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Principles and Performance of Solar Energy Thermal Systems: A Web Course by

V.V.Satyamurty

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MODULE 3 Lecture No: 3

Sun - Earth Geometry
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In Module 3, Lecture No. 3 deals with

3.1 INTRODUCTION
3.2 SUN - EARTH SIZE, POSITION
3.3 THESOLAR CONSTANT
3.4 EXTRA TERRESTRIAL NORMAL RADIATION
3.5 DIFFERENT ANGLES
3.6 SUMMARY

Lecture 3

3.1 INTRODUCTION

In this module, the geometry of sun-earth positions and sizes and the distance are explained. A Solar
constant is defined, commonly taken as 1353 W/m2, though there are some variations in the estimates.
Further, distinct from the solar constant, solar radiation as received by a plane normal to sun’s rays, if there
is no attenuation in the atmosphere also is defined. This quantity varies from day to day due to ellipticity of
the earth’s orbit.

3.2 SUN - EARTH SIZE, POSITION

The geometry of the sun-earth relationships is shown schematically in Fig. 3.1. The distance between
the sun and earth varies by 1.7 % due to the elliptic orbit of the of the earth around the sun. The mean earth
distance is 1.495 x 1011 m. The sun subtends an angle of 32' with the earth. The diameter of the sun is 1.39
x 109 m and that of earth, 1.27 x 107 m.

The distance between the earth and the sun determines the intensity of solar radiation that can be
received by the earth, not withstanding the atmospheric attenuation. The elliptic motion (see, Fig. 2.1) of the
earth round the sun causes the seasonal variation in the solar radiation as received by the earth. In addition
to these geometric or “regular” variations, variation as actually received at any location is due to the
position of the location on the earth, day and time during the day and the climatic conditions such as cloudy,
bright, or rainy etc.. In this module, attention is focused on the solar radiation intensity, short term and long

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term (time period) values as received at a location on earth, if the atmosphere is fully transparent, i.e.,
atmospheric transmittance is equal to unity.
Sun
127  107 m
7900 mi
Earth
Dia. = 1.39  109 m
= 8.64  105 mi 32

Solar constant
= 1353 W/ m2
Gsc = 428 Btu/ft2 hr
= 4871 MJ/ m2 hr

1.495  1011 m
Distance is 1.7%
9.3  107 mi

Fig. 3.1 Sun-earth relationships

3.3 THE SOLAR CONSTANT

The solar constant, Gsc, is the energy from the sun, per unit time, received on a unit area of surface
perpendicular to the direction of propagation of the radiation at the earth's mean distance from the sun, if
the earth’s the atmosphere is fully transparent. It may be viewed on any unit surface normal to sun’s rays on
a sphere of radius equal to the sun-earth mean distance, thus alleviating the difficulty in imagining a fully
transparent atmospherte around the earth. The recently reported value of the solar constant is 1367 W/m2.

The physical idea can be obtained by considering the sun to be a sphere of diameter 1.39 x 109 m,
emitting as a black body at an effective temperature of 5762 K. The amount of radiation emitted by the sun
would be,  AsT4 W. , is the Stefan - Boltzman constant ( = 5.67 x 10-8 W/(m2K4) and As is the surface
area of the sun. The same amount of radiation passes through any sphere surrounding the sun as center.
Thus, the surface of a sphere of radius equal to the sun-earth mean distance will experience intensity
(W/m2) inversely proportional to the square of the radius of the sphere enclosing the sun. This proportioning
leads approximately to 1349 W/m2.

The variation in the total radiation emitted by sun is less than  1.5 %. For solar thermal processes that
use energy in large spectrum of the entire solar spectrum, and when the transmittance of atmosphere is a
major uncertainty, the emitted energy by the sun may be considered as constant.

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3.4 EXTRA TERRESTRIAL NORMAL RADIATION

Solar radiation on a surface normal to sun's rays kept at a distance of sun-earth, ( not the mean
distance, but the actual distance as of, on that day, that time) Gon , will essentially be the solar constant,
modified to take into account the varying distance between the sun and the earth. Gon is given by,

Gon = Gsc( 1 + 0.033 cos[360n/365] ) (3.1)

In Eq.(3.1), n is the day of the year, i.e., the sequential number of the day counting January 1 as 1.

Fig. 3.1 Concept of latitude, φ and longitude λ

3.5 DIFFERENT ANGLES

Latitude and Longitude are the coordinates of a point ( location ) on earth's surface. A location on the
earth’s surface may be specified by latitude, longitude and elevation. Elevation, does not directly enter into
calculation of different angles though may effect solar radiation received.
The constant latitude and longitude lines, north pole, south pole and the equatorial plane are shown
in Fig. 3.1. (Latitude,, is reckoned positive in the northern hemisphere and negative in the southern
hemisphere. Longitudes, λ, is described along with "east" or "west", meaning that the location is situated to
east or to west of the Greenwich meridian. Thus, the latitude varies from - 900 to + 900 and the longitude
varies from 00 to 1800 E or 00 to 1800 W.

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The latitude of a point on the earth's surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and a line that
passes through that point and is normal to the surface. The north pole is 90° N; the south pole is 90° S. The
0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the fundamental plane of all geographic coordinate
systems.

The Longitude λ, of a point on the earth's surface is the angle east or west from a reference
meridian to another meridian that passes through that point.

Latitude and longitude specify the position of any location on the planet, but do not account for
altitude or depth.

Eclipt ic
23½ o axis

Polar
axis
Sep 21
24 hr
89.83 million mi Sun 95.9 million mi

Dec 21 June 21
365¼ Days
Mar 21 Eclipt ic
Plane

(a)

Dec 21
23½o
23½o N Tropic of Cancer
N
latitude 23½o N

Equator Sun’s rays 23½o

Sun
Sun’s rays
23½o Equator

Tropic of Cap ricorn, S Axis of revolution S

June 21
latitude 23½o N of the earth about
the sun

(b)

Fig. 3.2 Motion of the earth about the sun

2. Declination, , is the angular position of the sun at solar noon with respect to the place of the equator.
Declination varies from - 23.450 to 23.450. , in degrees, for the day, n, of the year ( counting Jan. 1 as 1 ),
can be calculated from,

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 284  n 
 = 23.45 sin  360  (3.2)
 365 

Positions of the earth relative to sun at different times of the year are shown in Fig.3.2

3. Solar Time is the time based on the apparent angular motion of the sun across the sky, with solar noon
being the time the sun crosses the meridian of the observer. Solar time is used in all sun angle relationships.
The solar time in general deviates from the local clock time.

Solar time = Standard time  4(λst - λloc) + E (3.3)

In Eq.(3.3) λst is the longitude of the standard time and λloc is the longitude of the location under
consideration. In Eq.(3.3) + sign is to be used for longitudes "WEST" and - sign for longitudes "EAST". E
is equation of time, which is an additional correction due to perturbations in the earth's rate of rotation,
which affect the time the sun crosses the observer's meridian. E in minutes can be calculated from

E = 9.87 sin2B - 7.53 cosB -1.5 sinB (3.4)

In Eq.(3.4),

360(n  81)
B , where, n is the day of the year, 1  n  365 . (3.5)
364

4. Hour angle, , is the angular displacement of the sun east or west of the local meridian due to rotation
of earth on its axis at 150 per hour. .  = 0 , at solar noon and is reckoned negative in the forenoon and
positive in the after noon. For example the hour angle for 11 A.M solar time is -150 and for say, 2.30 P.M is
+37.50.

5. Surface azimuthal angle, , is defined as the deviation of the projection on a horizontal plane of the
normal to the surface from the local meridian, with zero due south, east negative and west positive, -1800 
  1800. The different angles can be clearly understood from Fig.3.3.

6. Angle of Incidence, , is defined as the angle between the sun's ray and the outer normal to a surface. If
the surface is horizontal, the angle of incidence is referred to as Zenith angle, z. The angle of incidence is
related to the latitude, , declination, , the hour angle, , slope of the surface, , and the azimuthal angle
of the surface,  by,

cos  = sin  sin  cos  - sin  cos  sin  cos  + cos  cos  cos  cos 
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+ cos  sin  sin  cos  cos  + cos  sin  sin  sin  (3.6)
Eq.(3.6) can be rewritten in a compact form as,

cos  = A + B cos + C sin (3.7)

A, B, C in Eq.(3.7) are given by,

A = sin  ( sin  cos  - cos sin  cos  ) (3.8)

B = cos ( cos  cos  + sin  sin  cos  ) (3.9)

C = cos  sin  sin  (3.10)

Zenith

Sun Normal to
horizontal surface

z

N
W
a 

rs

r E
S

Fig. 3.3 Different angles.

Zenith angle, z , can be obtained, by setting,  = 0, in Eq.(3.6), as,

cos z = cos  cos  cos  + sin  sin  (3.11)

Angle of incidence for a south facing surface, can be obtained from Eq.(3.6) by setting  = 0 , as,
cos  = cos ( - ) cos  cos  + sin (-) sin  (3.12)

7. Sunset hour angle,s, is defined as the hour angle for which the sun's rays are parallel to the horizon.
The sunset hour angle is obtained by setting z equal to /2. It follows from Eq.(3.7),

cos s =  tan  tan  (3.13)

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Or,

s = cos-1[  tan  tan  ] (3.14)

It may be noted that, Eq.(3.14) yields two value for s , equal in magnitude and opposite in sign. The value
with the negative sign is to be considered as sunrise according to our sign convention and the value with the
positive sign is the sunset hour angle. When ,s, is expressed in degrees, the number of sunshine hours for a
day, Ns, thus are,

Ns = 2s/15 (3.15)

A difficulty is to be noted in using Eq. (3.14). When { + }> 900, tan tan  > 1and the
inverse cosine function as required in Eq. (3.14) is not defined. This is due to the consequence of setting z
= /2 in obtaining Eq.(3.14) from Eq.(3.12) In reality, when { + }> 900, z = /2 does not occur for -
1800    1800. For example, consider a location of latitude 750 and two declinations, 200 and - 200. For, 
= 200 and  = 750, -tan tan < -1. For this situation s is to be taken as 1800. Similarly, for  = -200 and 
= 750, -tan tan >1 for which s is to be considered as 00.

3.5 SUMMARY

 Sun can be considered as a black body emitting radiation at an effective temperature of 5762 K.
 The solar constant is the amount of radiation, in the absence of atmosphere, received by a surface
kept normal to sun's rays at a distance of sun-earth mean distance, also called one astronomical
unit. Recently reported value of the solar constant is 1367 W/m2.
 The variation in the energy emitted by sun (  1.5 % ) is neglected, particularly because of the
uncertainty in the atmospheric transmittance.
 As the sun-earth distance varies, the solar radiation received by a surface kept normal to the sun's
rays varies by  3% .
 Various angles necessary to describe sun-earth-surface relative positions have been described.
 Latitude and longitude are the coordinates to specify a location.
 The declination essentially indicates the day and the hour angle the time of the day. The slope and
the azimuthal angle, the angle between the N-S axis and the projection on a horizontal of the outer
normal to the surface, characterize a surface orientation.
 The angle of incidence is the angle between the sun's ray and the outer normal to the surface.
 If the surface is horizontal, the angle of incidence is referred to as the zenith angle.

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 Sunset hour angle indicates when the sun's rays are parallel to the horizon. Indicates also the day
length.

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