Elder Olson - Outline of A Poetic Theory

William Empson, Contemporary Criticism and Poetic Diction
Author(s): Elder Olson

Source: Modern Philology, Vol. 47, No. 4 (May, 1950), pp. 222-252
Published by: The University of Chicago Press
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WILLIAM EMPSON, CONTEMPORARY CRITICISM
AND POETIC DICTION
ELDER OLSON
THE last quarter of a century has it is, he is. Nor is this extraordinary; in
seen the rise, in England and Ameri- certain respects it can be said that he has
ca, of a new critical movement. Its produced it, and it, him. His prestige,
mere longevity would perhaps entitle it briefly, is enormous; his theories, never
to some importance in the eyes of future too vigorously assailed, have gained wider
literary historians; but that importance acceptance with the years, and his par-
is guaranteed and augmented by the es- ticular interpretations of texts are re-
teem which it has won, and by the dis- garded as pretty nearly exhaustive and
tinction and persistent fame of the persons definitive. The recent republication of one
who are regarded as its chief practitioners. of his principal works, Seven types of
The "New Criticism," as this movement ambiguity,2 as a "classic of modern criti-
is called by both its friends and its foes, cism," affords us an occasion to examine
seems to be almost universally regarded the critical method of Mr. Empson and,
as having at last brought literary study to in that connection, of the New Criticism
as well.
a condition rivaling that of the sciences.
I
It has, we are frequently told, established
itself upon principles the scientific char- For Empson, as for his master I. A.
acter of which is assured by the fact that Richards, poetry is simply an aspect or
they are drawn from such sciences as psy- condition of language; it is therefore de-
chology, biology, anthropology, linguis- finable in terms of its medium; it is lan-
tics, economics, and so on, in their most guage differentiated from other language
modern development; it has led, accord- by a certain attribute. Richards first pro-
ing to its proponents, to an unparalleled posed that this distinguishing feature was
accuracy and minuteness in the treatment ambiguity, and occupied himself with ex-
of texts, and in the employment of termi- hibiting the complexities of response
nology and critical techniques; it has, we which ambiguity engenders; Empson has
are assured, an over-all if not specific followed by enumerating seven kinds of
unity of method, as well as a doctrine ambiguity.
sufficiently established to permit a list of The term "ambiguity" here does not
"heresies" and "fallacies"; finally, and carry its usual meaning. Ambiguity as
best of all, it not only can discuss more 1 I do not, of course, imply that every one of these
views is held by every critic, and with equal conviction
and explain it better than the outworn and enthusiasm. But I have taken pains to con-
criticisms which it supplants, but it is struct a statement which should convey as fully as
possible, and without too great inaccuracy, the
still, like the sciences, in a happy condi- general attitude which the New Critics assume
tion of growth.' toward their criticism. See John Crowe Ransom, The
new criticism, preface; William Elton, A glossary of
Mr. William Empson is among the the new criticism (Chicago, 1949), pp. 3-5; Robert
principal exponents of this movement, W. Stallman, "The New Critics," in Critiques and
essays in criticism (New York, 1949), p. 506.
and it might almost be said that where he
2 2d ed., rev. and reset; New York: New Directions,
is mentioned, it is mentioned, and where 1947.
[MODERN PHILOLOGY, May, 19501 222
WILLIAM EMPSON 223
Empson conceives it the is

first,not the
for example, mere
divides into "com-pos-
parisons with an
session of double meaning; several points of likeness,"
obvious pun
or a patent irony is "antitheses with several points of
not ambiguous, differ-in-
for
ence,"
stance, "because there is"'comparative'
no room adjectives,"
for puz- "'sub-
zling";3 although such dued' metaphors,"
expressions and ambiguities of
when
less obvious are called rhythm, ambiguous
or, as Empson puts it, "even
"extra
by a critic who never doubted
meanings suggested bytheir
rhythm."' mean-
ing" since they are "calculated to deceive
One of his best-known passages is in
at least a section of their readers."4 Nor illustration of "comparison with several
is ambiguity simply concision, nor the points of likeness," and is a good example
quality of language which produces mixed of his method in operation:
emotions; it is, rather, "any verbal nu- There is no pun, double syntax, or dubiety
ance, however slight, which gives roomof feeling, in
for alternative reactions to the same piece Bare ruined choirs where late
of language."' The important point here the sweet birds sang,
is that of alternative reactions; Empson but the comparison holds for many reasons:
illustrates his meaning by remarking that because ruined monastery choirs are places in
a child might view the sentence "The which to sing, because they involve sitting in
brown cat sat on the red mat" as part of a a row, because they are made of wood, are
fairy story or as an excerpt from Reading carved into knots and so forth, because they
without tears.6 used to be surrounded by a sheltering building
The ambiguities are types of "logical crystallized out of the likeness of a forest, and
disorder," arranged as stages of advanc- coloured with stained glass and painting like
flowers and leaves, because they are now aban-
ing disorder,' or, what is apparently the
doned by all but the grey walls coloured like
same thing, "in order of increasing dis-the skies of winter, because the cold and Nar-
tance from simple statement and logical cissistic charm suggested by choir-boys suits
exposition."8 The seven types, then, arewell with Shakespeare's feeling for the object
kinds in which (1) "a detail is effective inof the sonnets, and for various sociological and
several ways at once," (2) "two or more historical reasons (the protestant destruction
alternative meanings are fully resolved of monasteries, fear of puritanism), which it
into one," (3) "two apparently uncon- would be hard now to trace out in their pro-
nected meanings are given simultane-portions; these reasons, and many more relat-
ously," (4) "alternative meanings com-ing the simile to its place in the Sonnet, must
bine to make clear a complicated state ofall combine to give the line its beauty, and
mind in the author," (5) "a fortunate there is a sort of ambiguity in not knowing
which of them to hold most clearly in mind.
confusion" is present, "as when the Clearly this is involved in all such richness and
author is discovering his idea in the act
heightening of effect, and the.machinations of
of writing or not holding it all in his mind ambiguity are among the very roots of
at once," (6) "what is said is contradic- poetry.10
tory or irrelevant and the reader is forced
The broad theory underlying Empson's
to invent interpretations," and (7) "full
method seems to be as follows. Poetry
contradiction" is present, "marking a
uses language, and language is meaningful
division in the author's mind." These
and communicative; hence poetry is com-
kinds are general and have subdivisions;
* These quotations have been extracted from the
3 P. x. S P. 1. 7 P. 48.
analytical table of contents, pp. v-vi.
4 Ibid. 6 P. 2. 8 P. 7. 10 Pp. 2-3.
224 ELDER OLSON
municative. In analyzing
rests upon this theory is, as communi
we might ex-
there are three possibilities:
pect, one reducing all poetic considera- on
speak about what happened
tions to considerations in th
of poetic diction,
thor's mind, about what
and one reducing is
all discussion likely
of diction,
pen in the reader's mind,
even, to problems or The
of ambiguities. "abou
parties at once," methodasmightinvolved
be described as the permu-in th
munication itself." The first two kinds of tation and combination of all the various
discussion, according to Empson, make "meanings" of the parts of a given dis-
the claim of knowing too much; "the rules course, whether these parts be simple or
as to what is conveyable are so much more complex; out of the mass of "meanings"
mysterious even than the rules governing so found, Empson selects those which
the effects of ambiguity" that the third "give room for alternative reactions,"
possibility is best. Hence in the main he i.e., which satisfy the fundamental condi-
talks about the third, although he is by tion of ambiguity. The instrument by
no means, he says, "puristic" about this.12 which he detects the possible meanings of
Apparently the poet communicates ideas, words is the Oxford English dictionary;
like everyone else, and the reader is af- although it is seldom mentioned by name,
fected by these ideas according to their its presence everywhere is neither invisi-
kind; the poet, however, would seem to ble nor subtle. Its lengthy lists of mean-
be a poet, not in virtue of the emotional ings seem to have impressed no one so
quality of his ideas, but in virtue of the much as Empson. Apparently he reasons
devices of ambiguity which-he consciously that, since poetry is language highly
or unconsciously employs. Moreover, the charged with meaning, the poetic word
effects proper to poetry are not the emo- must invariably stagger under the full
tions evoked by the ideas; rather, since weight of its dictionary significances.
ambiguity is the essence of poetry, the Since the mass of significances achieved
process of reading is a process of "invent- by permutation and combination is often
ing reasons" why certain elements should very great, and since ambiguity is so ex-
have been selected for a poem, as in the tensive a principle of selection, the dis-
passage just quoted, and the peculiar covery of the main meaning or meanings
pleasure derived from poetry is produced of a passage often becomes for Empson
by the mental activity in response to an embarrassing matter. At such points
these ambiguities.'3 It is, to use Empson's he invokes the aid of rather general and
own word, a pleasure of "puzzling," ap- often highly dubious historical, ethical,
parently different from the pleasure af- and psychological propositions about the
forded by riddles, charades, and anagrams poet and the audience. I suspect that such
in that these latter involve matters emo- propositions are mainly conveniences for
tionally indifferent. him; he does not, at any rate, worry too
The method of interpretation which greatly when he finds they are false.14
11 P. 243.
The resulting interpretation is not al-
12 P. 235 n.
ways so prettily fanciful as the remarks
13 "Two statements are made as if they were con-
on the Shakespearean sonnet may suggest;
nected, and the reader is forced to consider their rela-
tions for himself. The reason why these facts should
fanciful it is always, indeed, but the
have been selected for a poem is left for him to invent;
he will invent a variety of reasons and order themmethod
in of "permutation and combina-
his own mind. This, I think, is the essential fact about
the poetical use of language" (p. 25; see also p. 57).
14 See, e.g., p. 21 n.
WILLIAM EMPSON 225
tion," as I have called it, remembered at once, however often you
is a mechanical
method, and it is capable readof
it. . all
. ."15 the mind-
less brutality of a machine. Witness
Such a passage theonly atten-
as this needs
treatment of a famous speechtive reading
of to make manifest its utter
Macbeth:
absurdity; but then that very absurdity
If it is an example of the first type [of am-
biguity] to use a metaphor in awhich
fashion protects
is valid it, and
ingains a cer-
tain of
several ways, it is an example credence
the for it; it is to
second so absurd that
we in a measure
use several different metaphors at believe
once, it, merely
as because
Shakespeare is doing in the we are loath to believe
following example.that anything
It is impossible to avoid Shakespeare in
could be so absurd. Tothese
escape such spu-
matters; partly because his rious persuasion, we must, I is
use of language think, forci-
of unparalleled richness and partly
bly remind because
ourselves of the it
facts. We are
has received so much attention already; so that
actually being asked to believe that the
the inquiring student has less to do, is more
speech actually means all these various
likely to find what he is looking for, and has
things; that Macbeth, trembling on the
evidence that he is not spinning fancies out of
his own mind. brink of murder, and restrained only by
As a resounding example, then, there is his fears of what may follow, is babbling
Macbeth's of bird-nets, pothooks, levers, trolleys,
assessments, lawsuits, and what not; and
If it were done, when 'tis done, then 'twere well
all this on the shadowy grounds that the
It were done quickly;
OED, or whatever dictionary, lists alter-
(double syntax since you may stop at the native
end meanings for "trammel," "sur-
of the line) cease," and "assassination," and that
If th' Assassination poetic language is ambiguous. This is a
wrenching of a text if I ever saw one;
Could trammel up the Consequence, and catch
With his surcease, Success; that but... what is worse, it is a wrenching to no ra-
tional purpose. The remark about "double
words hissed in the passage where servants
syntax" is typical; for there is no double
were passing, which must be swaddled with
syntax in
darkness, loaded as it were in themselves with
fearful powers, and not made too naked even If it were done, when 'tis done, then 'twere well
to his own mind. Consequence means causal It were done quickly ...,
result, and the things to follow, though not
for if you pause at the end of the line, as
causally connected, and, as in 'a person of con-
Empson suggests, you leave an unac-
sequence,' the divinity that doth hedge a king.
Trammel was a technical term used about counted-for and absolutely unintelligible
residue
netting birds, hobbling horses in some par- in the next line; and as a matter
of and
ticular way, hooking up pots, levering, fact you make nonsense, anyway, of
running trolleys on rails. Surcease meansthe
com-first. In short, the "double syntax"
here owes its existence only to the sup-
pletion, stopping proceedings in the middle of
a lawsuit, or the overruling of a judgment; the that poetry is necessarily am-
position
word reminds you of 'surfeit' and 'decease,' as
biguous.
does assassination of hissing and 'assess' and,
There are many other marvels of in-
as in 'supersession,' through sedere, of knock-
terpretation: at one point Empson not
ing down the mighty from their seat....
only confuses Macbeth with the witches,
He continues this at some length, butcon-the play itself with King Lear;16 in
cluding: "The meanings cannot all be 15 Pp. 49-50. 16 P. 18, par. 3.
226 ELDER OLSON
Hamlet, the line interesting"Inand valuable

the situation is in-
dead v
middle of the volved. night"(The statement iseven of that much
made to
personification is, ofby theNight
way, left undefended
as one and un- of
ble women of supported destiny, by Empson, although
onhisthe whole g
possible puns (vast: position depends upon it.) Andwaist,
waste: he seems m
night:middle of to discuss the sign-ambiguity--rather
body);17 and C
translation ofthan the "interesting
the Dies and valuable
Irae, situa- on
compelling grounds, tion" of which it is arefers to t
sign only because the
tion of God-hence the poet,
sign is "less mysterious."23 In short, he "t
image for the purest
appears to be in the positionlove..
of many of .
on sexuality in the itsancientmost
theorists whoinfantile
sought to dis-
creditable form.""8 But one of the most cuss the elevated style; the style itself
common results of Empson's procedure is evaded their formulations, but since it
that poets appear to him unintelligible, or,predominantly involved certain tropes,
to use his own word, "muddled." For ex- the tropes might be analyzed, although,
ample, Shakespeare's Sonnet XVI, with
it was recognized, the mere production of
which I imagine few readers have foundtropes would not constitute elevation of
difficulty, is "muddled."19 style.
These things of course result, as I have Indeed, Empson is really a tropist
said, from the theory of ambiguity; and manqug, and the seven types are really
one would suppose that a principle so tropes, as can be seen from the fact that
ruthlessly applied would be of absolute the regular tropes fall under his divisions;
force, especially since it is the "essence" the first type, for instance, includes meta-
of poetry. But as a matter of fact, Empson phor and antithesis, and the subclasses
is not quite willing to credit it with as are clearly subclasses of tropes. But there
much authority as he demands from it. are certain important differences between
An ambiguity, while it can be "beauti- the types of ambiguity and the ancient
ful,"20 is "not satisfying in itself, nor is it, tropes; the types are not nearly so com-
considered on its own, a thing to be at- prehensive; they do not offer nearly such
tempted; it must in each case arise from, clear distinctions between figures of lan-
and be justified by, the peculiar require- guage; they are not organized upon nearly
ments of the situation.""' "On the other so clear a principle; and, what is most
hand, it is a thing which the more inter- crucial, they are not nearly so useful. The
esting and valuable situations are moremain difficulty with the tropes, as they
likely to justify."22 This is an admission, were generally treated, was that, in
I take it, that ambiguity is not even in Samuel Butler's phrase, "All a rhetori-
Empson's view the principle of poetry,cian's rules/Teach nothing but to name
since its propriety or impropriety is deter- his tools"; that is, their treatment was
mined by something else-an unanalyzed not sufficiently functional; but they did
thing vaguely called "the situation." offer a precise and exhaustive distinction,
Rather, it is a sign, and by no means anat their best, between kinds of gram-
infallible sign even for Empson, that anmatical devices. Hence, once a trope has
17 pp. 96-97. 18 Pp. 222-24.
been identified, one is in a position to in-
19 P. 57. The sonnet is analyzed on pp. 54-56. quire how it has been used, and thereby
20 P. 235. arrive ultimately at judgments of value.
21 Ibid. 22 Ibid. 23 P. 243.
WILLIAM EMPSON 227
Empson's types, ing

however,
my coat about minordo not I ev
controversies,
claimed at of
permit the distinction the outset
the thatdevice;
I would use I fea
that only Empson
the can find
term ambiguity instances
to mean anything I o
them, and even heliked,
is and
sometimes
repeatedly told theunsure.24
reader that
But indeed to deal rigorously with the distinctions between the Seven Types
Empson's ideas, to attempt to state them which he was asked to study would not be
clearly, to demand precision and ade- worth the attention of a profounder
quacy of proof for them, is in a sense to thinker." And he remarks, briefly after-
be very unfair to him. It is unfair, per- ward: "I have tried to clear the text of
haps, even to inquire into his exact mean- the gratuitous puzzles of definition and
ing. As a matter of fact, I am not sure draw attention to the real ones.""9
that he means anything exactly. He is con- After such admissions it is almost im-
stantly offering statements; but there is proper to remark what is nevertheless
not one-even of his cardinal doctrines-- plain to behold. Empson is not sure of the
which he is willing to stand by. It would types of ambiguity; for instance, he is not
appear that he is offering a method of sure that the first type is ambiguous.30
verbal analysis based on ambiguity; but He is not sure of the principles of classi-
he is not quite sure what he means by fication. He is not sure that his method is
"ambiguity."25 It requires certain condi- useful to poets-on the contrary, poets
tions; but these conditions are not always ought to avoid ambiguity"3-nor that it
satisfied by his examples.26 His first defini- is of too much use even to readers, for, he
tion of ambiguity was that it "adds some says, they need not remember or apply
nuance to the direct statement of prose." it.32 In short, it would seem that his only
But, he continues, "this begs a philosophi- safeguard against complete and utter
cal question and stretches the term am- refutation is his slipperiness of statement
biguity so far that it becomes almost and his ability to insist that any counter-
meaningless." Even his new definition "is argument, any refutation, does not affect
not meant to be decisive but to avoid con- his ideas, but is merely a criticism of his
fusing the reader; naturally the question expression.
of what would be the best definition of These traits might seem to convict him
of sophistry also; but they are rather a
ambiguity.., .crops up all through the
clue to the interpretation of his work. He
book.""' Elsewhere, he remarks in a foot-
note: "Effects worth calling ambiguous is pointing to a problem; whatever we
may think about his statement and treat-
occur when the possible alternative mean-
ings of word or grammar are used to give
ment of it, the problem itself undoubtedly
alternative meanings to the sentence"28- exists: what kind of minute and precise
but this would disallow much of his own discussion of poetic language is requisite
practice, for he constantly confounds po- in order to make manifest the subtleties
tential with actual meaning, as in theof genius and art? His principal difficulty
examples we have just considered. Theis that contemporary criticism, for reasons
real truth of the matter is, I suspect, that in we shall examine later, affords no
the following sentence: "Apart from trail- devices by which such a problem can be
24 E.g., "The fundamental situation, whether it
handled. In fact, it cannot even be accu-
deserves to be called ambiguous or not..." (p. 2). 29 Preface to the 2d ed., pp. vii-viii.
25 See preface to the 2d ed., pp. vii-xv. so P. 2.
26 E.g., p. 214, par. 2. 27 P. 1 n. 28 P. 70 n. 11 Pp. 235-36. 32 P. 256.
228 ELDER OLSON
rately stated; for instance,

ple part-whole the
inference, and wholly lin- on
natives to his guistic
theory in character; ifwhich
the child fails to Em
conceive are the theories of "Pure Sound" infer the whole, he is reminded by analy-
and of "Atmosphere," as he calls them;33 sis into parts and types of construction.
since neither of these is tenable, he pur-Sentences which have a meaning of this
sues his own course. He seems utterly in- order may be of infinite grammatical com-
nocent of any knowledge of the history plexity; they will still be direct or simple
in meaning, since the meaning is the
of criticism; as a consequence, he is a vic-
tim of the collapse of the theory of art in
resultant only of verbal signs.
his own day. Possessing no clear or ade- But secondly, meaning may be the
quate poetic principles, he neverthelessresultant of more than verbal signs. It
has his intuitions, and he must use lan-
may, that is, result from inferences based
guage to express these. If the languageon the character or purpose of the speaker,
permits the concept to shine through, well
the manner of delivery (e.g., facial expres-
and good; if not, one must alter the lan-sion, gesture, etc.), our presupposed
guage. Recognizing that poetic language knowledge or opinions of the subject, the
can be enormously effective, he supposes situation, and many other circumstances;
that this is due to denseness of meaning;and-while such inferences are frequently
and since denseness of meaning implies unrelated to the meaning, or do not affect
ambiguity, one must discuss ambiguity. it-frequently also they serve to modify,
emphasize, or even contradict the mean-
It is, indeed, on this topic of Meaning,
so crucial to his system as well as to that
ing of the words uttered. For instance,
of Richards, that his confusions are leastirony, as we now conceive it, is possible
manifest and most serious. Perhaps most because we can infer from something over
serious of all is that between meaning andand above the verbal expression that the
implication or inference. expression means the opposite of what it
The discrimination of four conditions of says. Sentences affected by such inferences
meaning and inference may perhaps clar-never mean quite what they say; however
ify this issue. First, meaning may be pres- simple their form, their meaning is never
ent without inference, or, if inference is a simple resultant of the verbal ex-
present, it is based wholly upon linguistic pressions.
or other semantic matters-for example, Thirdly, meaning, if it is produced by
if language is involved, upon the meanings inference, also produces inference which
of words and upon syntactical laws. is not, however, part of the meaning. Not
Meaning here is the simple resultant of every inference which can be drawn from
the significant powers of words and of a fact is meant by the sentence which
their combinations; the meaning of what states the fact. An axiom of geometry does
Empson calls "direct" statement or ex- not, in its statement, mean every theorem
pression is of this order. Inference, ifwhich can be drawn from it. Similarly, a
present at all, is here minimal; from what sentence is in itself a fact, but inferences
a child knows, for instance, of the ele- drawn from that fact are no part of its
mental parts (word-meanings) and of meaning. For example, if a certain sen-
types of construction (attribution, predi- tence is possible, it is inferable that lan-
cation, etc.) he may infer the meaning ofguage is possible; but the sentence itself-
the primer sentence. This would be sim- say, Empson's "The brown cat sat on the
s P. 8. red mat"-does not, as he thinks, mean
WILLIAM EMPSON 229
"Language is possible" orof"This
a poem isis
to confuse
a state-meaning with the
ment about a cat." implication of a fact.
Fourthly, inference is possible quite Presumably, however, Empson means
apart from meaning. If I see a bloodythe ax diction of the poem when he speaks of
and infer that something was killed withpoetry. In that case he confuses the dic-
tion with the poem; but his question may
it, no question of meaning is involved, for
all arbitrary signs are absent; a fact be very readily answered. In the broadest
implies a fact, even in the absence of what the diction means, precisely,
sense,
language and meaning. is the poem itself.
Now while Empson talks of meaningThe importance of these distinctions,
and implication, he makes no effective which at first sight may seem pedantic
distinction between these four cases. All and useless, is that they lead, so far as
are equally "meaning" for him. The cat- poetics is concerned, to a distinction-a
sentence does not have merely its obvious very important one for the problems in
meaning (case 1), but it means that it which Empson is interested-between
might have come out of a fairy story or a lexis and praxis; between speech as mean-
primer (case 2) and that it is a statementingful and speech as action. What the
about a cat (case 3). The confusion wouldpoetic character says in the mimetic poem
not be so serious, perhaps, if it did notis speech and has meaning; his saying it
carry with it his commitment to diction- is action, an act of persuading, confessing,
aries. As one can readily see, dictionarycommanding, informing, torturing, or
meanings are absolutely determinative, what not. His diction may be accounted
if anywhere, only in the first case; andfor in grammatical and lexicographical
they grow less and less so, until they areterms; not so, his action. And the pro-
not involved at all in the last case. fundity and complexity in poetry which
so much interests Empson is due primarily
The confusion becomes particularly
to action and character, which cannot be
important when Empson is talking of the
Meaning of Poetry. For strictly speaking, handled in grammatical terms, rather
a mimetic poem, an imitation-an~d he is than to diction, which can. That pro-
mainly concerned with poems of this kind fundity is only in a small degree verbal,
-has no meaning at all. It is a certain in the sense that verbal analysis will yield
kind of product, like a picture, a sym- the whole of it; and even then it is very,
phony, or a statue; like an ax, a bed, a very seldom a matter of verbal ambiguity.
Shakespeare's profoundest touches are a
chair; it has no more meaning as a poem
case in point. "Pray you, undo this but-
than these have.34 It is a fact; from that
ton" and "The table's full" are profound,
fact we may make inferences, to which we
not as meaningful verbal expressions, but
respond emotionally and about which we
as actions permitting an extraordinary
make judgments; but it means nothing;
number of implications, in that they are
it is. In short, to speak of the "meaning" revelatory of many aspects of character
34 I trust that these statements will not seem to

and situation. We shall not explain them
make me a member of what Empson calls the "cult of by jumbling the dictionary meanings of
Pure Sound" and that they will give no encourage-
ment to slovenly and irresponsible reading. I do not
"button" and "table," but by asking,
imply here that the attempt to discover meaning among other things, why Lear requested
should be foregone, but that more than meaning is
involved in poetry. The ensuing discussion will, I
the unfastening of a button and why
hope, clarify the somewhat terse statement here. Macbeth thought the table was full. This
230 ELDER OLSON
is true even in thus at first sight diction

lyric and the other
poetry: th
more" of "Lycidas," parts of the poem for seem mutuallyinstanc
deter-
profound verbal minative;meaning;
on closer inspection, however, it is
because it implies we see that because
the has a different
repeatedsense in
of bereavement. each case, since it refers to a cause of a
The theories of Richards and Empson different order. The words are a cause of
illustrate a tendency, very prevalent our conjecturing the character; the char-
among critics who rate diction as impor-acter is a cause of the words being said.
tant, to rate it as entirely too important. We can see this even if we are speaking
In the order of our coming to know the merely of words and meaning: the words
poem, it is true, the words are all-impor-are a cause of our knowing the meaning;
tant; without them we could not know the but the meaning is the cause of the words
poem. But when we grasp the structure we in their selection and ordering.
see that in the poetic order they are the If the words, then, are not what is pri-
least important element; they are gov- marily responsible for the effect, purely
erned by everything else in the poem. We verbal interpretation, however essential,
are in fact far less moved by the words as will not explain poetry, any more than
mere words than we think; we think our- stringing fine diction together will con-
selves moved mainly by them because stitute it. Indeed, even Empson in a man-
they are the only visible or audible part ner admits this; for he tells us that am-
of the poem. As soon as we grasp the biguity must be justified by the "situa-
grammatical meaning of an expression in tion"; but he makes the fatal error of
a mimetic poem, we begin drawing infer-supposing that, because the situation is
ences which we scarcely recognize as in- not something verbal, it is therefore out-
ferences, because they are just such as weside the bounds of poetic consideration.
habitually make in life; inferences from As a consequence of this, he defines the
the speech as to the character, his situa- poetic pleasure itself much too loosely;
tion, his thought, his passion, suddenly that pleasure is not, as he thinks, a logical
set the speaker vividly before us and pleasure produced by puzzling over the
arouse our emotions in sympathy or an- relation between statements; it is a pleas-
tipathy; our humanity is engaged, and it ure produced by a play of emotions aroused
is engaged by humanity. But where we in us by an exhibition of the actions and
can draw no such inferences, where no fortunes of men. Inference is indeed in-
such impression of humanity is conveyed, volved, and carries a pleasure of its own;
we remain largely indifferent in the face of but inference is only a necessary condi-
the finest diction. These inferences, more- tion, and not a sufficient cause, of the
over, largely determine our interpretation poetic pleasure.
of the language itself; we recognize a pun This looseness of treatment might seem
or an ambiguity when we see a human to broaden the scope of Empson's in-
reason why the character should deal in quiry; but it tends rather to restrict. He
puns and ambiguities, and not when the can conceive of metaphors, for instance,
dictionary lists a variety of meanings. only as comparisons based upon real simi-
We do indeed say the character must be larity; the more real likenesses present,
so-and-so because his words are such-and- the better the metaphor; the better the
such, as well as that the words must be metaphor, the better the poem. His treat-
such-and-such because the character is so; ment of "Bare ruined choirs" is an in-
WILLIAM EMPSON 231
Contemporary
stance. What he misses criticism seems,
entirely isfor a
the go
ernance of metaphor variety of reasons,byto havethought,
broken with
thought by character, the past, and to of
have begun afresh upon
character b
action. For a metaphor a discussion of principles.
is Suchnot a venture
simpl
figure of diction in required a new determination
poetry; it is of the sub-
also som
one's thinking, significantly, ject matter of criticism and reopened
that the som
thing resembles something; it is the question of the nature of poetry, thereby
thought, that is, of a certain character ingiving rise to an indefinite number of
a certain situation, and it is significant of definitions and hypotheses. The principal
these things. The best similitudes are notreason for the rejection of preceding theo-
always good metaphors in a given poem, ries was the belief that these were incom-
and the best metaphors are not always mensurate, and incapable of being made
good similitudes. commensurate, with the growth of poetry
In short, something is missing in all in our time, having been, it was supposed,
this; and what is missing is the nature offounded upon conceptions of poetry en-
poetry. tirely too narrow and limited. The new
II criticism was to comprehend all that has
been called "poetry," to discover its true
Empson's theory, then, deals only with nature and determine methods of its
a single part of poetry, and that part the proper criticism and construction. A
least important one poetically; indeed, second important reason stemmed from
only with a single attribute of that part, the advances made in certain sciences
and one only vaguely and suppositiously which might have some bearing on poet-
attached to poetry, for ambiguity is nei- ry; psychology, for instance, was thought
ther peculiar to poetry nor universal to to have advanced considerably and to pos-
all, or to the best, poetry. Moreover, his sess new techniques and hypotheses that
treatment even of that attribute is so
applied immediately both to the creative
limited as not merely to send inquiry in
process of the artist and the emotional
the wrong direction, but also to preclude
responses of the audience.
proper explanation and supplementation Commendable as these motives may be,
of whatever truths it may, as a system of task of establishing and developing
the
discussion, contain. Nor are these faults the principles of art is a formidable one
peculiarly Empson's; they abound every- always, even for the philosopher, and in
where in the New Criticism, and, for that this instance it was complicated by cer-
matter, in contemporary criticism tain gen-difficulties. Chief among these was
erally. Scrutinizing the New Criticism theasabsence of any clear, fruitful, and
a whole, I do indeed find that "unity of
widely accepted metaphysics, epistemol-
method" which Ransom, Elton, and ogy, philosophy of science; a discipline,
others have claimed for it;31 I find it call also it what you will, capable of articulat-
in contemporary criticism generally;ing andand organizing the arts and sciences,
on examining that method, I find it di-
establishing and criticizing their princi-
rectly responsible for all the faults I have ples and methods, and, in short, settling
noted.
the broader and more general questions
which the pursuit of any department of
35 Ransom, preface, p. x. While, strictly speaking,
Ransom is speaking of R. P. Blackmur, he is clearly
discussing him as a representative instance of a New inquiry must involve. How seriously this
Critic. lack has affected contemporary criticism
232 ELDER OLSON
may be seen cumstances.

by Even anyone who
where the characteristic
trouble to note the
selected was frequency
itself a necessary condition of
physical questions, poetry-as, for example,
as the well use of lan-as t
quency of happy guage-there solutions
remained the difficulty ofto
any critical discussion discerning in what special which
respects it was s
adays, to rise related above to the naturethe
or essence ofmere
poetry. p
of art. Definitions Language functionsare made
very differently in the by
know neither what a definition
epigram, the didactic verse-treatise, and i
it is constructed, nor
mimetic tragedy; if you what
call all of these it i
methodology "poetry" is discussed
and inquire into the nature byof m
would be hard put to it to say what poetic language, you will end up with
method is. The excellent amateur of poet-
some description which, because it must
ry has become a sadly amateurish phi- be common to all of these, will be very
losopher. But the fault in this instancegeneral, and will shed little light upon the
must be laid at the doors of the phi- special functioning of language in, say,
losophers. mimetic tragedy. Moreover, it was in the
A second difficulty lay in the fact that nature of the case that certain of these
the term "poetry," or its equivalents, had characteristics, being very general, should
from antiquity been applied to a great turn out to be common to things which
number of things of widely different na- were obviously not poetry, in any of the
tures. The attachment of a name to some- accepted senses, at all. For example, lan-
thing is, after all, only the reflection of an guage is common to all the things called
opinion of likeness; and custom had quite "poetry"; but nothing is more evident
naturally extended the application of the than that scientific prose, for instance, is
name of poetry, not merely to poetry it-very different from poetry, although it too
self, but to anything that involved the is language; it must therefore be differen-
use of poetic devices such as verse, rhyme, tiated from poetry--but what is the
ornamental diction, etc. Now, it is impos-proper differentia? You decide, at this
sible to have a single art, science, or dis- point, that scientific prose is bare, poetic
cipline unless some homogeneity can be diction ornamented; or the latter is more
found in the subject matter; and criticism highly charged with meaning than the
was thus faced with the impossible task of former, or something of the sort; and if
finding homogeneity among heteroge- this does not sufficiently distinguish it,
neous things: that is, of finding a common you proceed further, through differentiae
principle among things that had no com- of the differentia, until definition is finally
mon principles, and of finding a single achieved. Despite the fact that the defini-
definition that should state the common tion was founded on a characteristic acci-
nature of things that had no commondentally found in common among an
nature. accidental collocation of things, you will
now, if you are a typical modern critic,
Criticism had to find points of likeness
among an accidental accumulation of consider that you have stated the nature
things of diverse natures, which had been or essence of poetry.
called "poetry" because in accidental These "definitions" are not necessarily
respects they resembled it; and likenesses false, in the sense that they attribute to
it found; but these were accidental like- poetry characteristics which it does not
nesses, as one might expect under the cir- have; but they are certainly not defini-
WILLIAM EMPSON 233
tions; they certainly do ther
notdiscussion.
state the It is na-
one thing to suppose
ture of poetry. The accidental charac-
tentatively that poetry is language char-
acterized
teristics of things, and hence thebypossible
ambiguity, and then to in-
comparisons in terms of quire whether
these, arethis characteristic is com-
limit-
mon to
less; thus an infinite number all definitions
of poetry, whether it is peculiar
of the same thing can be to
generated
poetry, whether
in this
it accounts for all that
fashion, all equally valid, poetry
sinceis and
theydoes;are
it is quite another
based upon and warranted thingbyto employ it to insist that any in-
precisely
the same procedure of terpretation definition. of poetry
If so,must turn upon
they are equally "essential"; but-which
ambiguities, and to twist the language of
of these "essences" is the essence? An Macbeth into a meaningless and tasteless
examination of the construction of these muddle, merely because, according to the
definitions will disclose in every instancedefinition, poetry must be ambiguous. It
that the definition has a minimum refer- is the reverse, not merely of science, but
ence to the object defined, for it touches also of sense, to erect a hasty guess into a
only a certain attribute which is itself not principle of method, so that, far from be-
shown to be essential to the object; all the ing tested by the data, it tests the data
rest is provided by the apparatus and by itself, silencing all adverse testimony,
mechanism of comparison. In short, these and forcing assent where it should itself
"definitions" are at most indications of
yield to correction.
the light in which the object "poetry" is
If the definitions of contemporary criti-
to be viewed. cism are thus not strictly definitions, the
But may not these definitions even inhypotheses which are framed to support
that case have some value? Doubtless or supplement them are also not strictly
they may, as devices for permitting hypotheses.
the In Empson's case, for in-
discussion of a subject the nature ofstance,
which the definitive property of poetry,
is unknown, and where they function so,
ambiguity, rests upon the hypothesis that
they are unexceptionable. It is frequently
there is a connection between ambiguity
the case that, before we can state and the na-
interesting or valuable situations;
that is, if poetry deals with interesting
ture of a thing, much preliminary discus-
sion is needed: the properties, even andthevaluable situations, and these tend
accidents, of the subject must beto con-
involve ambiguity, poetry must involve
sidered in order to be dismissed; andambiguity.
even Such a hypothesis does not
when erroneous definition results, no give the cause, for it does not state
really
great harm is done, for inquiry iswhy stillthe
in thing is such-and-such; it is
progress; definition serves as matter merelyfora reason, a ground of belief, stat-
inquiry, and not as the basis of inquiry;
ing why the theorist thinks the thing is so.
It is not
it is itself examined and tested, it does not a poetic principle; it is the ra-
as yet fix and determine the whole ap-
tionalization of an opinion. Even if the
proach to the subject. The definitionsopinion and its ground were not false,
proposed by contemporary criticism do both would still be inappropri-
however,
ate, for the terms in which they are
not, however, function thus heuristically;
couched are much too general: neither
instead, they operate as a basis for proof,
as principles of demonstration;ambiguity
and as nor a concern with interesting
such they are sources of misreasoningandand
valuable situations is peculiar to
error, and hinder rather than foster fur- Moreover, even if they were ap-
poetry.
234 ELDER OLSON
propriate, ply thewould

they facts; and these be
are conditions
falsel
tive; ambiguity, when
which the modern it is p
critical "hypotheses"
poetry, is present
fail to satisfy. through
Empson's hypothesis, fora v
instance,
causes, and not satisfies neitherthrough
simply condition: it
that a certain kind of situation tends to neither implies the data nor is implied by
involve it. them. A canvass of interesting and valua-
The hypotheses of contemporary criti- ble situations will not show that they
cism are not, as a matter of fact, hy- "tend to involve ambiguity"; conversely,
potheses in any technical sense at all; even if they did, this would prove nothing
they are rather a sort of postulate. We about individual instances, for a statisti-
may distinguish, I think, three sorts of cal attribute of a large class ("tend to in-
hypotheses: the heuristic, the demonstra- volve ambiguity" is of this order) does
tive, and the nameless kind that serves not belong, affirmatively or negatively,
both functions. The heuristic hypothesis necessarily or probably, to any subclasses
is the first principle of a given science, of that class.
used as a basis for inquiry into more gen- The characteristic hypotheses of con-
eral principles; thus dialectic, according temporary criticism tend, finally, to have
to Plato, "uses hypotheses not as first two salient characteristics which vitally
principles, but as genuine hypotheses, that affect the systems based upon them. First,
is to say, as stepping stones and impulses, they are inadequate; second, they are pre-
whereby it may force its way up to some- clusive of supplementary hypotheses
thing that is not hypothetical, and arrive which might compensate for their in-
at the first principle of everything.""36 adequacies.
The demonstrative hypothesis is a first A very little discussion will, I hope,
principle in a given science, without which make this clear. All poetic theory is a
scientific knowledge in that particular form of causal explanation; and such ex-
sphere is impossible. Both of these imply planation must comprise all the causes
completed inquiry within the given sci- requisite to make a thing what it is. Un-
ence; the third kind, which is hypothesis less the causal account is complete, the
in the sense intended in modern science, explanation is inadequate; if it is insisted
implies no such completion; it is a tenta- upon as adequate, if it is claimed to ac-
tive principle, a supposition either of count for the whole and not merely for
"fact" or of the cause of a "fact." Obvi-
the part, it is also preclusive. The theories
ously the hypotheses of contemporary of the early Greek physicists offer an ex-
criticism are not hypotheses in the first
ample. Thales, for instance, thought to
two senses; nor are they hypotheses in the
account for the phenomenal universe in
third sense, although they have the same
terms merely of its material cause, the
function as the tentative suppositions of
principle of water; but, as numerous phi-
modern science, viz., to explain facts or
losophers have pointed out, this would at
other hypotheses, or to render them con-
sistent and compendent. For the true hy- most account for the substrate; it does
pothesis, in this third sense, is charac-not explain the distinctive forms which
water assumes as rain, cloud, ice, or snow,
terized by reciprocal implication; as Des-
cartes remarks, the facts must imply the the motive forces which cause water
nor
hypothesis, and the hypothesis must im- to assume such forms, nor the functional
36 Republic vi. 511. organization of animate things; it offers
WILLIAM EMPSON 235
only one principle of Is explanation

poetry? the difference between drama where
and narrative a difference of language?
several are required.
Modern criticismAreis the very much
differences between in
the large and the
complicated
condition of Thales.37 Itactions
may of epic be
and the small
divided
into two principaland simple of lyric,
kinds: the differences be-
criticism based
tween tragic and comic the
upon hypotheses concerning action and char-
medium
acter,given
of poetry, and hence the differences
to between
the the emo-
explana-
tional effects ofor
tion of poetry as language, tragedy and those of of
language
a certain kind, and
comedy--are
criticismall these differences
based of lan-
upon
hypotheses concerning the
guage? Can subject
we account matter
for any differences
of poetic
of poetry, and hence givenlanguageto
without
the taking into
explana-
tion of poetry as myth, as differences
consideration such knowledge,of poetic as
experience, or something form as these? of the
As a matter kind.
of fact, is there The
first seeks to establish some distinction any attribute of poetic language which
between poetic language and language incannot also be found, and that abun-
any other form or use. Thus Richards dantly, in other forms of discourse?
opposes poetry to scientific discourse, find- These positions are like arguing that ice
ing the latter ordered to clarity and the
is ice because it is water; they are at-
former to ambiguity, the latter informa- tempts to derive the form from the mat-
tive and the former emotive;38 Yvor Win-ter. All such argument runs, obviously, in
ters opposes poetry "to other kinds ofthe wrong direction; it would infer the
writing," finding that poetry takes "spe- design of a house from the shape and
cial pains with the expression of feeling" ;"
weight of the bricks. No product is what
John Crowe Ransom opposes poetry toit is simply because its matter is such-and-
unmetrical and unrhymed language, find- such; its matter is indeed a necessary, but
ing poetry a "compromise" betweennot a sufficient, condition of its existence
"meaning and metre";40 but the end and nature. A saw, for instance, is not a
result is largely the same; in each case the saw because the steel determined it should
nature of poetry is ultimately determined be. The reverse is the case; I wish to cut
solely by the critic's hypotheses as to thethe fibers of wood a certain way: I must
nature or functions of language. All these therefore have a blade of a certain kind;
statements contain a measure of truth; it must therefore be made of a substance
but they are inadequate as hypotheses. Ifcapable of assuming a certain shape, and
tragedy, comedy, epic, and lyric be poet-hard enough to retain that shape; hence
ry, how shall they be described as dis- the steel. And, if I am to give a complete
tinctive species of language? Upon whataccount, I must talk not merely about the
special properties of language does each steel but about the form given it, and how
depend, so that, once these are deter- it was given it, and the function of cutting.
mined, we shall have a given species of The hypotheses concerning subject
37 See R. S. Crane, "Cleanth Brooks; or, the bank- matter take a variety of forms: poetic
ruptcy of critical monism," Modern philology, XLv fiction is set against truth, or poetic truth
(1948), 226-45.
38 Principles of literary criticism (New York, 1930), against other truths; certain concepts or
p. 267. orderings of concepts are opposed to oth-
39 The anatomy of nonsense (Norfolk, Conn., 1943),
p. 12.
ers, imaginables against credibles, and so
40 Pp. 294-95. But see the whole final chapter, on. The principal position is that poetry
"Wanted: an ontological critic." is myth, or at any rate closely related to
236 ELDER OLSON
myth; it is currently
the "Ode to a nightingale," fashiona and "Sailing
bering among toits Byzantium,"
proponentsall of which are imita- M
kin, Robert Penntions; on the Warren,
other hand, it standsnear for any
works and
the psychological which, although
political nonimitative,cri in-
the critics who volvetalkdevices or of "symbol
characteristics especially
ture."4' Superficially
associated with mimetic various poetry. Inas this
potheses are, all are based,
latter sense, philosophical treatises like liket
cerned with the Parmenides' medium, On nature, Lucretius' upon De
dichotomy between
rerum natura, Sir John what Davies' Nosceis po
teipsum; medical
what is not. With treatises like Fraca-
a little transl
objections against the
storo's Syphilidis; historieslinguistic
like the chroni-
also apply to them.
cles of Geoffrey Gaimar and Wace or the
Indeed, the subject-matter
Dittamondo of Fazio; ethical works, like hyp
Pope's Essay hypotheses
and the linguistic on man and his Moral es- ar
mentally the sayssame, being
have all been called only
poetry. The dis-
developments tinction
from is not onethe same
of value, but of kind; ge
pothesis: viz., witness
that the factall
that thediscourse
Divina commedia
entiable in terms
belongs to theof subject
second class. The works of m
style. This supposition,
the first class are of a quite different which
order,
traced at least as far back as the Cicero-
and are constructed on, and hence have
nian distinction between res and verba,
to be judged by, quite different principles
has proved less profitable and more influ-from those of works in the second.
ential than any other single proposition in This distinction, simple as it is, is likely
the history of criticism. To apply it toto prove difficult if not repugnant to a
poetry is to assume that poetry of what- twentieth-century mind. Distinctions of
ever kind is a form of discourse, and tokind are nowadays likely to be called
suppose that poetic organization is neces-
"scholastic"42--an epithet which means, I
sarily comparable to the organization of presume, that they are pedantic and use-
any other form of discourse. Such a sup-less; and, even if that charge be waived,
position makes it impossible to differen-we have become so used to considering
tiate any form of poetry except in terms poetry a matter of quality, or even of a
of characteristics which it has in commondegree of a quality, that the distinction is
with other discourse; it burkes all discus-
likely to seem a wrong one. Surely, one
sion of important peculiar characteristicsmay say, the De rerum natura has more
in common with Hamlet than with the
of poetry for which there is no analogue in
other discourse. That is, it provides noCritique of pure reason or the Essay con-
distinctions whereby any kind of poetry-cerning human understanding; obviously it
whatever we may mean by the term-may ought, therefore, to be considered as poet-
be isolated and discussed as a separate ry rather than as philosophy, especially
kind.
since the philosophic content is quite in-
III
cidental, in the view of most readers, to
I have remarked already that the theterm
beauty of the poetry; hence, if kinds
"poetry" is ambiguously used. On are thetoone
be distinguished, they must be dis-
hand, it stands for such works as Hamlet, 42 The latest instance occurs in an article by Mur-
1 Cf. Modern philology, XLV (1948), 275-79; ray Krieger, "Creative criticism .. ," Sewanee review,
XLVII (1949), 45-64. LVIII (1950), 41.
WILLIAM EMPSON 237
tinguished on different
literaryprinciples. Th
theories and
proper distinction, unstable,
however, and to make
is not one of
kind but of quality ciples, supposedly
transcending alluniv
suc
schoolmasterly distinctions
or group of of kinds;
arts, fewona
finds poetry in any from
kindany particular ar
of composition i
ispresent.
the poetic quality is not composed whol
This skeleton of argument underlies,
absolute principles; if I
w
am sure, much ofrange modernof art withoutan
criticism; p
it is by no meanslutelypointless open or eyes, baseless. it is
The objection that thatno one universality
has yet defin and
the poetic qualitynecessarily
is scarcely connected a fair on
and the objection underlie
that investigation all art; other of
quality common to all literature
temporal, or only canno
to th
ers applycriticism
produce sound or fruitful only to certa is p
tently absurd; great and so critics,
on; but Longinu
a princ
Sainte-Beuve, andin Arnold
a certain among art merely them
have done just that. to be The weaknesses
specific to thatof a
any other.
contemporary criticism are not Yet,due if to we th
position but to inept treatments
of criticism, we of canthi re
of its revolutions and
position; to the position counterrevolutions
itself perhaps
only two rejoinders can
have turned beupon
precisely made.
this confusion First
the legitimacy of of validity with universality;
inquiring into false uni-
a qualit
common to all art, versalization-the
if granted, elevation of something
does no
to absolute truth
imply the illegitimacy of and inquiring
force when it had int
only conditional truth and of
the distinctive characteristics force--and
each a ar
and second, inquiryfalse
of demand
the forfirst
universality-the
kind in- can-
not provide such knowledge as not
sistence that a principle could thehold forsecon
kind would provide.anything unless it held for
Inquiry everything-
into a com
mon quality as suchare thecannot
offspring of this of confusion;
itself and pro
vide knowledge of have distinctive qualities
time and again thrown criticism into
chaos.
Qualitative criticism can at best tell th
poet how to construct,Criticism is the
likely, incritic
the course ofhow its t
judge, poetry generally;
development, to provide
it can many proposi-
scarcely
give information for
tions ofthe construction
conditional truth only, and to for- and
judgment of a poem of
get, because such apropositions
given kind.
fitted the I
short, in so far as theexactly,
conditions problemsthat they were onlyof con
structing and judging the
conditionally various
true. In this fashion kinds
many of
poetry are the samea convention
or similar,became a rule, qualitative
many a rule
criticism may be auseful; but usually
principle. Such tyranny in so bringsfar a
revolt; but those
these problems differ, it who isrevolt tend to
useless, an
may sometimes be forget, in turn, that if what is condi-
pernicious.
It has, for instance, a isdangerous
tionally true tend-
not so absolutely, the false
ency to bring aboutconditionally is also not false absolutely.
the discredit of prin-
The Three
ciples perfectly valid Unities, after
within a long
given tyranny,spher
of art, simply because they
have been utterly are
destroyed not
as false; but uni
versally valid. The result
with is to
them was destroyed the make
little meas- mo
238 ELDER OLSON
ure of truth which they indicate,

Such interpretations as doctrin
not the
tained. Not every play,
inherent necessity it epic
of interpreting isandtrue
confine its action within
dramatic poetry one
as allegory, but the tend- day
place; but it is also true
ency to interpret them that
so when in the
their ac
certain plays would have
literal interpretation been
they conflict with mu
effective if they doctrine.
had When the
been Christian so
doctrine
confi
theory of genres
arose, has been
pagan poetry, demolish
literally interpreted,
what was true conflicted
and bothuseful
with its theologicalin
and its it p
along with whatmoral was false
teachings; and and
those who sought to dan
Criticism has been either
defend such wholly
poetry were forced by the ge
wholly particular ever since; and
nature of the case, not only to interpret it
allegorically,is
ent plight, indeed, but also
in to insist
great that alle- par
its lack of such gory
specific
was the essence of principles
poetry. Moreover, a
have eventually
if poetrydeveloped
was to be brought into accordout
theory of genres.
with doctrine, it had itself to become doc-
A second dangerous
trinal, and hence tendency
didactic. It is not sur- of
tative criticism prising,
is that in emphasiz
in these circumstances, that poet-
common poetic ry came to be thought
quality it ofisas didactic
likely t
us to the greatallegory.
variousness of poe
need, I think, to consider
Didactic allegory presents manyonly
super- t
major branches of poetry
ficial resemblances men
to mimetic poetry; but
above to realize that their differences of
the differences between them, while per-
kind must be respected if they are to behaps few and obscure, are fundamental.
properly constructed, interpreted, orDidactic poetry, whether allegorical or
judged. not, must always either propound a doc-
Greek epic and drama are mimetic poet- trine or determine a moral and emotional
ry; despite their origin in ritual and attitude toward a doctrine in such a way
myth, they require no reference to these as to command action in accordance with
in order to be intelligible and effective. it. The didactic structure must always,
Whatever the mythical origin of an Odys- therefore, involve explicitly or implicitly
seus, an Achilles, or an Orestes, these are some pistic or argumentative element:
characters simply, and must be inter- either the poem argues the doctrine di-
preted as such; neither they nor their rectly, or the argument is left to the
actions and fortunes require allegorical reader, as in the case of parables and fa-
interpretation; whatever symbolic sig- bles. Argument of some form, however, is
nificance they may have possessed as always involved; and, whatever form it
myth they have lost as materials of poet- takes, it inculcates either knowledge or
ry. Plato, it is true, practiced the alle- action. In this respect it resembles either
gorical interpretation of poetry which the theoretical or the practical syllogism.
Theagenes and Anaxagoras are said to The principle of didactic poetry, there-
have initiated in Greece; but he did so fore, is its doctrine or thesis, in the pecul-
clearly as a consequence of his philosophic
iar acceptance, theoretical or practical,
approach, rather than as a consequence required for it. Everything in the work
of any characteristics of Homer and the mediately or immediately exists and has
dramatists, and doubtless the case was its peculiar character in order to enforce
the same with his predecessors. the doctrine; for instance, the argument
WILLIAM EMPSON 239
be, he is being
itself exists only to prove the unreasonable:
thesis,heandis insist-
is
absolutely determined by
ing that it.a Such
because poetry
work happens in part
is, of course, really a to kind
conformof dialectic
to his or of
accidental interest, it
rhetoric; and it is not surprising
should that
conform to his interest ages
wholly. For
which gave themselves over
the action of anto such
allegory poetry
is quite different
should have identified from a plot. Its characters
poetry with rheto-and incidents
ric or dialectic in their critical treatises. are determined, like those of a thesis-
Didactic allegory, as a branch of this
novel, by the doctrine to be urged; the
kind of literature, comes about when theonly difference is that they are meta-
argument is given a particular metaphorical whereas the thesis-characters
phorical turn. Like fable and parable, and
it -incidents are literal and instantial.
depends upon the possibility of extendedThe characters very generally represent
metaphor, which in turn depends upon the subjects, and the incidents the predi-
the possibility of discovering multiple cates, of the doctrinal proposition; such
analogies between a thing and its ana-is the case, for example, in the Divina com-
logue, not only as wholes, but as wholesmedia. They exist because the doctrine
corresponding part for part. The salva- exists and because it must be presented in
tion of the soul, for example, can be alle-
a certain way; they are what they are be-
gorically represented as a journey because
cause the doctrine has certain character-
likenesses can be found not merely be- istics. The allegorical incident happens,
tween salvation and a journey, but also not because it is necessary or probable in
between the stages of salvation and the the light of other events, but because a
stages of a journey. The metaphor or sym-
certain doctrinal subject must have a
bol may, moreover, be an action, and certain
as doctrinal predicate; its order in
such be narratively or dramatically rep- the action is determined not by the action
resented. It then bears, to a superficialas action, but by the action as doctrine;
view, a close resemblance to a plot-par- and whatever emotional quality and force
ticularly to the episodic plot; and readers
it may have is determined rather by the
who are unaware of, or uninterested in, emotional attitude which the doctrine
its metaphorical import are quite likely must inculcate toward a certain object
to disregard the import and become in- than by the context of action in which it
terested in the action for its own sake, occurs. Allegorical characters are what
treating it, consequently, as if it werethey
a are because we must view virtue or
plot. The Faery Queene and Pilgrim's vice or whatever is involved in a certain
progress are very commonly read in this light; not because we must adopt a certain
fashion, as romances rather than as alle-
attitude toward agents and patients if the
gories. Anyone who wishes to read them action is to affect us in a certain way. Such
so, purely for the excitement and pleasure
poetry is a mode of statement; everything
which they produce, of course may do in so;it is representative of parts of discourse.
but he is reading them only in part, andThe construction of such mimetic poet-
for the sake of certain qualities of that
ry as epic, tragedy, and comedy is very
part which are incidental to the primary
different; these are ordered, not to a doc-
intention; and if he proceeds to judge trine, but to a plot. And the construction
these works as romances, to complain that
of a plot is very different from that of an
the "plot" is not as effective or that the
allegorical action. A plot is not a string of
characters are not as convincing as might
interesting incidents, but a system of in-
240 ELDER OLSON
cidents so constructed as to give us a and women, and the incidents only as for-
specific pleasure by arousing and allaying tunate or unfortunate, and seriously so or
our emotions. It is not, like allegorical ac- not. Mimetic poetry is not statement; doc-
tion, complete because it completely ex- trine appears, not as something urged,
presses a given doctrine, but because, as but as something assumed, and chiefly as
action, it resolves those issues out of what the poet assumes to be necessary or
which it has begun. It does not, like alle- probable, or to be evocative of this or
gorical action, seek to inculcate certain that emotion or moral attitude.
moral attitudes by arousing our emotions; The language of didactic allegory is
on the contrary, it makes use of our moral always many-meaninged or "polyse-
attitudes to arouse our emotions. It does mous," as Dante called it, because the
not engage our interest and emotions inthings for which the words stand always
particulars of the action in order to in-
stand for something further. The language
struct us generally; on the contrary, itof mimetic poetry, however, is ambiguous
instructs us about particulars of the char-only when plot, character, thought, or the
acters and actions in the poem in order toexigencies of representation demand that
engage our emotions and interest in be- it be so. Hence these forms must differ
half of these very characters and actions.
even in the analysis of their language.
Whereas didactic poetry assumes that if Custom has given these kinds of poetry
we can be made to feel a certain way in the same general name; and perhaps cour-
the presence of certain objects we shalltesy requires that we should withdraw it
be able to make certain moral distinc- from neither. But we need not therefore
tions, mimetic poetry assumes that if we be misled by the name to suppose that
make certain moral distinctions we shall these kinds are the same and to be given
feel a certain way in the presence of cer-the same treatment. The critic who reads
tain objects. Didactic is antecedent tothe Divina commedia as if it were mimetic
the formation of moral character; mi- poetry is likely to feel severely rebuked if
metic, subsequent. The former assumes he ever encounters the Epistle of Dante
that the reader is imperfect and requiresto Can Grande della Scala; for the poet
to be perfected; the latter, that the readermakes clear that he is writing a scholastic
is perfect and may enjoy a virtuous treatise. The critic who, on the other
pleasure. hand, reads mimetic poetry as allegory
The characters in plot are present be- commits the converse fault of Fulgentius,
cause an action, if it is to effect emotion, whose Continentia Virgiliana contains in-
must be morally determinate and hence terpretations as far-fetched as any in our
must involve agents and patients of a contemporary mythologists.
determinate moral cast; or because they
IV
are convenient to the effective represen-
tation of that action. The incidents in plot There are no necessary differences be-
occur because they are necessary or prob- tween poetic diction, as diction, and the
able, or because they increase the emo- diction of any other kind of composition.
tional effectiveness of the work. We are There are no devices of language which
not required in mimetic poetry, as we are can be pointed to as distinctively poetic;
in allegory, to ask what the characters orany other kind of composition may utilize
the incidents stand for; we are required metaphor, images, rhythm, meter, rhyme,
to interpret the characters only as menor any of the "devices of poetic language,"
WILLIAM EMPSON 241
them
and poetry may utilize any of are
the capable of being used for quite
devices
associated with any other literary
different, in factkind.
opposite, ends, especially
whenabout
We talk properly, therefore, they are used in combination. A
poetic
diction as "poetic"-whatever
metaphor we may
indicates likeness; but a meta-
mean by poetry-not when phor we
coupled
dealwithwith
irony indicates differ-
ence.when
a given order of diction, but Furthermore,
we talktropes and figures
about language in its poetic employment.arranged in im-
have been so repeatedly
pressivelyworks
It is true that in given poetic exhaustive
theclassifications that
we are likely
language is markedly different from to belan-
given two false impres-
sions: first,
guage in nonpoetic functions; butthatin
they are really complete
any
properly constructed work, and cannot
these be added
differ-to, because it is
ences are brought about, not by any "against logic" that anything should be
fixed rule of poetic language, but by the added to an exhaustive division; secondly,
functions which the language serves. that their uses or functions have also been
Whether we refer to didactic, mimetic, or exhaustively treated. The first impression
other forms of poetry, language can never is false because it takes no account of
be the sole issue, it can never even be the development and growth; the second im-
principal issue of poetic analysis. Lan- pression is false because poets are inven-
guage is always merely a medium, a ma- tive, and because new uses for old devices
terial, never a form. Even in the extreme and old uses for new devices are among
case of Arthur Machen's hero,43 who wrote the things they invent.
meaningless verses purely for their sound, Discussion ought therefore to proceed,
diction is subsidiary; in this case rhythm not from devices to functions, but from
and melody were formal. If, therefore, we functions to devices. In the remaining
must always talk about poetic diction in pages of this essay I shall try to illustrate
terms of some principle over and above how language functions in relation to some
language, it follows that discussions of of the most general aspects of mimetic
poetic diction must differ, to some extent form. In order to do so it will be necessary
at least, in accordance with the different first to consider what might be called the
principles on which different kinds of general mechanism of such form; that is,
poetry are composed. how it is constructed and how it operates.
It might seem at first sight that any The vicissitudes of literary criticism
such discussion must turn on tropes and have made it almost impossible to convey
figures;44 but in fact it need not, and per- a notion of mimetic form by the simple
haps it should not. Important as tropes enumeration of such names as tragedy,
and figures may be, they are devices with comedy, epic, and lyric; for these have all
many possible uses, and consequently the been applied to nonmimetic forms. Fur-
mere fact of their employment cannot tell thermore, if the names of literary kinds
us much about their actual function in have broadened in meaning, they have
given works. Moreover, most if not all ofalso narrowed in other respects; for exam-
43 In The Hill of Dreams. ple, the name "poetry" itself is today
44 Cf., e.g., W. K. Wimsatt, Jr., "Verbal style: denied to the types of narrative and dra-
logical and counterlogical," PMLA, LXV (1950), 5-
20, and the earlier articles by the same writer cited
matic prose, although these were com-
ibid., p. 13, n. 13; also Maynard Mack, "'Wit and monly regarded as poetry, and their au-
poetry and Pope': some observations on his imagery,"
in Pope and his contemporaries: essays presented to
thors as poets, until the early nineteenth
George Sherburn (Oxford, 1949), pp. 20-40. century. On the whole, therefore, it is
242 ELDER OLSON
safer to say that mimetic

But emotions do not result merelyform
from
some tragedies, comedies,
the operation of an exciting causeepics,
upon
novels, short stories, and
our basic human nature; so
the same on.
excit-
they may from ing causeeach
may produce other,
different and in all
have in common fact the fact
opposite emotions thatper-
in different they
to us some spectacle
sons, or even in theof human
same person at differ- h
or misery, of actualized
ent times. Emotion is alsovirtue
a product of or
of pleasure and the pain;
frame of mind that
in which weis, som
are-of,
action or suffering. It is
that is, our disposition to the
as determined by
emotional presentation
what we have experienced of this a
and felt-and
suffering that they are ordered
of our moral character. Moreover, our
principle; that opinion
is,is thetwofold: weaction or s
opine about persons
is the part which is chief, which
and about the occasions on which they do g
to the work, and to which all
or suffer something. There are, therefore, e
dered. By thatthree
human spectacle,
factors in any emotion: our disposi-
call it thus, they evoke
tion, the emotion
person, and the occasion; for in- in
is not to say, with Maud Bodkin and stance, we feel angry when we are dis-
others, that they evoke emotion by theposed to be angry, with persons capable
reference of their action to one or more of arousing our anger, when the occasion
generalized myths; on the contrary, they for anger arises.
affect us by their particular representa-We feel a given emotion precisely when
tion of their respective objects; we react,
these three factors have been brought to
not to man, but to Oedipus and Hamlet, concur; the history of the emotions in-
and to these as presented by Sophoclesvoked in us by a mimetic poem is pre-
and Shakespeare, and not to these as de- cisely, therefore, the history of such con-
tached from the poems in which they arecurrences effected by the poet through his
found. Our basic human nature of course imitation. Thus the analyst who would
underlies our reactions; but the capacity know what the audience is feeling from
for moral or merely sympathetic emotiontime to time in the course of a poem-in
is a capacity only; what we actually feel so far as their emotions are controlled by
the poem-must follow the line of such
is what is actually called forth by the poet
through his representation of objects ca- concurrences, taking them of course in
pable of so affecting us. We feel, both their
in proper sequence.
art and in life, what we are capable of Most broadly, our emotions are deter-
feeling; but we feel a given emotion only mined by the object which is imitated;
when there exist the proper conditions fore.g., in tragedy, by the action. But, while
that emotion; otherwise we should suffer the object is thus the foundation of what
all emotions simultaneously and con-
we feel, our emotions are very much modi-
tinually. fied by the particular manner in which the
The emotions are states of conscious- incidents and characters are disclosed to
ness attended by pleasure and pain; theirus; in fact, what we feel at a given mo-
exciting causes are our opinions; for in-ment is much more particularly deter-
stance, we grow angry when we think we mined by the manner of representation
have been offended, fearful when we thinkthan by the object. Finally, the words
we are in danger, and we do not feel theseemployed by the poet modify still further
emotions unless we have these opinions.
the emotions produced in us by object
WILLIAM EMPSON 243
and manner, and spect to Lear

determine and
even his
mor
particularly whatleft
we us
feel. What
in a wefra
certain fe
cause the
concerning the object plea sets b
of imitation,
short, is dependent upon the devices
helplessness, his anguo
disclosure which reveal that
Cordelia, theobject
bitterto u
rep
Language is the device of disclosure
that hope, and so on,in
tion simply
most mimetic poetry; and star
in theatrical pr
plea, and
ductions it is of course (4) because
supplemented b
the spectacle and sometimes
this case, the by mus
rhythm
as well. Ofthe
(only, however, when these four classes of emotional
music interpret
what is happening oronly
causes, may happen).
the last two depend upon the But
would be a mistake particular
tochoice and arrangement
suppose that of lan
guage can be adequately
words. A translation analyzed
good enough to per- as a
instrument of disclosure
mit the operation of merely by tal
the first two would
ing about its meaning.
not be greatly I inferior;
have already
indeed, the prin- di
tinguished, in the cipal
firstdifficulty
partof translations,
of this even inessay
between speech lyric
aspoetry,
action (praxis)
is not so much that the trans- an
speech as meaningful
lator fails in(lexis);
respect to the to neglect
last two, as
that I
that distinction is, in his efforts to achieve
think, to a blind
certain one
self to a great deal of
literary the
manner or apoetic
certain rhythm, mecha
or
nism. Most of whateven toisgivetermed "meaning
the literal meaning, he fails
by critics and poets is not
to preserve meaning
the significance of the speechat a
but implications of character,
as action; passion,
he loses the passionate anger, or and
fortune derived from
the fright; the
he loses interpretatio
the characteristic
of speech as action. Unless
marks of nobilitythe meaning
or meanness; he trans- of
the words is grasped, we only,
lates the meaning cannot,
or the style, toor be
sure, grasp the nature
the rhythm. of the speech a
action; but when we grasp
It is speech the
as action which nature
plays more o
the speech as action,
powerfullywe upon make
our emotions;inferenc
it provides
-which, as I have usargued,
with the signs fromarewhich not mean
we infer such
ings-as to the character and his
things as plot, character, situa-
and thought,
tion; we perceive the
an mostobject which
powerful elements is th
in the work;
principal cause of our emotions
but the signs which it offers in
us arepoetry.
natural,
How far language
and as diction
not arbitrary, signs.affects
The signs by us
can be seen if we consider that,
which we infer from from
speech that a man is,one
point of view, the causes
say, frightened of emotion
or resolute, or of this char- i
mimetic poetry fall
acter orinto
that, are four classes:
not fixed by any con- (
the precedent context, not
vention of language; ofnoword
they differ more
merely, but of the action
from one tongue as a whole
to another than weepingup to
a given point; (2) inthe particular
Africa differs speech
from weeping in Alaska,
action, together with
or a groan its
in Italyimplications;
from a groan in Spain. (
the speech as diction;
And much of (4) ornament.
the "richness" of poetic lan- Th
"Pray you, undo guage
this button"
is due to this aspect of speech
it. Much of o
Lear affects us, according
what is currently to this
discussed division
as "meaning"
(1) because the whole
is this poem has,
implication of up
the speech to this
as act.
point, excited certain
A great emotions with
deal, then, of suspense, sur- re
244 ELDER OLSON
prise, and even a mood is

emotion whicheffected
is momentary is not by
thing other thansomething static and timeless;
diction hence the
as diction;
theless, dictionobject
can is temporal,
enhancetoo. Consequently the
these,
activity must be remembered,
occasion even generate them if it is toitse
be seen as a wholelanguage-of
this aspect of poetic and have its whole
as diction-thateffect;
I the
wishlanguage must be such as to
particula
examine. Its problems
permit this. This meansare proble
that certain parts
word-choice andof the action must be rendered vivid, to
word-arrangemen
can never be solved without reference to have their full and proper emotional force,
conventional signs, although they can be while others must be dimmed; language
discussed generally apart from a given can produce such vividness or lack of it
language. The problem of diction is not by the direction of our attention. Again,
one of how a frightened man, say, would all arts that have temporal media, since
talk, or of how, more generally, speech they cannot exhibit everything at once,
serves as an indication of character, pas- involve anticipation, as the spatial arts
sion, or situation; it is one of how, given do not, since they present everything to
all such determinations of the speech, perception simultaneously; and where
words as words may prove most effective. anticipation is present, we have also sus-
As I have said, this is in one sense the pense and the unexpected, since our an-
least important part of poetics, for the ticipation can be played upon and can be
words are determined by everything elsesurprisingly foiled. It is clear, therefore,
in the poem; in another sense, it is the that language can be artfully used to con-
most important, because the words are ceal or half-conceal. Finally, since lan-
all we have to go by, they alone disclose guage can be pleasing in itself, it has an
the poem to us. The effectiveness of what ornamental function in poetry as well.
they disclose must be kept distinct from While language, then, has, strictly
their effectiveness as instruments of dis-
speaking, the general functions of dis-
closure; the "startling statement" in closure and of ornamentation, it is useful
drama is startling because it discloses to treat it under more special heads which
something startling, usually, not because
follow from the foregoing argument. The
it is startling as a matter of words andmimetic poet, like any other, may be said
their arrangement; but what the words to have seven subsidiary aims, with
disclose can be effective only if the wordsrespect to language; I call them subsidiary
are effective in their disclosure of it. because this essay has made it obvious
But while disclosure is the general func-that they could not be principal. These
tion of the words, what is disclosed must aims are disclosure, partial disclosure, con-
be disclosed properly and in the propercealment, direction of attention, evoca-
order. Language is a temporal medium;tion of suspense, production of the unex-
its parts are not coexistent, like those of pected, and ornament. What must be
a spatial medium, but successively ex- disclosed, concealed, etc., belongs to the
istent; when one part is existing, one has parts of poetics which deal with plot,
ceased or will come to exist; its effects cancharacter, and thought, and cannot be
never have the simultaneity of the effectsanalyzed here; our present concern is
of color and line in a painting. More- simply the functioning of language as
over, the object imitated in mimetic poet-meaningful with respect to these aims.
ry is always an activity, however minute; Disclosure is at a maximum when lan-
WILLIAM EMPSON 245
guage is as concise and conjunctions; clear as and similarly such lan-
possible.
There are two kinds of concision in lan-guages as form their words in the same
guage: one is obtained by the use of as way permit of the same devices of com-
pounding several words into one. Con-
few words as possible to express the mean-
cision of diction where only part of the
ing, while nevertheless expressing the full
meaning; the other by expressing only meaning is expressed varies similarly with
part of the meaning, leaving the rest theto language; it is also based, perhaps
inference. Thus the use of enthymeme more importantly, on expectation and on
for syllogism is concise in the latter logical implication.
way; and the famous Lacedaemonian dis-Clear language is not language which
patch "Dionysius in Corinth" is of this raises no problems-for example, a scien-
order. The implication involved here tific
is fact raising numberless problems may
different from the implications of char-be clearly expressed; indeed, if language
acter, etc., by speech as action in thatwhen clear never raised problems, ques-
what is implied is meaning, whereas the tions could never be clear. It is, rather,
implications of speech as action are de-language which raises no problems as to
rived from meaning. For instance, the its meaning for those adequately ac-
full meaning of the dispatch is "If you quainted with the tongue in which it is
attack us, you will be served like a similar
couched, however many and however pro-
aggressor, Dionysius, who was also found a the problems arising when its mean-
ing is grasped. Anyone who thinks clear
great king and is now living, an exile and
a private citizen, in Corinth." With thelanguage is possible thinks that it consists
meaning clear, the speech may now be in-in using clear words clearly; and in fact,
terpreted as an act of defiance implyinggenerally speaking, that is all there is to
the moral qualities of the Spartans. Con-
it. But it is useful to analyze further, espe-
cision is possible also apart from lan- cially since the devices of ambiguity and
indirection depend upon such analysis.
guage, when an act is a concise sign, i.e.,
one which has many implications; andWhether we think of language as evoca-
poetic concision is greatest when both tive, as evoking concepts, or as significa-
language and action are concise. For ex-tive, as standing for something, the possi-
ample, the "Who's there?" of Hamlet bility
is of language depends upon a certain
condition: the condition that the powers
not only concise as diction; the fact that
the wrong man challenges shows tension, assumed for language by the speaker in
fright, doubt whether the sentinel on his act of speech-whatever the extent
duty had suffered some unknown misfor- and nature of such powers-should not
tune, an expectation of some foreign andalso simultaneously be denied by the
possibly hostile presence, etc. The par-speaker, as evinced by the mode of utter-
ticular devices for obtaining concisionance.
of I do not mean that he may not
diction when the meaning is fully ex- decide a given expression is inappropriate
pressed vary according to the linguisticor incorrect, or change his mind, or reveal
structures of the various languages; in his true opinion by offering us an apparent
statement and then withdrawing it; I
general it may be said that such languages
as have the same syntactical elements mean that since language consists of
(e.g., the same parts of speech) tend toarbitrary signs, which have only such
permit the same abridgments; thus asyn- powers as we assign them, the speaker
deton is possible in all tongues having cannot at once assign and refuse to assign
246 ELDER OLSON
them. This is different from

ble as a synthesis. This is merely athe
dis- pr
of contradiction; the principle
tinction between simple and familiar com- of
pounds
diction is not the on the one hand
source ofand unfamiliar
this con
but a consequence of it; indeed,
compounds, such as coined words, on the o
only when certain powers
other; and of
it is different from langua
the question
assumed. This fundamental condition is of being prime--once we have calculated
the linguistic warrant, without which lan-what "not-not-not man" means, nothing
guage is impossible as language, although leads us to suppose that it is not prime.
it may produce effects in us merely asWords are commensurate when they are
sound. When it is really violated, lack of neither too general nor too particular for
clarity does not result because there is no the thing they stand for; thus "animal"
language to be clear; but apparent viola- or "Socrates" is incommensurate with
tions of it result in lack of clarity. Such"man." Words are consonant if they be-
apparent violations occur when any unitlong to the same order or level of dis-
of speech seems to negate itself, eithercourse, in that they contain, as words, no
openly, as in oxymoron and paradox, or implication of incompatible or inconceiv-
covertly, as when the things stated do notable predication or attribution. For ex-
constitute oxymoron, paradox, etc., but ample, a pejorative word used to denote
imply them. An example is Donne's anal-something admirable is used inconso-
ogy of a woman's virtue to a snake's nantly, and is unclear since we have to
venom. All of these apparent violations wonder about its use. Words are familiar
relate to the conditions of clarity, and not when they not only are commonly em-
those of language. ployed, but are used in their customary
The conditions of clarity itself can be grammatical functions, i.e., qua parts of
seen if we consider that it is dependentspeech; for instance, if a given word is
upon three things: the words, the syntac- commonly used as a noun and rarely as a
tical arrangements, and the relations ofverb, it is not wholly familiar when it is
sentences. Clarity is produced by theused as a verb.
words in so far as they are prime, immedi- Clarity is produced by syntactical ar-
ate, commensurate, consonant, and fa- rangement when amphibology is absent,
miliar. Words are prime if their use doeswhen grammatical construction is fa-
not suggest that they are not being usedmiliar, when the order is the common
in their first literal meaning; for example, order, when the material sequence is ob-
"dog" or "animal" are both prime as served, when predication and attribution
applied to the beast on the hearthrug.are immediate, when the sentence is uni-
Any word is capable of ambiguity; but fied and complete, when the sentence
conversely, any ambiguous word is capa-form is primary, when the rhythm is ap-
ble of being made prime. Words are im- propriate to the emphasis, and when the
mediate if they do not in themselves re-sentence is of the proper magnitude. Not
quire any special calculation before they all of these need explanation. By observ-
yield their meaning; thus the "not-not-not ing the material sequence I mean such
man" of logic-books is not immediate be-things as observing the natural order of
cause it requires a calculus of negations,events; for instance, Shelley's "I die, I
and Eliot's "polyphiloprogenitive" re-faint, I fail" does not observe the mate-
quires etymological calculation. In generalrial sequence. By immediate predication
no word is immediate unless it is intelligi- or attribution I mean that the predicate
WILLIAM EMPSON 247
or the modifier liesIn adjacent general, language isto

clear the
in propor-
subjec
to which it attaches. Thus
tion as it requires parenthetic
fewer mental operations
expressions of anytolength between
derive its meaning, subjec
however many men-
and predicate produce tal operationslack
may resultof clarity.
from the mean- B
unified sentence I mean one which con- ing once it is known. Hence clear language
never involves any misdirection of the
nects matter which ought to be connected.
For example, "She mourned his death mind of hearer or reader, except as this is
and subsequently became very proficient caused by the tongue in which it is
couched; hence language.is clear in pro-
in athletics" is not a unified sentence. By
primary sentence form I mean the posingportion as it follows normal expectation
of a question in the interrogative, a state-
in all things, for we are not misdirected if
ment in the declarative form, and so on. what follows is what we expected, whereas
By proper magnitude I mean that the any unexpectedness necessitates read-
sentence should not be so long that the justment; hence familiar words in familiar
beginning is forgotten before the end arrangement
is are always clearest, since
reached. familiarity determines expectation. Lan-
Clarity is produced in the relations of guage which follows expectation can al-
sentences when the proper signs of subor- ways be more concise than other language,
dination, co-ordination, and transition are without sacrificing clarity; for we need
employed; when the material sequence is only occasional indications that we are on
observed; and when the whole correlation the right track.
(the paragraph) is unified, complete, and It is far from true that ambiguity is the
of the proper magnitude. Sentences are essence of poetry; on the contrary, poetic
related to each other in four ways: addi- language should always be as clear as
tively, qualificatively, antithetically, and possible, not in the absolute sense, but in
inferentially; they either add fresh in- the qualified one of maximum clarity con-
formation, qualify what has been said, sistent with the requirements of the in-
oppose each other in some way, or are dividual poem as a whole. That is, there
related as parts of an argument. Question should be no unnecessary misdirection of
and answer and command and compliance the reader; and in this respect the great-
are not separate relations, but types of est poetry is not "puzzling" or unclear,
additive relation. The interrogative sen- but amazingly clear. Indeed, it would
tence always presents a subject and de- seem that in proportion as the implications
mands an attribute, or presents an attri- of the language increase in number and
bute and demands a subject, or presents in importance, the language itself is
both and demands to know their connec- clearer; compare the later poetry of Yeats.
tion; the answer adds the missing point, Clarity is not, however, always con-
just as a blank is filled in a questionnaire. sistent with the maximum effectiveness
The compliance similarly adds informa- of the poem. If everything were dis-
tion. Clarity results from the relations of closed as quickly and clearly as possible,
sentences when grammatical signs make interest, suspense, and surprise, and in-
explicit, in any doubtful cases, which of deed the poet's whole control of our emo-
the four relations is involved; this is par- tions, would be minimized, and the emo-
ticularly necessary when the words or the tional force of poetry would be greatly
syntactical arrangements have not been lessened. In proportion as characters and
clear.
situations are made vivid to us, they exert
248 ELDER OLSON
more powerfully their

be expected peculiar
to appear again, then as some- em
force, and they can
thing that maybe disclosed
be fantasy, as something t
idly to be vivid.that
We mightare,
not be believed,
forthen as a
instanc
vividly aware of the
"dreaded sight" vice
twice seen,of
and as a
an man
we realize that we were mistaken in the"apparition"; after such verbal prepara-
supposition that he is virtuous, and wetion the ghost appears, and that unex-
are more vividly aware of virtue which wepectedly. This is indeed, as Coleridge says,
have misjudged; our reaction in each case "admirable indefiniteness," and it is par-
is proportional to our vivid awareness. ticularly effective since the prior discus-
Interest and suspense must diminish once sion has induced a certain frame of mind
we know all, and surprise is impossiblein the audience. Complete disclosure here,
when only the expected happens. Hence,by the use of the word "ghost," would
obviously, the poet must, if merely upon have ruined the effect. The vagueness of
these grounds, conceal some aspects of his the incommensurate word is not neces-
subject, and misdirect us in our interpre- sarily a matter of generality; for instance,
tation of it; and, although language is T. S. Eliot achieves many effects by the
not the only instrument of concealment use of words more specific than his mean-
and misdirection, it is nevertheless an ing, e.g., the proper names which turn
important one. out after all not to have an individual
All of the points involved in disclosure, reference. In general it may be said that
as analyzed above, generate devices of the poet must disclose as much of his sub-
partial disclosure and concealment. An ject, and only so much, as is requisite to
example or two must suffice here. Partial produce the opinion and frame of mind on
disclosure is produced by vagueness, which the desired emotion depends; and
among other things; and vagueness is obviously language can help or hinder in
produced most generally by the incom- this.
mensurateness of terms, by ambiguity Since emotions are produced, not from
either of terms, syntax, or sentence-rela- mere opinions, but from opinions actively
tion, and by altering circumstances within entertained, and since this active enter-
the poem. All but the last are clear; I tainment results from the focusing of our
mean by it such phenomena as are pro- attention, clearly the direction of atten-
duced when a verbal expression changes tion is of great importance. It is achieved
meaning as the poem advances, not be- in many ways: by the mere mention of
cause of verbal ambiguity as such, but be- something where other things are left un-
cause of changing circumstances, just as mentioned; by repetition; by the repeated
"King of England" may now mean one omission or avoidance of the obvious word
man, now another. This is different from where the whole context insists upon it;
ambiguous prophecies such as those in by implication, especially when the prem-
Macbeth. The powerful effect of vagueness ise given is dull, but the conclusion im-
in inducing suspense and otherwise aug- plied is shocking or startling, or vice versa
menting attention and emotion is admi- when the conclusion is given; by treat-
rably exemplified, as Coleridge has ob- ment on a larger scale than that afforded
served, by Shakespeare's treatment of the other things, provided that the scale is
ghost in Hamlet; it is first disclosed to the not so large as to weary the attention; by
audience as a "thing" which "appears," use of suspense and surprise; by under-
has appeared before, and may momently statement, overstatement, or irony; by
WILLIAM EMPSON 249
should
changes of style, as inform, e.g.,
from the paraphrasis,
circumlocespe-
tory to the terse; and
cially where by images
the paraphrasis resolves the an
metaphors. familiar into the unfamiliar, so that we
Only a few of these require explanation. are delayed by having to conjecture (cf.
Omission of the obvious word can be Stefan Zweig's "wooden wedge affixed to
achieved by breaking off the grammatical
a hollow tube" for "rifle") ; by interruption
member short of the word, or by substi- of predication through apposition, paren-
tuting an incommensurate or an incon- thesis, and so on; by oxymoron, paradox,
sonant word; or, what is rather a matter and the other devices that rest on appar-
ent contradiction (for we must pause to
of invention than of diction, by substitut-
ing attributes for subjects, antecedents consider how "rash timidity" or "drunken
for consequents, and so on. The chapter sobriety" is possible); by extension of the
called "The grindstone" in A tale of two grammatical parts, e.g., making an at-
cities, for example, directs attention totributive
the adjective into a predicate or a
bloodiness of Paris not merely by repeat-relative clause, etc.; by giving the facts in
edly using the word "blood," but by nam- such order that knowledge is incomplete
ing attributes of blood such as redness until
and the last (e.g., by saying "There, in
the drawer, lay a shiny cylinder ... fitted
imparting them to the whole scene. Atten-
tion is produced by the unexpected in a needle, the tip of which was still
with
various ways, and especially whenstained
the dark brown" instead of "There
whole meaning is reversed so that, for
... lay the hypodermic syringe which had
example, a compliment becomes an insult.
been the instrument of murder"). In gen-
Thus the speech of the elder Yeatseral, at suspense will be produced by every
the Abbey Theatre: "This Ireland, device
this of diction which delays the dis-
land of saints-plaster saints"; and thus
covery of meaning.
John Barrymore's declining of an invita- An image is a verbal expression capa-
tion: "I have a previous engagement ble of conveying a conception of the form
which I shall make as quickly as possible."either of some sensory presentation or of
Suspense and the unexpected are ofsome bodily feeling. Images therefore de-
course based upon disclosure and conceal- rive from three sources: the "common
ment; nevertheless not everything con- sensibles," which are perceptible to all
cealed or disclosed produces these. The senses or more than one, such as magni-
matter disclosed or concealed is of course tude, motion, rest, figure, and number;
the primary determinant, and it must the be external sensibles, e.g., an object of
matter which engages interest and antici-vision; and bodily feelings such as pain,
pation; but this granted, suspense and heat, cold, pressure, fatigue, tension, etc.
surprise may nevertheless be enhanced by As our perceptions are limited-we do not,
the diction. Broadly speaking, we are for in instance, see all that is presented to the
suspense until we have found the meaning eye-so images are limited; an image must
of any discourse that engages our atten- not therefore be a complete depiction, but
tion, merely because of the nature of lan- the formula of an apergu. An image, more-
guage as temporal; but suspense can beover, must consist of parts (a subject and
artificially produced by delaying what its attribute, as the minimum); yet the
we wish to know; hence, by stopping the statement must be concise enough so that
sentence short of the informing word, or all details fuse and operate as one per-
by using vagueness at the point that ception. Such a synthesis is impossible if
250 ELDER OLSON
the elements areimage

too many
is so or too in
because
minately related itsto each other.
object. Thus th F
stance, a contemporary
early poems novelis
is viv
several sentences dimto things
say that like
a ma"m
was composed of"glimmering
V's, which effects
mot
ing despite theshould
elaborate always
statemebe
how it was so composed,
things they because
presen
have to be imagined in various
is another question po
and because the tomemory
gain a kindcannotof
them all; a secondimagery by the
description ofin
as "a blond satan" conveys a
"bright" and "vivi bett
ture, but it is still
whole, not really
bad; anyonan
For an image must be distinguish
agery of that sort.
a mere descriptionought
of antoobject;
be more oth
every descriptive catalogue would
presentation than
of images; and it is also
feel different
as though we
word effectingnot a picture,
as though or ever
som
crete noun would be an image.
something to us. W T
tinguishes the image from out
be brought ordin by
scription is that implied,
it effects ora mental
sugge
sentation such asagesa particular
are made mor per
might, with a speed
by the asinclusion
nearly app o
ing simultaneityexpected
as words element,
permit. T
must consist ofselves
elements readily
are-for inst
able and simultaneously
"rouged fruitsconceiva
in sn
what a single perception
also from the wouldselecp
ject-cf.
any change of point Eliot's
of view "je
or oth
by the
dition of perception gilded
is fatal: hea
Colerid
right in rejecting
usual"the furrow fo
perception of
free," because this
matternecessitated
of content a
of place. The novelist mentioned
said; perhaps it will
speaks of a speeding
thing car appearing
further: tha
of its passengers
notas necessarily
"a tan streak m
us"; this similarly
onesrefuses to syn
can damage a
into an image. From what
Aristotle has
has ju
dist
said about the content of an image,
of metaphor; we
lows that the diction
remarksof by
an obser
image
be clear, concise, and "heightene
phors as he calls
"heightened" language I mean
into the simple ans
exaggerated; the words should sug
ing as the likeness o
color clearer or is
brighter
based isthan would
in terms
to the real perception,
several.since
For mental
instan
are necessarily is
fainter than
simple, real p
whereas
tions; this increases
plex; vividness.
the former se
"Vivid images" are commonly
before conf
us, where
with images of sheen,
vivid things; but
delicacy, len
WILLIAM EMPSON 251
plex metaphors give When thea continuum

us either mere con-
ity,
junction of attributes orthe metaphor is
a correspondence
of whole with wholewhere
and it is not,
part withit alw
part
difficulty.
The latter is exemplified Anyone
in the famoukn
analogy, in Ecclesiastes, of the
like a lamp inbody to
respect
citadel, in the comparison of marriage,
flea is like the body or t
ble Queene,
a castle in The Faery compasses,and is
ofanot
the
state to a body in metaphysical
Coriolanus. metaph
and analogues
There are three elements in every with no
meta-
or states the
phor: perhaps we may callcontinua
themlast. the refer
When both referent
ent, or thing analogized, the andanalogue,
continuum are o
thing to which thesuppressed,
referent or only vaguely intimated,
is analogized,
and the continuum, theor
metaphor
groundbecomes a symbol; what we
of likeness,
whether in fact or speak of as "symbolism"
thought, whichis, so far as dic-
permits
the analogy. A metaphor
tion is concerned,is clearly
merely the employmentstate
as metaphor whenof these
symbolic metaphor. When even the and
are explicit,
symbol is ambiguous,
when the grammatical either becauseof
indications it si-
militude are present ortheeasily
involves understood.
unfamiliar use of the familiar,
But a metaphor to be clear
or because it has beenas metaphor
vaguely or par-
must be something more
tially stated and must than the
be clarified clea
by the
statement that something
context, suspense resembles
due to metaphor is some- at a
thing in a certainmaximum.
respect; Eliot's "little
itoldmustman" is an be in
telligible as a likeness.
example; for A when metaphor
we have translatedcan
never be false; it must
gerontion into bethat,true,
the familiarityeither
of the in
that the analogy is real, or in that
expression keeps us from realizing that some
one in a certain condition
it is a symbol. might think i
real. Hence a metaphor can be "difficult
Many other kinds of metaphor may be
distinguished; among them what might
in three principal ways: through omission
of one of its elements,
be called the "correlative metaphor." unclea
through
Hart Crane's "adagios through
statement grammatically, of islands" is of appar
this kind.
ent falsity. Difficult This type makes an attribution
metaphor always pro
duces suspense, and to the iscorrelative
useful of one of thefor terms of
forcin
the metaphor,
inference; that is, the rather than to the
difficulty term.
produces
For example:
curiosity which impels the motion of ship: motion
reader to of infer
the inference involves
adagio music; delay,
the motion is now and trans-thus
suspense. When one ferredelement
to the correlative, ofi.e., to the
that withmeta
phor is suppressed,reference
a riddle always
to which the results:
ship moves; hence
for example, "Why adagiosis a snake's venom
of islands.
like a woman's virtue?" Curiosity,
Among kinds of unexpected metaphor, an
therefore suspense, are
there is heightened
the kind which unites terms com- when
the things involved areso seemingly
monly united, that the likeness appears dis-
parate, and heightened even is more
trite; a new continuum when
involved, how-
seeming paradox is ever,
involved, asthe
in the light of which in Donne's
metaphor is
metaphor just mentioned; for the com-
suddenly vivid and startling.
parison of a snake's venom
Again, there is whatto
I shallacallwoman's
the
virtue implies that good metaphor"
"subsumptive is like bad.
or the "sub-
252 ELDER OLSON
sumptive wood" suggests

symbol." Thisa serpent is
determinately,
a gener
phor although without
comprising many real metaphor, for these
metapho
parts, and are perfectly
uniting all;literalthe
attributes. Use of
Platonic
of "combination" must be used in order tomore general attributes in this instance
produce such metaphor. It is particularlywould render the analogue indeterminate,
powerful because of the dialectic which it but have the effect of metaphor still.
entails. The magical mythology of Yeats'sThis is very useful for producing "at-
Vision involves it, and Eliot's Wheel is ofmosphere."
the same order. Many other developments of diction
Somewhat akin to metaphor is the useare, like these last kinds, fairly new; the
of words which, while not constitutingstudy of diction, even as tropes and
metaphor, have metaphorical suggestion,figures, may scarcely, therefore, be re-
either determinately suggesting somegarded as completed; and still less the
analogue, or leaving the analogue vague.investigation of its complex uses in rela-
For instance, "The train glided out of ation to the various kinds of poetic ends.
hole in the mountain and slid into a dark UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO

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William Empson, Contemporary Criticism and Poetic Diction

Author(s): Elder Olson

[MODERN PHILOLOGY, May, 19501 222

Empson conceives it the is

Hamlet, the line interesting"Inand valuable

Empson's types, ing

26 E.g., p. 214, par. 2. 27 P. 1 n. 28 P. 70 n. 11 Pp. 235-36. 32 P. 256.

rately stated; for instance,

34 I trust that these statements will not seem to

is true even in thus at first sight diction

may be seen cumstances.

propriate, ply thewould

only one principle of Is explanation

ure of truth which they indicate,

safer to say that mimetic

and manner, and spect to Lear

prise, and even a mood is

them. This is different from

or the modifier liesIn adjacent general, language isto

more powerfully their

the elements areimage

plex metaphors give When thea continuum

sumptive wood" suggests

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