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ABSTRACT
Marine environment is the most severe exposure condition for reinforced concrete structures
due to the presence of moisture, chlorides and sulphates. Coastal and offshore structures are
subjected to time-dependent deterioration due to chemical attack and steel corrosion. The
components of the concrete jetties show rapid deterioration due to the combined effects of
abrasion, corrosion and changes in both temperature and moisture content. Maintenance of
concrete jetties is a major concern to Port and Harbour Authorities in both developing and
developed countries. This paper reviews the possible deterioration mechanisms, inspection
techniques and restoration methods used for concrete jetties. Restoration methods can be
grouped into four categories, namely, conventional repair, cathodic protection, chloride
extraction and protective coatings. Advantages and disadvantages of these methods are
discussed. Restoration strategy needs to cover issues such as (a) whether a short-term or
long-term strategy is needed; (b) merits and limitations of restoration methods; (c)
procedures of the restoration techniques; (d) criteria for successful protection of jetties; and
(e) comparison of initial and on-going cost.
1. INTRODUCTION
Coastline of Australia has many reinforced concrete jetties in service and some of them were
constructed over 20 years ago with the materials, specification and technology existed at that
time. Due to the severity of the exposed environment, it is not surprising to see some jetties
with signs of deterioration. They require restoration for their continuous service. The
maintenance of the jetties is a major concern to the Port and Harbour Authorities in Australia.
A concrete jetty consists of several components including, piles, headstocks, edge and centre
beams, deck planks and top deck. They are subjected to different exposure conditions
depending upon their locations in the structure. The pile sections may be in one of the
following four zones namely, mud zone, submerged zone, tidal and splash zone and
atmospheric zone. Other components may be subjected to tidal, splash or atmospheric zones.
The main cause for the deterioration of the jetties is the diffusion of chlorides, carbon dioxide
and sulphates into the cover concrete. To minimise the maintenance cost and to enhance the
service life, it is necessary to develop maintenance programs based on the proper
understanding of the deterioration mechanisms. In addition, a sound knowledge on the repair
techniques is needed to make informed decisions on the possible repair options. This paper
reviews the deterioration mechanisms, inspection techniques and restoration methods for
reinforced concrete jetties.
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the bound chlorides could become free with time to increase the corrosion risk for steel.
Therefore, testing for acid chlorides is a conservative approach.
4. RESTORATION METHODS
Restoration methods can be grouped into four categories namely, conventional repair,
cathodic protection, chloride extraction, and protective coating. This section reviews these
methods in relation to the procedures, advantages and limitations.
vibrators fixed to the underside of the beams. Once the concrete sets the forms can be
removed and the newly formed concrete surface should be prevented from drying so that
curing can be promoted.
that a minimum 150mV negative shift from the base potential (prior to commissioning of CP)
to the 'instant off' potential. The absolute potential criterion indicates that the instant off
potential should be -800mV (Ag/AgCl) or more negative. This criterion is more suitable for
sections immersed in seawater or frequently wetted by seawater.
electrolyte. To this mix, 10g of powdered graphite and 10g of builder's lime are added for 1kg
of dry paper used. Mounting of anodes to the concrete surface should be done in such a way
that no metallic fixing comes in contact with the live wires or paper mache. In the case of the
soffit sections of the decks of the jetty, the anodes are mounted off the scaffolding or other
rigid support using a series of jacks. In the case of headstocks, mountings are made using the
jacks or ropes using tightening toggles. The concrete surface is thoroughly wetted in advance
and gently sprayed with fresh water prior to pressing the anode into contact with the concrete
surface. There should be a minimum delay between placing the anode and 'switching on' of
the current. The current of 10A is applied when the corresponding voltage is below 100V. As
drying and heating occur the resistance increase and when a reading of 100V is attained the
system is 'switched off'. The effectiveness of the chloride removal can be determined by
analysing the drillings for chloride content and comparing with the original chloride content,
at various locations.
Once resistance rises too much, or sufficient time passed based on experience, the system is
'switched off" and the anode is removed as soon as possible. As the removal of chloride ions
results in an increase in the permeability of concrete and the hydroxyl ions may have moved
out with the chloride ions, it is important that pore blocking should be carried out and
realkalization of concrete should be achieved. These two processes can be achieved at the
same time by the treatment of the concrete surfaces with sodium silicate. In the presence of
calcium ions sodium silicate undergoes base exchange, forming insoluble calcium silicate
hydrate and sodium hydroxide, a string base. The insoluble silicate blocks the pores, whereas
the soluble hydroxide ions protect the steel from further corrosion. Once this treatment is
over, the residual sodium silicate is removed by brushing without rewetting. Then, a solution
of 40% by weight alkyl trialkoxy silicane in an anhydrous alcohol solvent should be applied
to coat the concrete surface and to reduce the chloride ingress into concrete.
not be carried out when the shade temperature is below 5oC or the concrete temperature is
greater than 25oC. The depth of silane penetration can be tested by taking 50mm diameter by
50mm long cores. By spraying each core with a temporary volatile dye, the depth of silane
penetration can be established.
5. CASE STUDIES
of silane coating. Chloride sampling showed that the effectiveness of the chloride extraction
method depended on factors including, initial chloride content, moisture content, previous
repair history, size and condition of the member and sampling location factor.
6. CONCLUDING REMARKS
The major cause for the deterioration of reinforced concrete jetties is the ingress of chloride
ions. Visual inspection and detailed investigation can be used to identify the deterioration
mechanism and appropriate the restoration program must be chosen. Restoration strategy
needs to cover issues such as (a) whether a short-term or long-term strategy is needed; (b)
merits and limitations of restoration methods; (c) procedures of the restoration techniques; (d)
criteria for successful protection of jetties; and (e) comparison of initial and on-going cost.
7. REFERENCES
1. Sri Ravindrarajah, R. and Moses, P. R., Effect of binder type on chloride penetration in
mortar, Proc. of the Fourth International Conference on Structural Failure, Durability and
Retrofitting, Singapore, 1993, pp. 303-309.
2. Liu, P. C., Shen, Y. Y. and Sri Ravindrarajah, R., Influence of binder materials type on
corrosion protection of steel, Proc. of the International Conference on Corrosion and
Corrosion Protection of Steel in Concrete, 1994, Sheffield, England, Volume II, pp. 817-
824.
3. Sri Ravindrarajah, R., Shen, Y. Y. and Liu, P. C., Chloride ion permeability in mortar
incorporating fly ash and slag, Proc. of the International Ceramics Conference Austcerm
94, 1994, Sydney, Vol. 1, No. 1, pp. 135-140.
4. Brown, R. D., Mechanisms of corrosion of steel in concrete in relation to design,
inspection and repair offshore and coastal structures, Performance of concrete in marine
environment, American Concrete Institute, ACI-SP 65, 1980, pp. 169-204.
5. Green, W.K. and Grapiglia, J. P., Recent developments in cathodic protection systems in
reinforced concrete, Proc. of the Australasian Corrosion Association Conference '95, Perth
Nov. 1995.
6. Weyers, R. E., and Cady, P. D., Cathodic protection of concrete bridge decks, ACI
Journal. Vol. 81, No. 6, Nov. - Dec. 1984, pp. 612-622.
7. Ali, M. G., Al-Gahtani and Sri Ravindrarajah, R., Cathodic protection criteria for two-
layered reinforced concrete structures, Proc. of the Fourth ACI/CANMET Fourth Inter.
Conf. on Durability of concrete, Sydney, 1997, Vol. II, pp. 1097-1118.