ionisation energies increase.
atomic radius of its parent atom. In an anion as
(D) Units : Ionisation energy is expressed either in
electron or electrons are added to the neutral atom,
the nuclear charge acts on more electrons so that terms of electron volts per atom (eV/atom) or Kilojoules
each electron is held less tightly and thereby the per mole of atoms (KJ mol – 1) or K cal mol – 1.
electron cloud expands. 1 eV/atom = 96.49 KJ/mol = 23.06 Kcal/mol = 1.602 × 10–19
Comparative sizes of atoms and their cations J/atom
Atomic radii Corresponding Factors influencing ionisation energy :
Atom (crystal, Å) cations Ionic radii (Å)
+ (A) Size of the atom : Ionisation energy decreases with
Li 1.52 Li 0.59
+ increase in atomic size. As the distance between the
Na 1.86 Na 0.99
+ outermost electrons and the nucleus increases, the force
K 2.31 K 1.33
2+
of attraction between the valence shell electrons and the
Mg 1.60 Mg 0.65 nucleus decreases. As a result, outermost electrons are
2+
Ba 2.22 Ba 1.35 held less firmly and lesser amount of energy is required
3+
Al 1.43 Al 0.50 to knock them out.
2+
Pb 1.75 Pb 1.32 For example, ionisation energy decreases in a group
from top to bottom with increase in atomic size.
46
46
PAGE # 46
 (B) Nuclear charge : The ionisation energy
increases with increase in the nuclear charge. This
is due to the fact that with increase in the nuclear
charge, the electrons of the outermost shell are more
firmly held by the nucleus and thus greater amount of
energy is required to pull out an electron from the atom.
For example, ionisation energy increases as we move
from left to right along a period due to increase in nuclear
charge.
(C) Shielding effect : The electrons in the inner shells
act as a screen or shield between the nucleus and
the electrons in the outermost shell. This is called
shielding effect or screening effect. Larger the number
of electrons in the inner shells, greater is the
screening effect and smaller the force of attraction
and thus ionisation energy decreases.
These electrons This electron does
shield the outer not feel the full inward pull
electrons from the of the positive charge of
nucleus the nucleus
(D) Penetration effect of the electrons : The
ionisation energy increases as the penetration effect
of the electrons increases. It is a well known fact that
the electrons of the s-orbital have the maximum
probability of being found near the nucleus and this
probability goes on decreasing in case of p, d and f
orbitals of the same energy level.
Greater the penetration effect of electrons more firmly
the electrons will be held by the nucleus and thus
higher will be the ionisation energy of the atom.
For example, ionisation energy of aluminium is
comparatively less than magnesium as outermost
electron is to be removed from p-orbital (having less
penetration effect) in aluminium, whereas in
magnesium it will be removed from s-orbital (having
larger penetration effect) of the same energy level.
 Note : With in the same energy level,the penetration
effect decreases in the order s > p > d > f
(E) Electronic Configuration : If an atom has exactly
half-filled or completely filled orbitals, then such an
arrangement has extra stability.The removal of an
electron from such an atom requires more energy
than expected. For example,
E1 of Be > E1 of B
1s 2 , 2s 2
  
Be (Z = 4) Completely filled
orbital (more stable)
1s 2 , 2s 2 , 2 p1
B (Z = 5)

Partially filled

orbital (less stable )
As noble gases have completely filled electronic
configurations, they have highest ionisation energies
in their respective periods.
Variation of ionisation energy in a period :
In general, the value of ionisation energy increases
with increase in atomic number across a period. This
can be explained on the basis of the fact that on
moving across the period from left to right-
(A) nuclear charge increases regularly.
(B) addition of electrons occurs in the same shell.
(C) atomic size decreases.
Variation of ionisation energy in a group :
In general, the value of ionisation energy decreases
while moving from top to bottom in a group.This is
because -
(A) effective nuclear charge decreases regularly.
(B) addition of electrons occurs in a new shell.
(C) atomic size increases.
Conclusions :
(i) In each period, alkali metals show lowest first
ionisation enthalpy. Caesium has the minimum value.
(ii) In each period, noble gases show highest first
ionisation enthalpy. Helium has the maximum value
of first jonisation enthalpy.
(iii) The representative elements show a large range
of values of first ionisation enthalpies, metals having
low while non-metals have high values.
(iv) Generally. ionisation enthalpies of transition
metals increase slowly as we move from left to right
in a period. The f-block elements also show only a
small variation in the values of first ionisation
enthalpies.
(c) Electron Affinity (EA) :
Electron affinity is defined as the energy released in
the process of adding an electron to a neutral atom in
the gaseous state to form a negative ion.
X(g) + e–  X–(g) + Energy (E.A.)
Cl(g) + e–  Cl– (g) + 349 KJ/mol
The electron affinity of chlorine is 349 KJ/mol.
The addition of second electron to an anion is
opposed by electrostatic repulsion and hence the
energy has to be supplied for the addition of second
electron.
O(g) + e–  O– (g) + Energy (EA -)
O–(g) + e–  O2– (g) – Energy (EA-)
(EA -) is exothermic whereas, (EA-) is endothermic.
(i) Units : Kilo joules per mole (KJ/mol) of atoms or
electron volts per atom (eV/atom).
47
47
PAGE # 47
(ii) Factors affecting electron affinity:
(A) Nuclear charge : Greater the magnitude of
nuclear charge greater will be the attraction for the
incoming electron and as a result, larger will be the
value of electron affinity.
Electron affinity  Nuclear charge.
(B) Atomic size : Larger the size of an atom is, more
will be the distance between the nucleus and the
incoming electron and smaller will be the value of
electron affinity.
 1 
 E.A.   of the atoms of oxygen and fluorine. As a result, there
 Atomic size 
(C) Electronic configuration : Stable the electronic
configuration of an atom lesser will be its tendency to
accept the electron and lower will be the value of its
electron affinity.
(iii) Variation of electron affinity in a period : On
moving across the period the atomic size decreases
and nuclear charge increases. Both these factors
result into greater attraction for the incoming electron,
therefore electron affinity in general increases in a
period from left to right.
(iv) Variation of electron affinity in a group : On
moving down a group, the atomic size as well as
nuclear charge increase, but the effect of increase in
atomic size is much more pronounced than that of
nuclear charge and thus, the incoming electron feels
less attraction consequently, electron affinity
decreases on going down the group.
(v) Some irregularities observed in general trend:
(A) Halogens have the highest electron affinities in
their respective periods. This is due to the small size
and high effective nuclear charge of halogens.
Halogens have seven electrons in their valence shell.
By accepting one more electron they can attain stable
electronic configuration of the nearest noble gas. Thus
they have maximum tendency to accept an additional
electron.
(B) Due to stable electronic configuration of noble
gases electron affinities are zero.
(C) Be, Mg, N and P also have exceptionally low
values of electron affinities due to their stable
electronic configurations.
2
Be = 1s , 2s 2 2 2
N = 1s , 2s , 2p3
Mg = 1s2, 2s2 , 2p6, 3s2 P = 1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s2, 3p3
 Conclusion
(i) The electron gain enthalpies, in general, become
less negative in going down from top to bottom in a
group. This is due to increase in size on moving down
a group. This factor is predominant in comparison to
other factor, i.e., increase in nuclear charge.
Na K Rb Cs
–1
–53 –48 –47 –46 KJ mol
Cl Br I At
–349 –325 –295 – 270KJ mol–1
(ii) The electron gain enthalpies of oxygen and fluorine,
the members of the second period, have less
negative values than the elements sulphur and
chlorine of the third period. This is due to small size
is a strong inter-electronic repulsion when extra
electron is added to these atoms, i.e., electron density
is high and the addition of electron is not easy. Thus,
the electron gain enthalpies of third period elements,
sulphur and chlorine, have more negative values than
corresponding elements oxygen and fluorine.
O –141 kJ mol
–1
F –328 kJ mol–1
S –200 kJ mol–1 Cl –349 kJ mol–1
Similar trend is observed in nitrogen & phosphorous
N +31 kJ mol–1
P – 74 kJ mol–1
(iii) In general, electron gain enthalpy becomes more
and more negative from left to right in a period. This
is due to decrease in size and increase in nuclear
charge as the atomic number increases in a period.
Both these factors favour the addition of an extra
electron due to higher force of attraction by the nucleus
for the incoming electron.
(iv) Electron gain enthalpies of some of the members
of alkaline earth metals, noble gases and nitrogen
are positive.
This is because they have stable configurations.
Alkaline earth metals have stable configurations due
to completely filled ns orbital while nitrogen has extra
stability due to half filled p-orbitals (1s2, 2s2, 2p3) i.e.,
symmetrical configuration. These atoms resist the
addition of extra electron as they do not want to disturb
their stability.
Noble gases have ns2np6 configuration, i.e., no place
for incoming electron. In case the extra electron is to
be accommodated, it will occupy its position on a
new principal shell, i.e., it will be weakly attracted
towards nucleus. Such anion will be extremely
unstable. Helium has also stable 1s2 configuration
and cannot accommodate the incoming electron.
(v) Halogens have highest negative electron gain
enthalpies.
Following two factors are responsible for this:
(a) Small atomic size and high nuclear charge of
halogens in a period.
(b) Halogens have the general electronic
configuration of ns2 np5, i.e., one electron less than
stable noble gas (ns2 np6) configuration.
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48
PAGE # 48
 Thus, halogens have very strong tendency to accept
an additional electron and their electron gain
enthalpies are, therefore, high.
• Importance of Electron Gain Enthalpy : Certain
properties of the elements can be predicted on the
basis of values of electron gain enthalpies.
(i) The elements having high negative values of
electron gain enthalpy are capable of accepting
electron easily. They form anions and thus form ionic
(electrovalent) compounds. These elements are
electronegative in nature.
(ii) The elements having high negative electron gain
enthalpies act as strong oxidising agents, for example,
F, CI, Br, O, S, etc.
On the basis of the general trend of ionisation
enthalpy and electron gain enthalpy, the following
properties can be predicted:
(i) Metallic nature decreases in a period while non-
metallic nature increases. Metallic nature increases
in a group while non-metallic nature decreases. The
arrow () represents a group and () represents a
period.
Metallic
Metallic Decreases
(Electro + ve)
Increases
Non-metallic
(d) Electronegativity :
Electronegativity is a measure of the tendency of an
element to attract electrons towards itself in a
covalently bonded molecule .
(i) Factors influencing electronegativity :
(A) The magnitude of electronegativity of an element
depends upon its ionisation potential & electron
affinity. Higher ionisation potential & electron affinity
values indicate higher electronegativity value.
(B) W ith increase in atomic size the distance
between nucleus and valence shell electrons
increases, therefore the force of attraction between
the nucleus and the valence shell electrons
decreases and hence the electronegativity values
also decrease.
(C) In higher oxidation state, the element has higher
magnitude of positive charge. Thus, due to more
positive charge on element, it has higher polarising
power. Thus, with increase in the oxidation state of
element, its electronegativity also increases.
 Note :

Non-metallic (Electro-ve) Increases Polarising power is the power of an ion (cation) to

distort the other ion.
Decreases
(ii) Reducing nature decreases in a period while (D) With increase in nuclear charge, force of attraction
oxidising nature increases. The reducing nature
increases in a group while oxidising nature between nucleus and the valence shell electrons
decreases. increases and, therefore electronegativity value
increases.
Reducing nature
(E) The electronegativity of the same element
Reducing Decreases increases as the s-character in the hybrid orbitals
nature ;
increases.
Increases
Oxidising nature Hybrid orbital sp 3 sp 2 sp

s-character 25% 33% 50%

Oxidising Increases
nature
Electronegativity increases
Decreases
(iii) Stability of metal increases while activity of the (ii) Variation of Electronegativity in a group : On
metal decreases in a period and in a group stability
decreases. moving down the group atomic number increases,
Stability of the metal so nuclear charge also increases. Number of shells
also increases, so atomic radius increases.
Stability of the metal Increases Therefore electronegativity decreases on moving
down the group.
Decreases
(iii) Variation of Electronegativity in a period : While
; Activity of the metal moving across a period left to right atomic number,
nuclear charge increases & atomic radius decreases.
Activity of the metal Decreases
Therefore electronegativity increases along a period.
Increases

49
49
PAGE # 49
 Difference between Electron gain enthalpy and Electronegativity
S.No. Electron gain enthalpy Electronegativity
It is the tendency of an atom in a combined
It is the tendency of an isolated atom to
1 state, i.e., in a molecule to attract the shared
attract electron.
pair of electrons.
It is a relative number and cannot be
2 It can be measured experimentally.
determined experimentally.
Its units are electron volts per atom
3 or kilo joules per mole or kilo calories per It has no units but merely a number.
mole.
It is a constant quantity for a
4 It has no units but merely a number.
particular element.
Electronegativity of an element is not constant.
It depends on a number of factors such as
Its periodicity is not regular in a
5 hybridised state. Oxidation state, etc. The
period or a group.
periodicity is regular in a period but not
so regular in groups.

(e) Nature of Oxides : If a non-metal forms a number of oxy-acids, the

In a period, the nature of the oxides varies from basic strength increases with the increase of percentage
of oxygen.
to acidic.
Na2O MgO AI2O3 SiO2 P2O5 Cl2O7 Sulphur forms two oxy-acids H2SO3 and H2SO4.H2SO4
Strongly Basic Amphoteric Weakly Strongly is stronger acid than H2SO3.
basic acidic acidic Chlorine forms a number of oxy-acids:
In a group, basic nature increases or acidic nature
decreases. Oxides of the metals are generally basic
and oxides of the nonnmetals are acidic. The oxides
of the metalloids are amphoteric. The oxides of AI,
Zn, Sn, As and Sb are amphoteric. We can summarise
that as the electronegativity of element increases, Greater is the oxidation state of central atom more
acidic character of oxides increases. W hen an will be the acidic strength.
element forms a number of oxides, the acidic nature ( g ) Nature of Hydrides :
increases as the percentage of oxygen increases.
The nature of the hydrides changes from basic to
acidic in a period from left to right.
Acidic nature

N2 O Neutral P2 O3 MnO Basic

increases

Acidic nature

NO oxide P2 O4 Mn2O3 Basic NH 3 H2O HF

increases

P2 O5 MnO2 Neutral weak base netural weak acid

Acidic nature

N2 O3 MnO3 Acidic PH3 H2 S HCl

increases

NO2 Mn2O7 Acidic

N2 O5
very weak weak acid strong acid
base
CO, N2O, NO and H2O are neutral oxides. The oxides In a group, the acidic nature of the hydrides of non-
CO2, N2O5, P2O3, P2O5, SO2, SO3, Cl2O7, etc., are called metals increases. The reducing nature also increases
acid anhydrides as these combine with water to form but stability decreases from top to bottom
oxy-acids.
CO2  H2CO3 P2O3  H3PO3
SO3  H2SO4 N2O5  HNO3
P2O5  H3PO4 Cl2O7  HClO4
N2O3  HNO2 SO2  H2SO3 • Anomalous behaviour of the elements of second
period :
(f) Nature of Oxy-Acids :
It has been obesrved that in the case of representative
In a period, the strength of the oxy-acids formed by elements, the first element in each, i.e. lithium in the
non-metals increases from ieft to right. first group, beryllium in the second group and boron
to fluorine in the group 13 to 17, differ in many respect
II Period strength increases from the other member of their respective group. The
anomalous behaviour of the first member of each
group is attributed to following reasons :
III Period strength
(a) small atomic radius of the atom and ionic radius
increases of its ion.
In a group, the strength of the oxy-acids of non-metals
decreases. (b) high electronegativity
V group strength decreases (c) non-availability of d-orbitals in their valence shell.
(d) tendency to form multiple bonds by carbon,
VII group strength decreases
nitrogen and oxygen
(e) high charge/radius ratio
50
50
PAGE # 50
 NUCLEAR CHEMISTRY

(b) On the basis of stability :

INTRODUCTION (i) Stable nuclei : Those nuclei which are permanent
& their proton and neutron contents remain
Atoms have three fundamental particles that are unchanged forever (can be changed only under severe
electrons, protons and neutrons. Protons and conditions of bombardment by external radition) are
neutrons are present inside the nucleus and electrons called stable nuclei.
are present in the extranuclear region. Changes
(ii) Unstable nuclei : Those nuclei in which no. of
occurring in the nucleus which are a source of
protons and neutrons change with time.
tremendous energy are called nuclear reactions. The
branch of science which deals with the study of atomic
nucleus and nuclear changes is called nuclear
STABILITY OF NUCLEUS
chemistry. Stability of a nucleus can be explained by following
Nucleus term was firstly introduced by Rutherford . It is two factors.
defined as the central part of an atom which contain (a) On the basis of (n/p) ratio :
all the protons and neutrons.
Neutrons help to hold protons together within the
rn  A1/ 3  rn = RoA1/3 nucleus. The number of neutrons necessary to create
a stable nucleus increases rapidly as the number of
Ro = 1.2 × 10–15 m protons increases. The number of neutron to proton
where : A =mass number, ratio (n/p) of stable nuclei increases with increasing
rn = radius of nucleus atomic number . The area of graph in which all stable
R0 = Rutherford constant nuclei are found is known as the belt of stability.
Density of nucleus = 1017 kg/m3 Radioactive nuclei occur outside this belt.

(a) On the basis of their Z and n values :

(i) Isotopes : The isotopes of an element have the
same atomic number but different atomic masses
due to the presence of different number of neutrons.
1 2 3 22 23 24
e.g. 1H , 1 H , 1 H ; 11 Na , 11 Na , 11 Na

(ii) Isobars : The atoms of different elements with

different atomic numbers, but same mass number
are called isobars.
e.g. 6 C , 7N
14 14
; 40
20 Ca and 40
18 Ar are isobars.
(iii) Isotones : The isotones may be defined as the
atoms of different elements containing same
number of neutrons.
3
e.g. 13
6C and 7N ; 1
14
H and 24 He
A1 A2 The type of radioactive decay that a particular radio
(iv) Mirror nuclei : z1
X & z2
Y are mirror nuclei if
isotope will undergo depends to a large extent on its
Z1 = n2 and Z2 = n1 neutrons to protons ratio compared to those of nearby
Z1 = A1 – n1 = n2 ..... (1) nuclei that are within the belt of stability.
Z2 = A2 – n2 = n1 ...... (2)
(i) A nucleus whose high n/p ratio places it above the
from equation(1) n1 = A1 – n2
belt of stability emits a  -particle in order to lower n/p
by putting the value of n1 in equation (2) ratio and move towards the belt of stability.
A2 – n2 = A1 – n2 1
0n 11 p  –10 e  –
A1 = A2
So these are defined as those isobars in which the ( – is Anti neutrino)
Z and n values are interchanged
 Note :
3 3 13 13
e.g. 1H and 2 He , 6 C and 7 N Antineutrino is the antiparticle of neutrino, which is
neutral particle produced in nuclear beta decay.

51
51
PAGE # 51
 (ii) A nucleus which has lower n/p ratio , is placed below
the belt of stability either emits positrons or undergoes
electron capture. Both modes of decay decrease the
number of protons and increase the number of neutrons
in the nucleus and thus, positron emission or electron
capture results in an increase in n/p ratio.
e.g.
1
1P  10 n  01 e  
(Positron emission)
1 1
1p  –10 e  0 n  X  ray
(Electron capture)
 Note :
A positron has same mass as electron but carries
opposite charge. The positron has a very short life
because it is annihilated when it collides with
an electron, producing gamma rays. This phenomenon
is known as pair production.
(iii) The nuclei with atomic number > 83, outside the
belt of stability, undergo -emissions. Emission of an
-particle decreases both the number of protons and
neutrons and thereby increases n/p ratio.
Thus,
For lighter element if Z = n then nuclei will be stable
For nuclie Z > 20, stability condition is 1.6  n/p > 1
Unstable nuclei emit radiations to achieve stability, this
property is known as radioactivity.
(b) On the basis of even and odd nature of the
number of protons and neutrons :
(i) The number of stable nuclides is maximum when
both Z and n are even numbers. About 60% of stable
nuclides have both Z and n even.
(ii) The number of stable nuclides in which either the Z
or n is odd is about one third of those, where both are
even.
MAGIC NUMBERS
Just as certain numbers of electrons (2,8,18,36,54 and
86) correspond to stable closed shell electron
configuration, certain number of nucleons leads to
closed shell in nuclei. The protons and neutrons can
achieve closed shell. Nuclei with 2, 8, 20, 28, 50 or 82
protons or 2,8,20, 28, 50, 82, or 126 neutrons
correspond to closed nuclear shell. Closed shell nuclei
are more stable than those that do not have closed
shells. These numbers of nucleons that correspond to
closed nuclear shells are called magic numbers.
NUCLEAR EXCHANGE FORCE-MESON THEORY
If only the short range charge independent attractive
forces were to operate between the nucleons, the
attractive force would grow limitlessly till the nucleus
ultimately collapsed. There is a need, therefore, for
some repulsive forces to lead to the saturation of
attractive forces.
The nucleus stability has been explained in terms of
existence of nuclear exchange force. An exchange
interaction is possible between two particles which
can exist in a state capable of sharing some
common property, thereby, the total energy level gets
lowered and the system becomes more stable. A
similar situation is proposed for the atomic nucleus
by assuming a ceaseless exchange of common
property (may be charge, spin or position) between
neighb ouring nucleons in the same state of motion.
Yukawa’s prediction (1935) of the existence of
mesons (particles with mass intermediate between
an electron and a nucleon) and very soon, the -
meson or pions (m= 237 me) were recognized as
exchange of common property.
n p + – ; p n + +
p p + 0 ; n n + 0.
where –, + 0 are pions.
The range of pions being of the same order as the
nuclear radius and thus, emission of pion by a
nucleon are reabsorption by another nucleon goes
on incessantly.
14
Ex-1 6C nuclide undergoes  -decay. Which stable
nuclide is formed ? Give equation.
14 14 0
Sol. 6C 7 N + –1 e

RADIOACTIVITY
Radioactivity is a process in which nuclei of certain
elements undergo spontaneous disintegration
without excitation by any external means.
All heavy elements from bismuth (Bi) to uranium
and a few of lighter elements have naturally
occurring isotopes which possess the property of
radioactivity. All those substances which have the
tendency to emit these radiations are termed as
radioactive materials. Radioactivity is a nuclear
phenomenon i.e., the kind of intensity of the radiation
emitted by any radioactive substance is absolutely
the same whether the element is present as such
or in any one of its compounds.
e.g. Elements like uranium (U) , thorium (Th) ,
polonium (Po), radium (Ra) etc. are radioactive in
nature.
(a) History of the Discovery of Radioactivity :
In 1895, Henri Becquerel was studying the effect of
sunlight on various phosphorescent minerals, one
of the substance being studied was uranium ore.
He accidently left a crystal of uranium sample ;
Potassium uranyl sulphate [K2UO2 (SO4)2. 2H2O] in
a drawer along with some photographic plate
wrapped in black paper. Much to his surprise, he
discovered that the photographic plate had been
fogged by exposure to some invisible radiations
from uranium. He called this mysterious property of
the ore as ‘radioactivity’ (Radioactivity means ray-
emitting activity). A year later, in 1896, Marie Curie
found that besides uranium and its compounds,
thorium was another element which possessed the
property of radioactivity. 1898 Marie Curie and her
husband Pierrie Curie isolated two new radioactive
elements polonium and radium.
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52
PAGE # 52
 (b) Natural & Artificial Radioactivity : (c) Analysis of Radioactive Radiations :

In 1904, Rutherford and his co-workers observed that

If a substance emits radiations by itself it possesses
natural radioactivity but if a substance does not
possess radioactivity and starts emitting radiations
on exposure to rays from a natural radioactive
substance, it is called induced or artificial radioactivity.
e.g.
when radioactive radiations were subjected to a
magnetic field or a strong electric field, these were
split into three types, as shown in the figure. The rays
which are attracted towards the negative plate, are
positively charged , and called alpha () rays. The
rays which are deflected towards the positive plate

When aluminium is bombarded with - particles , a are negatively charged and are called beta ( ) rays.
The third type of rays which are not deflected on any
radioactive isotope of phosphorus is formed which
side but move straight are known as gamma () rays.
disintegrate spontaneously with the emission of
-rays -rays
+
positrons (which are positively charged electron, +1e0).

-
ra
+

ys
+ -rays
+
+
ys
ra +
-
-rays
+
+
+ Magnetic
field

Radioactive
substances

 Note : (A) (B)

Figure :
Natural radioactivity was discovered by Becquerel
(A) Deflection of radioactive rays in electric field and,
while artificial radioactivity was discovered by Irene
(B) Emission of radioactive rays and their deflection
Curie and Joliot. in a magnetic field. (The direction of magnetic field is
inward perpendicular to the page).

T The important properties of- rays ,  rays and -rays are as follows :

53
53
PAGE # 53
 ( d ) Units of Radioactivity : (ii) _ decay produces isodiaphers i.e.parent and the
(i) SI unit is Becquerel (Bq) which is defined as daughter nuclides have same isotopic mass (which
is the difference between number of neutrons and
disintegration per sec (dps). protons) .
(ii) Earlier radioactivity was given in terms of Curie 238
 90 Th 234  2 He 4
E.g. 92 U
(Ci).
1 Ci refers to the activity of Radium. No. of neutrons: 146 144
1 Ci = 3.7 × 1010 dps = 3.7 × 1010 Bq. No. of protons: 92 90
Difference 54 54
1 Milli Ci = 3.7 × 107 Bq.
1 Micro Ci = 3.7 × 104 Bq. (iii)  _ decay produces isobars i.e.parent and the
(iii) Another unit is Rutherford (Rd). daughter nuclides have different atomic numbers but
same mass number .
1 Rd = 106 dps E.g.
6
C14  7
N14 +-1e0
(iv) Emission of 1 and 2 particles produces an
These laws were given by Soddy,Fajans and Russel
isotope of parent element.
(1911_1913).The element emitting the  or  particle e.g.
is called parent element and the new element formed 
U238 
 90Th234 
 91Pa234 

 92U234
92
is called daughter element.
 Note :
(i) When an _ particle is emitted, the new element The emission of  and  _ particles is also known as
formed is displaced two positions to the left in the _decay and  _ decay.
periodic table than that of parent element (because
the atomic number decreases by 2). Ex-2 Calculate number of  and  - particles emitted when
238 234 4 238
e.g. 92 U  90 Th  2 He 92 U changes into radioactive 206
82 Pb .

(ii) When a  _ particle is emitted the new element Change in mass number
Sol. No. of -particles =
formed is displaced one position to the right in the 4
periodic table than that of parent element (because 238 – 206 32
= = =8
the atomic number increases by 1). 4 4
e.g.
No. of  -particles = 2 × -particles - (ZA – ZB)
The emission of  _ particle by 6C 14 may be
represented as follows: Here ZA and ZB are atomic no. of parent and daugther
nuclei respectively.
C14  N14 +-1e0 = 2 × 8 – (92 – 82)
6 7
16 – 10
(a) Explanation : =6
The results of the group displacement laws may be Thus, no. of -particles emitted out = 8
explained as follows: No. of  -particles emitted out = 6
Ex.3 90Th234 disintegrates to give 82Pb206 as final product .
Since an _ particle is simply a helium nucleus
How many alpha and beta particles are emitted during
(containing two neutrons and two protons) therefore, this process ?
loss of _ particle means loss of two neutrons and Sol. Suppose the no. of  particles emitted = x and no. of
two protons . Thus, the new element formed has  _ particles emitted = y.
atomic number less by 2 unit and mass number less Then
by 4 unit.
90
Th234  82
Pb206 + x 2He4 + y-1e0
The  _ particle is simply an electron and there are no
electrons present in nucleus .However , the loss of  _ Equating the mass number on both sides ,we get
particle is also found to be a nuclear phenomenon 234 = 206 + 4x + 0y
because the change in external conditions or 4x = 28 or x=7
(temperature etc.) has no effect on the rate of the Equating the atomic number on both sides ,we get
90=82+2x-y y=6
emission of  _ particle. It is therefore, believed that
Ans. 7 and 6 particles will be emitted.
for emission of  _ particle to occur, a neutron changes
to a proton and an electron i.e. Alternative Method:
Neutron  Proton + Electron ( particle) _ No. of -particles =
As a result ,the number of protons in the nucleus Difference in atomic mass of reactants and products
increases by 1 and so does the atomic number. 4
 Note : 234 – 206 28
= = =7
(i) Increase or decrease in the number of protons in 4 4
the nucleus (due to loss of  particle or  _ particle) No. of -particle=( 2 × no. of -particles) – (ZA – ZB)
is accompanied simultaneously by the loss or gain where , ZA = Atomic number of reactant
of electrons in the extranuclear part (from the ZB = Atomic number of product
surroundings) so that the electrical neutrality is = (2 × 7) – (90 – 82) = 14 – 8 = 6
maintained in the new atom formed. Ans.7 and 6 particles will be emitted.

54
54
PAGE # 54
 (b) Significance of Half-Life Period :
RATE OF RADIOACTIVE DECAY
(i) Stability of nuclei : The value of half-life period can
Radioactive disintegration is an example of first order give an idea about relative stability of radio isotopes.
reaction, i.e., the rate of decay is directly proportional All isotopes with longer t1/2 are more stable.
to the no. of atoms (amount) of the element present
at the particular time. (ii) The amount of substance left after ‘n’ number of
A  Decay product half lives can be given as :-
No. of atoms at t = 0  N0  1n
N = No  
No. of atoms left after t = t  N 2
Hence, rate  [N0 – N]/t because rate continuously Where ;
decreases with time. Let dN be the change in no. of
atoms in an infinitesimal small time dt, then rate of N = Amount of the substance left after ‘n’ half-lives.
decay can be written as - No = Initial amount of the substance.
dN
–  [N]1 = N. The negative sign indicates the Ex.4 The half-life period of 53I125 is 60 days .What percent
dt
decreasing trend of N with increasing time. of the original radioactivity would be present after 180
where  is the proportionality constant. days ?
Sol. t½ = 60 days, t = 180 days
Integration of this equation finally gives -
2.303 N0 Total time( t ) 180
or  = log10 n= = =3
Half  life peiod( t ½ ) 60
t N
N0
Note :  is also known as decay or disintegration or Applying the formula N=
 2n
radioactive constant. N0 1
we get N = n = × 100 = 12.5%
2 8
CHARACTERISTICS OF RATE OF DISINTEGRATION Ex.5 The half -life period of a radioactive element is 27.96
days . Calculate the time taken by a given sample to
(i) Rate of disintegration continuously decreases with
reduce to 1/8th of its activity.
time.
Sol. The amount of substance left after ‘n’ number of half
(ii) Rate of disintegration as well as  are independent lives can be given as :-
of P and T.
 1n
(iii) (a) Unit of rate of decay : disintegration per time N = No  
2
(b) Unit of decay constant : time–1
(iv) Time required to complete a definite fraction is 1
According to question , N = N
independent of initial no. of atoms (amount) of 8 0
radioactive species. 1  1n
or N0 = No  
8 2
HALF-LIFE PERIOD
1 1
or 3 = n  n = 3
The time required for the decay of radioactive element (2) (2)
to half of the original amount is called half-life period.
So, time taken by the sample to reduce to 1/8th of its
(a) Characteristics of Half-Life Period : reactivity will be -
• It is denoted by t1/2 . T= n×t½
• Each radioactive element has a characteristic half-
life period . T= 3×27.96
= 83.88 days
• Half-life period for an element is a constant.
0.693 Ex.6 Half- life period of a radioactive element is 100
• t1/2 = seconds. Calculate the disintegration constant.

Where  is a constant known as disintegration Sol. t1/2 = 100 Seconds,
constant or decay constant. It is the characteristic of
0.693 0.693
the nature of the radioactive element.  = = = 0.00693 s–1
t 100
 Note : 1/2
Half-life period does not depend upon initial amount = 6.93 × 10–3 sec–1
of element.

55
55
PAGE # 55
AVERAGE LIFE NUCLEAR REACTIONS

Evidently , the whole of the radioactive element can The reactions in which nuclei of atoms interact with
never disintegrate or in other words other nuclei or elementary particles such as alpha
, the time required for the disintegration of the whole of particle, proton, deutron, neutron etc. resulting in the
a radioactive element will be infinity. formation of a new nucleus and one or more
Thus, it is meaningless to talk of the total life of a elementary particles are called nuclear reactions.
radioactive element . However, sometimes another Nuclear reactions are expressed in the same fashion
term is used ,called average life () which is the as chemical reactions. In a nuclear reaction ,atomic
reciprocal of the disintegration constant () i.e. number and mass number are conserved.
e.g. the nuclear reaction :
1 t
Average life ()= ½ = 1.44 t . 14 4

 0.693 1/2
7 N  2He  178O  11H
(a) Nuclear Fission :
ISODIAPHERS
The process of artificial transmutation in which heavy
(i) Atoms having the same difference of neutrons and nucleus is broken down into two lighter nuclei of nearly
proton. comparable masses with release of large amount of
energy is termed as nuclear fission.
(ii) Nuclide and its decay product after -emission e.g.
are called isodiaphers. 238 239 239
m
(i) 92 U is converted into 93 Np and 94 Pu
m–4
(iii) e.g., Z A Z–2 B
238 239 239
p=Z p=Z–2 92 U 10 n 
– –
 93 Np 
 94 Pu
n=m–Z n=m–Z–2 Uranium Neptunium Plutonium
n – p = m – 2Z n – p = m – 2Z 235
 Note :
(ii) 92 U captures slow neutron and splits up into

Isotopic no. n – p = m – 2Z fragments.

235 1 236 144 90 1
92 U + 0 n  92 U  56 Ba 36 Kr 2 0 n +Energy
ISOSTERS Unstable
During fission, there is always loss of mass, known
(i) Molecules having same no. of atoms and same as mass defect ,which is converted into energy
no. of electrons are called isosters. according to Einstein equation i.e.
e.g., CO2 and N2O (There are three atoms and 22 E = mc2.
electrons in both the molecules.) e.g.

235 1 144 90 1
NUCLEAR ISOMERS 92 U + 0n  56 Ba
+ 36 Kr + 20 n

(i) Nuclides having identical atomic no. and mass 235

.118
1
.009

 143
 .881
 89
.947
 2.018
 
no. but differing in radioactive properties are known 236.127amu 235.846
as nuclear isomers.  m = 236.127 – 235.846
(ii) Nuclear isomers differ in their energy state and = 0.281 amu
spins. E(in MeV) = 0.281 × 931.5 = 261.75 MeV
60 60m 69 69m 80 80m
e.g., CO and CO, Zn and Zn, Br and Br Energy released in one fission is equal to 261.75
etc. MeV.
The symbol m with mass no. represents the
(i) Chain reaction : Whatever are the primary products
metastable state of parent element.
of fission of uranium, it is certain that neutrons are
Isomeric
60m
Co Transition
60
Co + -rays set free.If the conditions are so arranged that each of
these neutrons can, in turn, bring about the fission,
(iii) Nuclear isomers, thus have different rate of decay, the number of neutrons will increase at a continuously
decay constant, half life, average life and binding accelerating rate until whole of the material is
energy. exhausted. Such type of reaction is called chain
 Note : reaction. It takes very small time and is uncontrolled.
It ends in terrible explosion due to release of
In a metastable state, a system is in equilibrium (not
enormous amount of energy.
changing with time),but is susceptible to fall into lower
235 1
energy states with only slight interaction. 92 U + 0 n   141 92 1
56 Ba  36 Kr  3 0 n + Energy

56
56
PAGE # 56
 The chain reaction is shown in the figure . (B) Nuclear reactor :

Ba • An equipment in which nuclear chain reaction is

n
n
carried out in a controlled manner is called a nuclear
235
92 U
Ba n reactor.
n
E Kr
n
• The energy thus liberated can be used for
235
92U Ba
n
constructive purposes like generation of steam to run
Ba
n n n turbines and produce electricity.
E U
235

Kr
92
n
n 235 n • In a nuclear reactor, fission is controlled by controlling
U E Kr
92
the number of neutrons released.
n Ba Ba
E n
n
• In a nuclear reactor, fission is based on the fact that
Kr n 235
U
235
92 n cadmium and boron can absorb neutrons thus
U
92 n
E
Kr
forming corresponding isotopes which are not
E n
Ba
radioactive.
Kr
n
113 1
92U
235
n
n
 114
48 Cd  0n  48 Cd    rays
10 1
E Kr  11
5 B  0n  5B    rays
(ii) Critical mass : The minimum mass which the  Note :
fissionable material must have so that one of the
neutrons released in every fission hits another The first nuclear reactor was assembled by Fermi
nucleus and causes fission so that the chain reaction and his coworkers at the University of Chicago in the
continues at a constant rate is called critical mass .If United states of America, in 1942. In India, the first
the mass is less than the critical mass , it is called nuclear reactor was put into operation at Trombay
sub-critical mass . If the mass is more than critical (Mumbai) in 1956.
mass, it is called super-critical mass.
(C ) Nuclear Power Plants :
(iii) Applications of Nuclear Fission : Three practical
applications of nuclear fission are as follows - When a nuclear reactor is used for the production of
(A) Atomic bomb (B) Nuclear reactor electricity it is termed as a nuclear power plant.The
(C) Nuclear power plants heat produced during a nuclear reaction is utilized in
generating steam which runs the steam turbines. The
(A) Atomic Bomb :
electric generator is connected to the turbine. The
• The basic principle of atomic bomb is uncontrolled electric power is then obtained from the generator.
nuclear fission reaction (chain reaction). Thus, a nuclear power plant consists essentially of
• It requires several small samples of U-235 or Pu-239. the following four parts:
• An explosive like TNT (Trinitrotoluene) is placed 1. Reactor core
behind the samples which explodes to initiate the 2. Heat exchanger
reaction which causes the small samples to join and 3. Steam turbine
form large mass. 4. Steam condensing system
• Neutron from Ra-Ba source (s) initiate the reaction Reactor core is the main part of nuclear reactor. It
which starts the chain reaction finally leading to consists of the following parts :
explosion and release of large amount of energy.
• The rapid release of energy raises the temperature Fuel rod :
enormously and generates a very high pressure front The fissionable material used in the reactor is called
in the atmosphere. fuel. The fuel used is enriched uranium -235 . This is
obtained from the naturally occurring U-235
(containing about 0.7% of U-235 ) by raising the
percentage of U-235 to about 2-3%.

• Control rods : Cadmium or boron rods are used to

Atomic Bomb raise or lower and control the fission process.
 Note : Because they can absorb neutrons.
The first atomic bomb dropped over Hiroshima city
• Moderator : The material used to slow down the
during the second world war in 1945 utilized 235U and
the second atomic bomb dropped on Nagasaki neutrons (without absorbing them so that they can be
easily captured by the fuel, is known as moderator.
made use of 239Pu. India exploded her first atomic
Heavy water (D2O) or graphite is used as moderator
bomb at Rajasthan in May 1974,and used 239Pu as
material in nuclear power plant.
the fissionable material.

57
57
PAGE # 57
 • Coolant : To carry away the heat produced during • The reactions occurring are :
1
fission, a liquid is used. This liquid is known as coolant. Fission (in the centre)  heat + 0n
Usually heavy water is used as coolant so that it also
6
acts as a moderator. 3 Li + 10 n  3
1H + 24 He + 3.78 MeV
• Shield : To prevent the losses of heat and to protect 2
+ 13 H  4
+ 10n + 17.6 MeV
1H 2He
the persons operating the reactor from the radiation
2
and heat, the entire reactor core is enclosed, in a 1H + 12 H  3
2 He + 10n + 3.2 MeV
heavy steel or concrete dome, called the shield.
3
Steam 1H + 13 H  4
2 He + 2 10n + 13.14 MeV

Electricity
Generator
(B) Fusion in sun : Among the celestial bodies in which
Turbine
energy is produced, the sun is relatively cooler. There
are stars with temperature around 108 K inside. In
sun and other stars, where the temperature is less
than or around 107 K, fusion takes place dominantly
D2O
Reactor Primary
Heat
exchanger
by proton-proton cycle as follows -
coolant

Condenser

D2O

Pump

Heavy water

Nuclear Reactor
(b) Nuclear Fusion : note that the first two reactions should occur twice to

A nuclear reaction in which two lighter nuclei are fused produce two 32 He nuclei and initiate the third reaction.
together to form a heavier nucleus is called nuclear As a result of this cycle, effectively, four hydrogen nuclei
fusion. A fusion reaction is difficult to occur because combine to form a helium nucleus. About 26.7 MeV
positively charged nuclei repel each other. At very high energy is released in the cycle. Thus, hydrogen is the
temperature of the order of 106 to 107 K, the nuclei fuel which ‘burns’ into helium to release energy. The
may have sufficient energy to overcome the repulsive sun is estimated to have been radiating energy for
forces and fuse.Therefore, fusion reactions are also the last 3.5 × 109 years and will continue to do so till
called thermonuclear reactions. Fusion reaction are all the hydrogen in it is used up. It is estimated that
highly exothermic in nature because loss of mass the present store of hydrogen in the sun is sufficient
occurs when heavier nucleus is formed from the two
for the next 5 × 109 years.
lighter nuclei.
4
In hotter stars where the temperature is  10 8K,
2 2
1 H 1 H 2 He  23.85 MeV another cycle known as CNO (Carbon-nitrogen-
3 3 4 oxygen cycle) cycle takes places.
1 H 1 H  2 He  210 n  11.3 MeV
1 13
1 3
1H 1
4
H  2 He  20.0 MeV 1H 12
6 C  7 N   + 1.95 MeV
2 3 4
1 H 1 H  2 He 10 n  17 .6 MeV 13 13 C  0e   + 2.22 MeV
Hydrogen bomb is based on fusion reaction. Energy 7 N  6 1

released is so enormous that it is about 1000 times 1

1H 13
6 C
 14
7 N  + 7.54 MeV
that of an atomic bomb.
It is believed that the high temperatures of stars
including the sun is due to fusion reactions.
1
1H 14
7 N
 158 O   + 7.35 MeV

(i) Applications of Nuclear Fusion : 15 15 0

8 O  7 N + 1 e ++ 2.75 MeV
(A) Hydrogen bomb :
1
• Its principle is nuclear fusion. 1H 15
7 N 
12 4
 6 C  2 He + 4.96 MeV
• It consists of an arrangement of nuclear fission in
the centre surrounded by a mixture of deuterium (12 H)
411H  24He  21e0   rays + 26.7 MeV
and lithium isotopes ( 36 Li) .
• The nuclear fission provides heat and neutrons. The end result of this cycle is again the fusion of four
6 3
• Neutrons convert 3 Li to tritium 1 H and the heat
hydrogen nuclei into a helium nucleus. Carbon
nucleus acts only as a catalyst.
liberated is used for fusion between 12 H & 13 H .

58
58
PAGE # 58
 DIFFERENCES BETWEEN NUCLEAR FISSION AND NUCLEAR FUSION

S.No. Nuclear fission Nuclear fusion

1 This process occurs in heavy nuclei. This process occurs in lighter nuclei.

The heavy nucleus splits into lighter nuclei The lighter nuclei fuse together to form a
2
of comparable masses. heavy nucleus.

3 The reaction occurs at ordinary temperature. This occurs at very high temperature.

The energy liberated in one fission is about The energy liberated in one fusion is about
4
200 MeV. 24 MeV.

5 This can be controlled. This cannot be controlled.

Products of fission are usually unstable Products of fusion are usually stable and
6
and radioactive in nature. non-radioactive in nature.

7 The links of fission reactions are neutrons. The links of fusion reactions are protons.

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN NUCLEAR REACTIONS AND CHEMICAL REACTIONS

Some of the characteristics that differentiate between nuclear reactions and ordinary chemical reactions are
summarized ahead :
Nuclear reactions Chemical reactions

Involve conversion of one nuclide into Involve rearrangement of atoms and not
another. change in the nucleus.

Particles within the nucleus are

Only outermost electrons participate.
involved .

Often accompanied by release Accompanied by release or absorption of

of tremendous amount of energy. relatively small amount of energy.

Rate of reaction is independent of

Rate of reaction is influenced by external
external factors such as temperature,
factors.
pressure and catalyst.
No breaking or making of bonds
Involves breaking or making of bonds.
involved.
Irreversible. Can be reversible or irreversible.

APPLICATIONS OF RADIOACTIVITY
AND RADIOISOTOPES
(a) In Medicine :
Radioisotopes are used to diagnose many diseases.
E.g. arsenic - 74 tracer is used to detect the presence
of tumour, sodium -24 tracer is used to detect the
presence of blood clots , iodine-131 tracer is used to
study the activity of the thyroid glands and cobalt-60
is used in the treatment of cancer . It should be noted
that the radioactive isotopes used in medicine have
very short half life periods.
(b) In Agriculture :
The use of radioactive phosphorus 32P in fertilizers has
revealed how phosphorus is absorbed by plants. This
study has led to an improvement in the preparation of
fertilizers. 14C is used to study the kinetics of
photosynthesis.
(c) In Industry :
(i) The thickness of a material (e.g. cigarettes, metal
plates etc.) can be determined by placing a radioactive
source on one side of the material and a counting
device on the other. From the amount of radiation
reaching the counter, the thickness of the material
can be calculated.
(ii) When a single pipe line is used to transfer more
than one petroleum derivative, a small amount of
radioactive isotope is placed in last portion of one
substance to signal its end and the start of another.
(d) In Geological Dating :
The age of the earth and rocks can be predicted by
geological dating. Age of a rock sample can be
calculated by finding out the amounts of the parent
radioactive element and the isotope of lead (e.g.
238 206
92 U and 82 Pb ) in rock sample.
(e) In Radio Carbon Dating :
The age of a fallen tree or dead animal can be
predicted by measuring the amount of C-14 in dead
plants or animals.

59
59
PAGE # 59
 dies, it no longer ingests carbon compounds to
DATING compensate 14C which is lost through radioactive
decay. The ratio of 14 C to 12 C therefore,
(i) The determination of age of minerals and rocks, decreases.Thus, by knowing the equilibrium
an important part of geological studies involves concentration of 14C in a living matter as well as in a
determination of either a species formed during a dead piece of matter at a particular time, the age of
radioactive decay or the residual activity of an isotope material can be determined.
which is undergoing decay. For example
238 HAZARDS OF RADIATIONS
92 U
undergoes a decay (t1/2 =4.5 × 109 years) series
206 (i) Radioactive radiations cause atmospheric
forming a stable isotope 82 Pb and He. Helium
pollution.
obtained as a result of decay of 238
92 U has almost (ii) When living organisms are exposed to radiations,
certainly been formed from -particles. Thus, if the complex organic molecules get ionized, break up
238 and He contents are known in a rock we can and disrupt the normal functioning of the organisms.
92 U
(iii) Effects of radiations :
determine the age of rock sample (1g of 238 92 U
in
(A) Pathological damage : i.e. permanent damage
equilibrium with its decay products produces about
to living body which causes death and development
10–7 g He in a year). Also by assuming that initially
of diseases e.g. cancers or leukemia etc.
206
rock does not contain 82 Pb and it is present in rocks
(B) Genetic damage : i.e. effect on chromosomes
due to decay of 238 ,
we can calculate the age of causing mutations.
92 U
rocks and minerals by measuring the ratio of
RADIOACTIVE POLLUTION
238
92 U
and 206
82 Pb .The amount of 206
82 Pb is supposed
Radioactive pollution is a special form of physical
238 pollution, relating to all systems air, water and soil.
to be obtained by decay of U . Thus,
This type of pollution is not only harmful for the present
206
238
92 U  82 Pb + 8 24 He + 6 –01e generation but also for future generations. The
238 radioactive substances with long half-life are usually
Mole of U left = N at time t i.e., Nt the main sources of environmental concern.
206 Neutrons released during nuclear tests make other
Mole of Pb formed = N’ at time t materials radioactive in the surrounding. These
238
U = N + N’ (at time 0) i.e., (N0) materials include 90Sr, 137Cr and 131. The radioactive
 Initial mole of
materials are converted into gases. These gases and
Thus, time t can be evaluated by- fine particles are thrown high up into the air and carried
2.303 N0 away by wind to distant areas. They ultimately settle
t= log N down and cause pollution to water and soil. From
 t soil the radioactive substances enter in the food chain
(ii) To determine the age of animals or objects of and thus affect all forms of life including man. Cosmic
vegetable origin such as wood, charcoal and textiles radiations and explosion of a hydrogen bomb produce
14
by radio carbon dating technique. C in air.
Nuclear power plants and reprocessing plants
 Note : discharge 90Sr, 137Cs, 131, 140 Ba, 140La, 144Rh, etc. Coal
Radio carbon dating technique was given by W.F. based thermal power stations release radioactive
Libby and was awarded Nobel Prize. gases such as 85Kr, 133Xe and particulates such as
137
, 60Co, 54Mn and 137 Cs through chimney.
Carbon-14 has been used to determine the age of Nuclear dumping within land or in ocean leads to
organic material. The procedure is based on the radiation pollution.
formation of 14C by neutron capture in the upper
atmosphere. (a) Effects of Radioactive Pollution :
14 1 14 1 (i) Radiations induce mutations and breaks in
7 N + 0n 6 C + 1H

chromosomes particularly at the time of cell division.
This reaction provides a small, but reasonably
(ii) Higher doses of radiations can cause cancer,
constant source of 14 C . The 14 C isotope is leukaemia, anaemia and sterility. Excessive use of
radioactive, undergoing  - decay with a half life of X-rays causes death of tissues.
5730 years. (iii) Radiations induce mutations in plants also.
14 14 0 Morphological deformities occur.
6C 7 N + –1 e

In using radio carbon dating, we generally assume (b) Control of Radiation Pollution :
that the ratio of 14C to 12C in the atmosphere has been (i) Manufacture and use of nuclear weapons should
constant for at least 50,000 years. The 14 C is be stopped.
incorporated into CO2, which is in turn incorporated
through photosynthesis, into more complex carbon (ii) Nuclear tests and further development should be
containing molecules within plants. When these suspended.
plants are eaten by animals, the 14C becomes (iii) Ocean dumping of nuclear wastes should be
incorporated within them. Because a living plant or suspended.
animal has a constant intake of carbon compounds,
it also has to maintain 14C to 12C ratio that is identical (iii) Proper handling of radio isotopes during their
with that of atmosphere . However, once the organism use in various fields should be done.

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