Introduction to Electricity 11

takes on a positive charge because there are more protons in the nucleus than
orbiting electrons. The atom is then called a positive ion. Ionization of air is used
in some “air-conditioning” systems.
Sometimes it is possible to add an electron to the outer shell. This results in
a charged atom that is a negative ion. It is negative because there are more orbit-
ing electrons than protons in its nucleus.
Unlike charges attract. Therefore, a positive ion will attract an electron or any
negatively charged body. A negative ion, however, will repel an electron or any
negatively charged body.
Unlike charges on two bodies mean there is a difference between them (see
Fig. 1-12). A difference in charge exists between the four pairs of charged bodies
in Fig. 1-13. This difference is 4. If a conducting path for electrons is made
between any pair of bodies in Fig. 1-13, the same number of electrons would have
to move from left to right in the illustration to neutralize the charges. When two
bodies have the same charge and same polarity, there is no difference between
them.
So far we have considered the charge in terms of electrons or numbers. Now
we need to give the charge a name. A name is also needed for the difference that
exists between these charges.
Any substance, molecule or atom, may have a negative or positive charge. Or it
may be neutral. How much more negative or more positive can one body be charged
relative to another? If a comparison is made, some unit of measurement must be
used. Some standard reference should be used as a basic unit of measurement.

Figure 1-12 Invisible force fields extend outward from charged particles. (a) Lines
of force unite and draw the unlike charges together. (b) Lines of force do not unite,
so they repel.