Recent Progress of Hyperspectral Imaging on

Quality and Safety Inspection of Fruits and

Vegetables: A Review
Yuan-Yuan Pu, Yao-Ze Feng, and Da-Wen Sun

Abstract: Objective quality assessment and efficacious safety surveillance for agricultural and food products are insep-
arable from innovative techniques. Hyperspectral imaging (HSI), a rapid, nondestructive, and chemical-free method, is
now emerging as a powerful analytical tool for product inspection by simultaneously offering spatial information and
spectral signals from one object. This paper focuses on recent advances and applications of HSI in detecting, classifying,
and visualizing quality and safety attributes of fruits and vegetables. First, the basic principles and major instrumental
components of HSI are presented. Commonly used methods for image processing, spectral pretreatment, and modeling
are summarized. More importantly, morphological calibrations that are essential for nonflat objects as well as feature
wavebands extraction for model simplification are provided. Second, in spite of the physical and visual attributes (size,
shape, weight, color, and surface defects), applications from the last decade are reviewed specifically categorized into
textural characteristics inspection, biochemical components detection, and safety features assessment. Finally, technical
challenges and future trends of HSI are discussed.
Keywords: classification, fruits and vegetables, hyperspectral imaging, quality assessment, safety inspection

Introduction
Fruits and vegetables are marketable products aimed at increas-
ing economic value of industries as well as satisfying customer
demands, therefore besides techniques such as drying (Sun and
Woods 1997; Sun and Byrne 1998; Delgado and Sun 2002a,
2002b), refrigeration (Sun and others 1996; Sun 1997; McDonald
and Sun 2001; Kiani and Sun 2011) and edible coating (Xu and
others 2001) to preserve their qualities, effective quality assessment
methods are also important. Comprehensive quality assessment in
food products integrates determination of appearance evaluation
and intrinsic characteristics. External defects in fruits and vegeta-
bles, such as bruises, chilling injury, wind scars, and cuticle cracks
can drastically lower the quality level, causing great economic loss
(Ariana and others 2006, Lü and Tang 2012). Internal features
such as soluble solids content (SSC), acidity, and water content
have a high connection with product aroma and taste (Rajkumar
and others 2012), implicating a predominant role in quality
assessment. Safety problems of fruits and vegetables caused by
chemical/microbial contamination or fruit fly/insect infestation
might be severe. A small portion of products with infection
by bacteria/fungi may cause widespread transmissible diseases
MS 20141178 Submitted 7/8/2014, Accepted 13/10/2014. Authors are with Food
Refrigeration and Computerized Food Technology (FRCRT), School of Biosystems
Engineering, Univ. College Dublin, Natl. Univ. of Ireland, Agriculture and Food
Science Centre, Belfield, Dublin 4, Ireland. Direct inquiries to author Sun (E-mail:
dawen.sun@ucd.ie).
to the whole batch (Wang and others 2012b), and ingestion
of chemical/pathogen-contaminated fruits might incur health
problems to consumers. Therefore, applying a rapid, accurate, and
noninvasive technique in food analytical procedure for quality
evaluation and safety inspection has become an urgent need.
Traditionally, food quality sorting systems based on external
features rely heavily on manual handling, which is laborious,
time-consuming, and nonobjective. Meanwhile, internal quality
measurement depends mainly upon sample destruction and
reagent-costly chemical analysis. To speed up grading and clas-
sifying efficiency and to reduce artificial error and lower analysis
cost, extensive efforts have been made recently to find solutions
for rapid, accurate, and nondestructive determination of food
products. Computer vision technology, which integrates image
acquiring, processing, and analyzing (Brosnan and Sun 2002,
Cubero and others 2010), shows great potential in automatic
inspection of agricultural and food products by simply providing a
gray-value or a spell out RGB image of the tested sample. How-
ever, the quality features captured by a computer vision system
mainly highlight visual properties that are closely correlated to
its shape, size, color, and texture features (Wang and Sun 2002,
Sun 2004, Jackman and others 2008, 2009, Valous and others
2009). Though some internal qualities, such as the antioxidant
activity and total phenol content, can be predicted by computer
vision (Pace and others 2013), their successful predictions rely
on the color changes of samples. With respect to qualitative and
quantitative determination of internal attributes which might
have little relationship with appearance features, spectroscopic


C 2015 Institute of Food Technologists®

176 Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety r Vol. 14, 2015 doi: 10.1111/1541-4337.12123
Progress of hyperspectral imaging . . .

methods involving reflectance, transmittance, fluorescence, and acousto-optic tunable filter. The light source, serving as an optical
Raman scattering measurements have been employed to provide probe for effectively detecting physical structure and chemical
direct insights into food quality and safety concerns. In terms components of targets, is of great importance in HSI systems.
of the spectral range, spectroscopy in visible and near-infrared A halogen lamp is widely used in hyperspectral reflectance
(Vis-NIR) regions received a great deal of attention because most and transmittance imaging systems by providing illumination
of the agro-food products contain functional groups like C–H, of the target area with a broad spectral range in the Vis/NIR
N–H, and O–H, which are closely associated with the overtone region (Nanyam and others 2012). For fluorescence and Raman
and combination vibrations in Vis-NIR spectral region (Magwaza imaging, light units with higher intensity than a halogen lamp, for
and others 2011, Yu and others 2014). However, the weakness of example, ultraviolet-A (Vargas and others 2005), laser beam (Noh
single-spot detecting property in the above-mentioned methods and Lu 2007), and light-emitting diode (Yang and others 2012)
limits their applications to homogeneous samples. Nevertheless, are applied to provide adequate exciting energy. Particularly,
such disadvantage could be overcome by introducing hyper- to provide a uniform illumination environment, especially for
spectral imaging (HSI), where imaging and spectral scanning are those samples with a round shape, an indirect light source can be
combined to provide spectral information in spatial details about employed for spherical objects by placing light source around the
samples so that the variations within samples can be specified. edge of a hemispherical diffuser (Baranowski and others 2013).
The term of HSI was initially coined in remote sensing and
this emerging technique is currently applied as a powerful nonde- Data acquisition and analysis
structive method for plant inspection (Rumpf and others 2010), There are 3 kinds of ways for obtaining a hyperspectral data-
clinical examination (Randeberg and others 2010), and forensic cube, namely, point scan, line scan, and area scan. The acquisition
detection (Edelman and others 2012). Particularly, great attention time of point-scanning is quite long (Qin and others 2011), thus
is being paid to the field of agricultural and food science (Wu and making it unacceptable for real-time detection. Although the area-
Sun 2013), for example, fish and other seafood, meat and meat scanning mode enables whole images to be captured at discrete
products (ElMasry and others 2011a, 2011b, 2012, Kamruzzaman wavebands, it is not capable of detecting a moving target on a
and others 2011, 2012, Barbin and others 2012), grains, dairy production line (ElMasry and Sun 2010). Currently, line-scanning,
products, and horticultural products. With considerable achieve- also known as push-broom, is the most widely used acquisition
ments being accomplished in addressing quality and safety issues method in research and applications due to its fast detection speed
of fruits and vegetables using HSI (Karimi and others 2012, Cen and availability of 2-dimensional array detector.
and others 2013, Wei and others 2013, Yu and others 2014), this To extract useful spatial information from the hyperspectral
paper reviews recent applications of this advanced technology in data-cube, a series of image processing methods and algorithms
nondestructive assessments of textural characteristics, biochemical involving image calibration, image enhancement, and segmenta-
information, and safety features of fruits and vegetables. The ob- tion are necessary. To effectively minimize noise and background
jectives of this review are (1) to present fundamental principles of caused by random interference of instrument and detecting en-
HSI and key steps for data analysis; (2) to summarize state-of-the- vironment, spectral preprocessing, such as smoothing, derivatives,
art applications in fruits and vegetables from the aspects of quality detrending, multiplicative scatter correction (MSC), and standard
and safety concern; (3) and to discuss current issues encountered normal variate (SNV) are selected to improve raw data quality for
in HSI and to provide prospective trends in future research. subsequent analysis. Chemometrics is an integral part of data anal-
ysis in HSI, which connects chemical measurements with spectral
HSI Technology information. Commonly used methods for classification or regres-
Fundamental principles sion includes principal component analysis (PCA), partial least
HSI concerns 2 aspects of imaging and spectroscopy, thus square (PLS), artificial neural network (ANN), support vector
generating a series of high-resolution images at a consecutive machine (SVM), cluster analysis (CA), and discriminant analysis
wavelength range. Imaging technology enable sample to be dis- (DA). Currently, commercial software package, such as Matlab,
played on a 2-D image plane. Spectroscopy studies the relationship Unscramble, and Environment for Visualizing Images are available
of light (electromagnetic wave) and matter, the responses of matter to manipulate the modeling procedure. More details about the
to light provides 1-D spectrum at each pixel, which may imply theories can be found elsewhere (Adams 2004).
physical or chemical message of the targeted area. According to
the specific light-output captured by HSI, HSI can be performed Morphological calibrations
in reflectance, transmittance, fluorescence, and scattering mode. Generally, the collected hyperspectral images are first calibrated
using white and dark references to account for the uneven inten-
System components sity of light source, the spectral response of the device, and the dark
A typical HSI system generally consists of 4 parts: (1) an imaging current occurring in imaging detector. It is noteworthy that the
unit, (2) an illuminating source, (3) a sample stage, (4) and a general image calibration procedure does not take into account
computer with corresponding control software. The imaging the morphology of nonflat samples, for example, round-shaped
unit, being a core section in constructing spectral and spatial apples and mandarins, cylinder-shaped cucumbers, and bananas.
information of targeted samples, is made up of a standard zoom The curving surface generally results in variations of distance from
lens, a highly sensitive and specific spectrograph in conjunction the detector to the sample surface, which raises great differences
with a charge-coupled-device or complementary metal-oxide- in optical pathlength. Therefore, additional pretreatments for cor-
semiconductor camera. The function of a spectrograph is to rection of light distance difference should be conducted on the
disperse the captured light into a certain continuous spectral calibrated images.
range. To achieve this purpose, most of the spectrographs in HSI A solution for such interfaces on round-shaped samples can be
systems include optical devices, such as prism, diffraction grating, corrected by mathematically adjusting measured optical parame-
and electronically controlled liquid crystal tunable filters or ters after assuming these samples as spherical objects with a radius


C 2015 Institute of Food Technologists® Vol. 14, 2015 r Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety 177
Progress of hyperspectral imaging . . .
of r (Peng and Lu 2006). As shown in Figure 1, the real scat-
tering distance (s) is longer than the measured distance (x) due
to the curving shape, and the actual scattering intensity (Ir ) at a
specific site of the sample can be determined based on the mea-
sured scattering intensity (Im ) as well as the spatial information
of the site (determined by the spherical radius r as well as hor-
izontal distance x). An alternative for shape correction of round
objects is to consider the fruit surface as a Lambertian ellipsoid
(Gómez-Sanchis and others 2008a). In this case, shape-corrected
reflectance images could be obtained by introducing a geometric
correction factor (εg ) to the calibrated images. The value of εg
can be calculated based on a digital elevation model, in which a
3-D model is constructed from a 2-D reflectance image. In hy-
perspectral transmittance imaging, the light intensity penetrating
through the matter is deeply influenced by its size. Taking pickling
cucumbers an example, Lu and Ariana (2013) defined a diame-
ter correction factor f for each tested cucumber to minimize the
size effect on detecting fruit fly infestation, with calculation of f is
shown in Eq. (1):
 1.3
Ds
f = , (1)
Dm
where Ds is the estimated diameter of the cucumber sample from
transmittance image; Dm is the mean estimated diameter of all
samples.
Feature wavebands extraction
Raw hyperspectral data-cube contains dozens to hundreds of
wavebands, which pose great storage and processing pressure to a
computer. More importantly, among the wide-scale wavebands,
only a few are highly related to certain quality attributes (Liu
and others 2013). Therefore, selection of optimal wavebands that
preserve the most relevant information is an essential step for data-
reduction as well as model optimization to improve analysis speed.
The simplest method for wavelength selection is to pick the
wavebands at peaks or valleys of the spectral curve according to
the maximum or minimum intensity difference (Liu and others
2007). However, the selected wavebands might not be the most
Figure 1–Image correction of morphological effect on scattering distance
and intensity by Peng and Lu (2006).
178 Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety r Vol. 14, 2015
significant ones. Some feature waveband extraction approaches
available in the literature are based on the principal components
generated in PCA (Wang and others 2012b), β-coefficients in PLS
model (Rajkumar and others 2012), the fitness function in genetic
algorithms (Gómez-Sanchis and others 2008b), and the weight of
each input (wavelength) in backpropagation neural network (El-
Masry and others 2009). Other means for feature waveband se-
lection are minimum redundancy maximum relevance (MRMR)
algorithm (Gómez-Sanchis and others 2012), stepwise regression
(ElMasry and others 2008), receiver operating characteristic curve
(Lorente and others 2011, 2013), branch and bound algorithm
(Ariana and Lu 2010), and more.
HSI Applications in Quality Assessment
Being a noncontact and fast-detecting approach, HSI has found
increasing utilization in agricultural and food products. This sec-
tion focuses on the overview of recent applications of HSI in
textural, biochemical changes, and safety features of fruits and veg-
etables, which might have a direct connection to maturity stage,
eating quality, and shelf life.
Textural characteristics inspection
Bruise, chilling injury, and decay lesion are tissue defects prob-
ably associated with cell wall collapse, complicated enzymatic and
metabolic activities (Van Zeebroeck and others 2007). Such tex-
tural changes restricting product’s marketing potential need to be
inspected and graded.
Bruise. Bruise on fruit surface is one of the most significant ex-
ternal defects and has received much attention in research. Chem-
ical changes in a bruised area lead to changes of their reflectance
properties. Therefore, by comparing spectra from different spa-
tial locations on the same object, a bruised region can be easily
detected. Table 1 summarizes the image processing and classifi-
cation methods for bruise detection using reflectance HSI. Re-
search by Ariana and others (2006) showed that the bruised tissue
of pickling cucumber is lighter than the normal skin in the re-
flectance image. Based on this fact, a simple band ratio algorithm
is sufficient to identify bruise portions, achieving the best clas-
sification performance of 82% to 93%. Xing and others (2005)
investigated bruise detection on “Golden Delicious” apples by
hyperspectral reflectance imaging. An algorithm based on mo-
ment thresholding was established for image processing and a
classification accuracy of 86% was attained. Despite such satis-
factory results, these studies only detected bruise on the cheek
of apples. However, the precision of classification models may be
degraded by the presence of stem-end or calyx because these 2
positions also have a lighter reflection property than the sound
regions (Wang and others 2011). Based on the changes of contour
features, stem-end/calyx was significantly distinguished from apple
cheeks (Xing and others 2007a). The color of apple skin is another
factor that can affect the detection of bruise. To address this issue,
Kleynen and others (2005) developed a multispectral imaging de-
vice with 4 bandpass filters for defect sorting on a bi-color variety
of “Jonagold” apple. By removing the stem-ends/calyxes on im-
ages using a correlation matching algorithm, defect identification
based on a Bayesian classifier was implemented, where a clas-
sification rate of more than 90% for recent bruises and serious
defects was achieved. ElMasry and others (2008) examined early
bruises on “McIntosh” apples using line-scanned hyperspectral
reflectance imaging in conjunction with PLS-DA analysis. Three
optimal wavebands in the NIR domain were triumphantly imple-
mented to identify bruise, even though the color of a bruised area

C 2015 Institute of Food Technologists®
 
Table 1–Recent applications of reflectance HSI in bruise detection of fruits and vegetables.

Species Cultivar Range (nm) Image processing Classification Accuracy Reference

Apple
Red Delicious, Golden 430 to 900 Musking, thresholding ASD, PCA, SSD / (Mehl and others 2004)
Delicious, Gala, Fuji
Golden Delicious 400 to 1000 PCA A classification algorithm 86% to 93% (Xing and others 2005)

C 2015 Institute of Food Technologists®

based on moment
thresholding
Progress of hyperspectral imaging . . .

Jonagold 400 to 1000 PCA A classification algorithm 77.5% to 100% (Xing and others 2005)
based on shape
deformation
Golden Delicious 400 to 1000 PCA PCA, PLS-DA 86.36% to 93.55%, (Xing and others 2007b)
48.39% to 98.11%
/ 500 to 900 PCA ASD 88.57% (Zhao and others 2008)
McIntosh 400 to 1000 Binary mask, PCA PLS, SD / (ElMasry and others 2008)
Champion, Gloster, 400 to 1000 PCA, MNF SIMCA, LDA, SVM 63% to 97% (Baranowski and others 2012)
Golden Delicious, 1000 to 2500
Idared, Topaz
Champion, Gloster, 400 to 1000 Binary mask, thresholding LLR in second derivative 83.3% to 97.9% (Baranowski and others 2013)
Golden Delicious, 1000 to 2500 data
Idared, Topaz
Kiwi fruit Zhonghua 600 to 900 PCA RBF-SVM 87.5% (Lü and others 2011)
Zhonghua 600 to 1000 PCA Parallelepiped 85.5% (Lü and Tang 2012)
Classification
Pear / / PCA MDC, SAM 93.8%, 95% (Zhao and others 2010)
/ 949 to 1666 Band ratio k-NN, SVM / (Dang and others 2012)
Shingo 950 to 1605 Band ratio A classification algorithm 92% (Lee and others 2014)
based on F-values of
ANOVA
White mushroom Agaricus bisporus 400 to 1000 Masking, PCA PCA >79% (Gowen and others 2008a)
Pickling cucumber Journey 950 to 1350 PCA, Band ratio, band ROC curve 65.5% to 94.6%, 81.8% (Ariana and others 2006)
difference to 92.7%, 83.6% to
92.7%
Strawberry Akihime 650 to 1000 / LDA, ND, ANN / (Nagata and others 2006)
/ 960 to 1700 Multiband segmentation Uni-band Gaussian 85.3%, 97.67% (Nanyam and others 2012)
classifier, Multi-band
decision-fusion
classifier
Mango Manila 650 to 1100 / k-NN, NBC, ELM, DT, LDA 67.46% to 98.13% (Vélez Rivera and others 2014)
ASD, asymmetric second difference; PCA, principal component analysis; SSD, symmetric second difference; PLS, partial least square; DA, discriminant analysis; SD, stepwise discrimination; MNF, minimum noise fraction; SIMCA, soft independent modeling of class analogy; LDA, linear
discriminant analysis; SVM, support vector machines; LLR, linear logistic regression; RBF, radical basis function; MDC, Mahalanobis distance classification; SAM, spectral angle mapper; ND, normalized difference; ANN, artificial neural network; k-NN, k-nearest neighbor; ANOVA, analysis
of variance; ROC, receiver operating characteristic; NBC, Naı̈ve Bayes; ELM, extreme learning machine; DT, decision tree.

Vol. 14, 2015 r Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety 179
Progress of hyperspectral imaging . . .

(Leiva-Valenzuela and others 2013)

is similar to the color of the apple surface. For products, such as
kiwi fruit with flocky peels, detecting the defective areas would
be more difficult. Lü and others (2012) proposed Vis/NIR HSI

(Rajkumar and others 2012)

(Mendoza and others 2011)

(Servakaranpalayam 2006)
(Tallada and others 2006)

UVE, uninformative variable elimination algorithm; SAP, supervised affinity propagation algorithm; NSAP, new semisupervised affinity propagation algorithm; LDF, Lorentzian distribution function; MLR, multilinear regression; PRESS, predicted residual error sum of squares.
(Wang and others 2012a)
technique to detect hidden bruise on kiwi fruit. A total detection

Reference

(Zhu and others 2013)

error rate of 14.5% was obtained by parallelepiped classification on

(Lu and Peng 2006)

(Noh and Lu 2007)
the top 4 principal component images, yet a better detection result
(12.5% of total error rate) was achieved by radical basis function-
SVM classifier on 5 optimal wavelength images extracted by PCA.
Chilling injury. Chilling injury is another defect commonly oc-
curring on many horticultural products during long-time cold
storage. Cheng and others (2004) integrated PCA and Fisher’s
Linear Discriminant (FLD) for feature extraction of chilling in-
jury cucumbers in hyperspectral data analysis. The results eluci-

Rp = 0.66 to 0.76
R = 0.77 to 0.95
Rp = 0.79 to 0.83

Rp 2 = 0.58 to 0.77

Rp = 0.83 to 0.87

Rp = 0.68 to 0.88
dated that the combined method provided superior classification

Accuracy
performance than using PCA or Fisher’s Linear Discriminant in-

Rp = 0.86

Rp = 0.79
Rp 2 = 0.91
dividually. In the meanwhile, studies by Liu and others (2006)
showed that chilling spot on cucumbers held a weaker reflectance,
and the dual-band ratio algorithm and PCA method maximized
the difference between normal and chilling tissues. As described
in the literature, chilling injury results from cell wall breakage and
membrane degradation (Fukushima and others 1977), thus the

PCA, PLS, MLR

Modeling
firmness of the chilled region is changed. Based on the firmness

PCA-ANN
changes, ElMasry and others (2009) developed a dependable model

ANN
(with 98.4% accuracy) using backpropagation ANN method for

MLR

MLR
PLS
PLS
PLS

PLS
chilling injury identification on “Red Delicious” apples, and this
model can be further applied to forecast apple firmness.
Firmness. Firmness is a primary textural attribute concerning

11 (“Coral Star” cultivar)

the freshness and maturity of fruits, it is also a general quality

10 (“Red Haven” cultivar),

No. of wavebands
parameter showing the mechanical properties, especially for those
with a juicy character, such as berries, plums, and tomatoes. Select-
ing approaches for feature wavebands corresponding to firmness
attributes are showed in Table 2. Among numerous fruits, apple
fruits have received great attention in firmness detection using
34, 35

4, 6, 8
HSI. Since fluorescence and reflectance are 2 distinct detecting
28

forms reflecting different interaction behaviors between light and

/
/

/
3
8
matter, a new device with collective fluorescence and reflectance
modes in one HSI system in the spectral range of 500 to 1040
nm was proposed (Noh and others 2007). Results showed that the Simple correction analysis,
Wavelength selection

performance of apple firmness prediction in the reflectance mode first derivative, based
Based on PLS analysis

(Rc = 0.77) was better than that in fluorescence mode (Rc =

on PLS analysis

0.67), while integration of the 2 modes led to a noticeable im-

Based on LDF

provement of firmness prediction (Rc = 0.81). Similar to mode

UVE, SAP

Stepwise

combination, the notion of model fusion in hyperspectral scat-

Table 2–Waveband selection for firmness detection using HSI.

NSAP

tering imaging was proposed aiming at improving the prediction

accuracy (Wang and others 2012a). In this study, 2 wavelength
/
/

selection algorithms, uninformative variable elimination (UVE)

and supervised affinity propagation (SAP), were first employed to
500 to 1040

500 to 1000
500 to 1000
400 to 1000
500 to 1000

500 to 1000
650 to 1000
400 to 1000
Range (nm)

430 to 980

extract important wavebands. Subsequently, corresponding PLS

models based on the selected wavebands were developed, namely,
UVE-PLS model and SAP-PLS model. With the aid of a BP
neural network for data fusion, the above 2 models were joined
to form a final fusion model. Results showed that the prediction
performance of fusion model (Rp = 0.828) was improved com-
Fluorescence

pared with the results from either UVE-PLS model (Rp = 0.805)
Reflectance
Reflectance
Reflectance
Reflectance
Scattering
Scattering
Scattering
Scattering
Mode

or the SAP-PLS model (Rp = 0.814). Considering the merits

of waveband extraction in data-cube processing, Huang and Lu
(2010a) utilized a hierarchical evolutionary algorithm along with
PLS method to select 17 wavebands for apple firmness prediction,
accomplishing a much higher accuracy (Rp = 0.857, RMSEP =
Strawberry

6.2 N) compared with the result (Rp = 0.848, RMSEP = 6.4 N)

Blueberry
Species

Banana
Mango
Peach
Apple

by simply using PLS. An alternative of wavelength selection for

predicting apple firmness was a modified Lorentzian distribution

180 Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety r Vol. 14, 2015 
C 2015 Institute of Food Technologists®
Progress of hyperspectral imaging . . .
function (Peng and Lu 2006), where high correction coefficients
of 0.898 and 0.897 for “Red Delicious” and “Golden Delicious”
apples were achieved, respectively.
Others. Besides the textural disorder of bruise and chilling in-
jury in fruits, other textural properties, such as hardness, juici-
ness, and chewiness are highly related to its sensory quality. Apple
mealiness is a kind of tissue disorder characterized as a lack of
juiciness and tissue looseness. Huang and Lu (2010b) used 2 pa-
rameters, hardness and juiciness, as index for mealiness detection
in “Golden Delicious” apples using a HSI system performing from
600 to 1000 nm. Mean reflectance derived from the targeted apple
was calculated to characterize the hyperspectral scattering profiles.
PLS models for hardness and juiciness prediction yield low per-
formance, with correlation coefficients Rp ࣘ 0.76 for hardness
and Rp ࣘ 0.54 for juiciness. While PLS-DA classification models
for “mealy” and “nonmealy” apples achieved accuracy between
74.6% and 86.7%. With the locally linear embedding algorithm
for feature extraction (Huang and others 2012), PLS-DA gave an
overall classification performance of 80.4%, whereas higher accu-
racy (82.5%) was obtained by SVM classification model. Gowen
and others (2008b) employed a push-broom HSI (400 to 1000 nm)
to investigate the textural quality (hardness and chewiness) changes
of white mushroom slices during storage. Principal component re-
gression (PCR) models performing on 20 wavebands selected by
an exhaustive stepwise regression method showed better predic-
tion results for hardness (Rp 2 = 0.77) and chewiness (Rp 2 = 0.72),
indicating that HSI is promising in contactless determination of
texture profiles.
Biochemical component detection
Chemical constituents, such as water content, protein, titratable
acidity, total solids, and sugar content, play a key role in determin-
ing the nutritional values and marketability of fruit and vegetables.
Therefore, noncontact techniques offering full internal chemical
information are in an urgent need. Table 3 summarizes recent ap-
plications of HSI on determination of some chemical constitutes
of fruits and vegetables. It turns out that SSC, acidity, and water
content are the top 3 parameters among the considerable internal
attributes.
Moisture content. The moisture content (MC) of food prod-
ucts has a critical impact on quality and safety features. Generally,
the MC of fruits and vegetables varies with their ripening pro-
cesses. Strawberry samples in a deep maturity stage were found to
have higher MC and lower relative reflectance in 400 to 1000 nm
spectral domain (ElMasry and others 2007). Investigations on the
relationship of MC and maturity in banana fruit using hyperspec-
tral reflectance imaging reached a consistent result (Rajkumar and
others 2012), in which MC of banana pulp increased with in-
creasing maturity and the reflectance response giving maximum
differentiation in ripeness stage was shown in 800 to 960 nm in-
tervals. Significantly, the correlation of MC and maturity stage of
bananas was depicted as a linear relationship at different storage
temperatures. For the dried fruits or vegetables, MC value is an
important parameter affecting the shelf life during storage. Huang
and others (2014) utilized HSI to predict MC of vegetable soy-
beans during drying process, with an active contour model, in
which an energy function for a closed curve was initially defined
and then employed for searching the sample boundaries, the soy-
beans images were segmented from the background and MC was
predicted at a high accuracy level (Rp = 0.971 and RMSEP =
4.7%) using PLS regression model. On the other hand, Gowen
and others (2008b) monitored the moisture loss of mushroom

C 2015 Institute of Food Technologists® Vol. 14, 2015 r Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety 181
slices (with 3 mm thickness) during 4 and 15 °C storage tempera-
tures by HSI, MC prediction performances between PCR model
at full wavelength range and PCR and MLR models at selected
wavebands were compared, and results showed that the best pre-
diction accuracy was achieved by PCR models with 20 feature
wavelengths.
Soluble solids content. SSC, also named total soluble solids
(TSS) content, is a collective index for sweetness measurement.
In the preharvest period, SSC profoundly dominates the optimal
harvest time for various fruits and vegetables, whereas changes of
SSC during the shelf-life period after harvesting would lead to
quality fluctuation of fruits and vegetables. For SSC prediction
using HSI, some feature wavelengths were extracted via various
wavelength selection methods. For example, a novel semisuper-
vised affinity propagation (NSAP) method was employed to pre-
dict SSC of “Golden Delicious” apples (Zhu and others 2013).
Compared with traditional affinity propagation method or genetic
algorithm, the NSAP algorithm not only reduced data redundancy
but also improved the correlation coefficients from 0.876 to 0.890.
In studying SSC in strawberries, ElMasry and others (2007) se-
lected 6 optimal wavelengths from the Vis-NIR region based on
β-coefficient of PLS analysis, obtaining the same correlation coef-
ficients of calibration (Rc = 0.80) from both PLS model and mul-
tiple linear regression (MLR) model. Similar prediction accuracy
of SSC (Rc = 0.78 to 0.82) was acquired in a study of blueberries
(Leiva-Valenzuela and others 2013), while the research revealed a
very low correlation (R = −0.02 to −0.04) between skin color
and SSC, indicating that skin color could not be used to esti-
mate SSC of blueberries. To elucidate the relationship of TSS and
maturity, Rajkumar and others (2012) defined 6 maturity stages
of banana fruits according to the quality parameters of firmness,
SSC, and moisture. A quadratic polynomial with high correlation
(R2 > 0.90) was presented to illuminate the connection of TSS
and ripeness at 20 and 25 °C storage temperatures, namely, the
TSS could serve as an effective candidate for evaluating the banana
ripeness.
Acidity. Acidity content can be characterized by titratable acid
or pH value. It is a sensory parameter affecting fruit eating quality,
especially for apples, grapes, and berries. Li and He (2006) em-
ployed a reflectance Vis/NIR HSI to measure the acidity content
of 4 different species of Chinese Bayberries. After spectral prepro-
cessing using smoothing and MSC, the spectral data were analyzed
using PLS method. Interestingly, the pretreatment procedure had
an impact on the prediction performance, PLS models with MSC
operation for noise removal performed better than models without
MSC treatment. In the acidity study of strawberries using a simi-
lar hyperspectral system (ElMasry and others 2007), it was found
that the spectral pretreatments of mean-centering and automatic
baseline correction enhanced PLS calibration model when com-
pared with others pretreatments, such as Savitzky-Golay smooth-
ing, MSC, and first and second derivatives. On the other hand,
Baiano and others (2012) carried out acidity determination in 7
cultivars of table grapes using NIR HSI with PLS models per-
forming on the mean-centering correction spectra and achieved
the coefficients of determination for predicting titratable acid and
pH of red grapes of 0.80 and 0.90, and 0.95 and 0.82 for white
grapes, respectively.
Phenolics. The skin of grape fruits contains some functional
constitutes, such as phenolic substances that are beneficial to
human body, thus research on this aspect received great inter-
ests. Nogales-Bueno and others (2014) utilized NIR HSI (900
to 1700 nm) for nondestructive determination of total phenolic
 Table 3–Applications of HSI in quantitative analysis of biochemical qualities since 2005.

Component Species Range (nm) Data analysis Accuracy Reference

Moisture content Mango 400 to 1000 PCA, PLS, ANN Rp = 0.81 (Servakaranpalayam 2006)
Strawberry 400 to 1000 PLS, MLR Rp = 0.87 to 0.90 (ElMasry and others 2007)
Mushroom 400 to 1000 MLR, PCR Rp 2 = 0.75 (Gowen and others 2008b)
Progress of hyperspectral imaging . . .

Banana 400 to 1000 PLS, MLR Rp 2 = 0.87 (Rajkumar and others 2012)
Vegetable soybean 400 to 1000 PLS Rp = 0.90 to 0.97 (Huang and others 2014)
Soluble solid content (Total soluble solid) Mango 400 to 1000 PCA, PLS, ANN Rp = 0.78 (Servakaranpalayam 2006)
Apple 500 to 1040 PCA, ANN Rp = 0.63 to 0.70 (Noh and Lu 2007)
Strawberry 400 to 1000 PLS, MLR Rp = 0.80 (ElMasry and others 2007)
Apple 500 to 1000 PLS Rp = 0.66 to 0.88 (Mendoza and others 2011)
Table grape 400 to 1000 PLS R = 0.93 to 0.94 (Baiano and others 2012)
Banana 400 to 1000 PLS, MLR Rp 2 = 0.85 (Rajkumar and others 2012)
Apple 500 to 1000 NSAP + PLS Rp = 0.88 to 0.89 (Zhu and others 2013)
Blueberry 500 to 1000 PLS Rp = 0.79 (Leiva-Valenzuela and others 2013)
Bell peper 550 to 850 PLS R2 = 0.87 to 0.95 (Schmilovitch and others 2014)
Grape 950 to 1650 MPLS Rp = 0.97 to 0.99 (Nogales-Bueno and others 2014)
Acidity (Titratable acid/pH) Chinese Bayberry 320 to 1075 PLS Rp = 0.96 (Li and He 2006)

182 Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety r Vol. 14, 2015
Apple 500 to 1040 PCA, ANN Rp = 0.43 to 0.57 (Noh and Lu 2007)
Strawberry 400 to 1000 PLS, MLR Rp = 0.87 to 0.92 (ElMasry and others 2007)
Table grape 400 to 1000 PLS R = 0.80 to 0.95 (Baiano and others 2012)
Grape 950 to 1650 MPLS Rp = 0.92 to 0.98 (Nogales-Bueno and others 2014)
Starch Apple 1000 to 1700 PLS-DA 80.81% (Menesatti and others 2008)
Potato 400 to 1000 PLS-DA / (Trong and others 2011)
Total phenols Grape skin 950 to 1650 MPLS Rp = 0.77 to 0.89 (Nogales-Bueno and others 2014)
Anthocyanins Grape skin 400 to 1000 PCA, AB-NN R2 = 0.65 (Fernandes and others 2011)
Grape skin 900 to 1700 PCA, MPLS R = 0.86 (Hernández-Hierro and others 2013)
Lycopene Tomato 200 to 2500 (cm−1 ) SID / (Qin and others 2011)
Total glucosinolates Broccoli 950 to 1650 PCA, PLS / (Hernández-Hierro and others 2014)
Polyphenol oxidase activity Mushroom 445 to 945 PCR, MLR, PLS RPD = 0.81 to 2.01 (Gaston and others 2010a)
2


Ascorbic acid, Total chlorophyll, Carotenoid Bell pepper 550 to 850 PLS R = 0. 72 to 0.58, R2 = 0.44 (Schmilovitch and others 2014)
to 0.95, R2 = 0.87 to 0.97
PCR, principle component regression; MPLS, modified PLS; AB-NN, adaptive boosting neural network; SID, spectral information divergence algorithm.

C 2015 Institute of Food Technologists®

Progress of hyperspectral imaging . . .
concentration of grape skins, outliers were removed from sample
set by a Student’s t-test with criterion of T ࣙ 2.5. Quantitative
analysis of total phenols was performed by modified partial least
squares (MPLS) regression, achieving prediction accuracy of R2 =
0.89 and SEP (standard error of prediction) = 1.23 mg/g.
Anthocyanin is a kind of phenolics relating to the pigmentation
of red grape, and it plays an important role in color changing
of grapes and red wine (Hernández-Hierro and others 2013).
Estimation of the anthocyanin concentration in intact grape
(Cabernet Sauvignon variety) skins by Vis/NIR HSI was carried
out by Fernandes and others (2011), who showed that PLS models
were far more insufficient in anthocyanin prediction (R2 = 0.25),
however, a novel neural network method, called AdaBoost that is
designed by integrating several individual neural network outputs
for prediction, outperformed the PLS method, giving a higher
precision (R2 = 0.65) for anthocyanin prediction.
Other functional attributes. Regarding the detection of
internal chemical constitutes responsible for maturity stage of
fruits, HSI shows great potential in quantitative measurement and
visualization of starch index in apples (Menesatti and others 2008)
and lycopene content in tomatoes (Qin and others 2011). By
tracking and analyzing the spectral changes of starch in potatoes
during boiling process, the optimal cooking time of potatoes can
be predicted (Trong and others 2011). In spite of these common
quality attributes being detected, activity of polyphenol oxidase
corresponding to mushroom browning was predicted using
Vis/NIR HSI (Gaston and others 2010a). With the use of MSC
pretreatment, spectral variations due to the morphological feature
of mushroom cap was corrected, obtaining R2 of 0.75 and 0.78
for training and testing sets in PCR models for enzyme activity
prediction. Another preprocessing approach for lessening light
scattering effect, that is SNV, was applied before PLS modeling in
order to effectively quantify total glucosinolates in florets of freeze-
dried broccoli (Hernández-Hierro and others 2014). Schmilovitch
and others (2014) presented 4 spectral pretreatments (first deriva-
tive of raw reflectance R, log(1/R), first and second derivative
of log(1/R)) in PLS models for detecting some internal quality
parameters of bell pepper, the best results for total chlorophyll and
carotenoid content were achieved by log(1/R) pretreatment cou-
pled with PLS regression, with R2 of 0.95 and 0.97, respectively.
Safety features assessment
Fruits and vegetables bearing disease or microbial/chemical con-
tamination should be diverted due to food safety concerns. A
comprehensive summarization of HSI in addressing food safety
problems was provided in a previous review (Feng and Sun 2012).
Specifically, this part deals with safety concerns in fruits and
vegetables.
Disease caused by fungi/bacteria. Orange, lemon, mandarin,
and grapefruit are citrus fruits easily infested by fungi, such as
Penicillium digitatum and Penicillium italicum (Gómez-Sanchis and
others 2013) or the bacterial pathogen Xanthomonas axonopodis
pv. citri (Cernadas and Benedetti 2009), causing fruit rottenness
or citrus canker. Gómez-Sanchis and others (2012) utilized hy-
perspectral reflectance imaging to identify rottenness symptoms
of tangerines induced by inoculating Penicillium sp. Working in
collaboration with MRMR algorithm for band selection, it was
found that performance of multilayer perceptron (MLP) classi-
fier (with 98.30% classification accuracy) was better than classi-
fication and regression tree (CART) method. The greatest con-
tribution of this study was to distinguish citrus rottenness from
other peel defects, particularly to identify the diseases caused by 2

C 2015 Institute of Food Technologists® Vol. 14, 2015 r Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety 183
different fungi. Similarly, Li and others (2012) made an endeavor
to differentiate cankerous tissues from normal tissues and 9 types of
peel diseases on “Navel” oranges using line-scan hyperspectral re-
flectance imaging (400 to 1000 nm). The combination algorithms
of PCA and two-band ratio (I687/630 ) achieved higher detection
rate for training (99.5%) and testing (98.2%) set compared with a
single two-band ratio method (with 84.5% and 82.9% accuracy for
training and testing, respectively). In a similar spectral region, Qin
and others (2009) implemented a spectral information divergence
(SID) algorithm for the mean spectra of selected regions of interest
(ROIs) to recognize canker spots from normal and 5 other peel
diseases, accomplishing a discrimination rate of 95.3% with zero
false-negative error. Based on previous studies, the authors estab-
lished a small-scale hyperspectral reflectance imaging for real-time
detection of grapefruit canker (Qin and others 2012), but the cur-
rent system only provided a small proportion of observation from
the whole fruit. Further research targeting at obtaining full surface
information is needed.
Fruit fly/insect infestation. Noninvasive measurement of fruit
flies or insects is a complicated job due to the fact that larvae
generally hide themselves deep inside the fruits and vegetables and
they cannot be easily detected from outside. Inspection of internal
insect infestation in tart cherry was performed by Xing and others
(2008) using Vis-NIR HSI in reflectance and transmittance mode,
respectively. With a 150-W halogen light as illumination for both
modes, identification performance in hyperspectral transmittance
images (580 to 980 nm) was found worse than that in reflectance
images (590 to 1550 nm) because the transmitting light intensity
was affected not only by the infestation level but also by the sizes of
the cherries. Moreover, 3 (780, 850, and 1070 nm) or 4 (780, 850,
1315 and 1430 nm) optimal wavebands selected by genetic algo-
rithm were found to be located in the NIR region in reflectance
mode, showing that the reflectance response for detecting cherry
insect infestation in NIR spectral range is more important than
that in visible spectral range. Similar work was done by Lu and
Ariana (2013) using hyperspectral reflectance (450 to 740 nm) and
transmittance (740 to 1000 nm) imaging for distinguishing fruit
fly infestation in pickling cucumbers. The detection accuracy in
transmittance mode (88% to 93%) was higher than the outcomes
in reflectance mode. Interestingly, integrating the data from re-
flectance and transmittance imaging failed to improve the detec-
tion rate as achieved in transmittance imaging. Nevertheless, all
the detection performance in HSI was better than manual inspec-
tion (with 75% of accuracy). Making good use of the advantages
of hyperspectral transmittance imaging in diagnosing inner foreign
matters, research on the discrimination between insect-damaged
and undamaged vegetable soybeans was investigated (Huang and
others 2013) on the assumption that transmittance properties had
been changed after moth attack. In the study, 4 statistical fea-
ture images, minimum, maximum, mean, and standard deviation
of normal and damaged soybeans, were compared in the spectral
scope of 400 to 1000 nm. Calibration model based on support
vector data description (SVDD) produced 100% classification re-
sults, and an overall accuracy of 95.6% was also achieved for the
validation set which was a superior result compared with previous
studies. Moreover, HSI was also employed to identify the locations
of mangoes infested by fruit fly (Haff and others 2013).
Fecal contamination. When using feces, which may contain
pathogenic Escherichia coli (E. coli) strains, as the manure source,
the surface of fruits and vegetables might be easily contaminated.
Comparisons of the capability of hyperspectral reflectance and
fluorescence imaging for detecting different feces concentrations
 Table 4–Applications of HSI in safety inspection of fruits and vegetables since 2005.

Features Species Range (nm) Mode Data analysis Accuracy Reference

Fly infestation (insect Tart berry 580 to 980 590 to 1550 Reflectance, GA, PLS-DA 81.3% to 95.76% (Xing and others 2008)
damage) transmittance
Progress of hyperspectral imaging . . .

Jujube 400 to 720 Reflectance SDA 94% to 97% (Wang and others 2011)
Pickling cucumber 450 to 740 740 to 1000 Reflectance, PLS-DA 82% to 93% (Lu and Ariana 2013)
transmittance
Vegetable soybean 400 to 1000 Transmittance SVDD + LOOCV 87.5% to 97.3% (Huang and others 2013)
Mango 400 to 1000 / A multialgorithms scheme 79.7% to 98% (Haff and others 2013)
E.coli contamination Packaged spinach 400 to 1000 Reflectance PCA, ANN Rp 2 = 0.97 (Siripatrawan and others 2011)
Feces contamination Apple 430 to 900 Reflectance, fluorescence A multialgorithms scheme 58.3% to 100% (Lefcout and others 2006)
443 to 729 Fluorescence A multialgorithms scheme / (Lefcout and Kim 2006)
447 to 951 Reflectance BRA, SDA, PCA / (Liu and others 2007)
481 to 780 Fluorescence Algorithms based on BRA and >99% (Yang and others 2012)
BDA
Cantaloupes 425 to 774 Fluorescence BRA, PCA 79% to 96% (Vargas and others 2005)
Romaine lettuce,Baby 420 to 700 Fluorescence PCA / (Kang and others 2011)
spinach

184 Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety r Vol. 14, 2015
Dichlorvos residue Orange 400 to 1000 Reflectance PLS Rp = 0.83 (Li and others 2010)
Deterioration Spinach leaf 400 to 1000 Reflectance SAM, PLS-DA, CovSel 75% to 100% (Diezma and others 2013)
Shelf-life Spinach leaf 400 to 1000 Reflectance PCA / (Lara and others 2013)
Rottenness caused by Mandarins 460 to 1020 Reflectance GA, LDA, CART >91% (Gómez-Sanchis and others 2008b)
Penicillium sp.
400 to 720 650 to 1100 Reflectance ANN (MLP), CART Around 98% (Gómez-Sanchis and others 2012)
460 to 720 730 to 1020 Reflectance CART, ANN 93.06%, 98.3% (Gómez-Sanchis and others 2013)
Citrus canker Grapefruit 450 to 930 Reflectance SID 95.2% to 96.2% (Qin and others 2009)
Orange 400 to 1000 Reflectance PCA 92.5% (Zhang and others 2011)
550 to 900 Reflectance BRA + PCA 82.9% to 99.5% (Li and others 2012)
Sour skin caused by Onion 950 to 1650 Reflectance PCA, SVM+ 10-fold CV, 87.14%, 80% (Wang and others 2012b)
Burkholderia sp. LDA+ 10-fold CV
Brown blotch caused by Mushroom 400 to 1000 Reflectance PLS-DA (Gaston and others 2010b)


>95%
Pseudomonas sp.
GA, genetic algorithm; SVDD, support vector data description algorithm; SDA, second difference algorithm; CovSel, covariance selection method; CART, classification and regression trees; CV, cross validation.

C 2015 Institute of Food Technologists®

Progress of hyperspectral imaging . . .
(1:2, 1:20, and 1:200 dilution levels) on apples was given by
Lefcout and others (2006), and the results indicated that detec-
tion accuracy was increased with decreasing feces dilution in both
systems, yet the performance in fluorescence mode is preferable
to that in reflectance mode by showing better behavior in feces
examination at the same concentration level. Based on the flu-
orescence intensity at 4 selected wavebands, 3 simple algorithms
intended to enhance the contrast of feces against uncontaminated
region on apple fluorescence images were proposed, and detec-
tion accuracy of over 99% was achieved (Yang and others 2012).
However, after the enhancement of image contrast, some surface
defects might also be highlighted on images, making it difficult to
tell the differences between feces spots and surface defects (Vargas
and others 2005). Another factor affecting feces detection lies in
the object itself where fluorescence interferences from the sam-
ples themselves may arise. In this respect, Kang and others (2011)
investigated the potential of hyperspectral fluorescence imaging
in discriminating bovine fecal contamination on Romaine lettuce
and baby spinach. Under the ultraviolet-A (320 to 400 nm) exci-
tation, the chlorophyll-a emission peak of feces was found to be
inclined to shorter wavelength compared to that in green surface.
Others. Other inspections of potential hazards on fruits and
vegetables are listed in Table 4. For example, HSI has been used to
detect sour skin disease of onion, caused by bacteria Burkholderia
cepacia (Wang and others 2012b), to identify E. coli contamination
on spinach leaf (Siripatrawan and others 2011), and to assess the
brown blotch disease on mushroom caps by the occurrence of
Pseudomonas tolaasii (Gaston and others 2010b).
Technical Challenges and Future Directions
Though HSI in association with powerful chemometrics releases
us from the laborious measurement and burdensome computation
during food quality assessment, there are still some obstacles to be
surmounted in applying HSI into real-time applications. First of
all, the equipment is still too expensive, especially for those with
high spatial and spectral resolutions. Second, when the prebuilt
model is applied to another HSI system, model transformation
should be carefully conducted. Third, the characteristics of sam-
ples may also pose some problems for quality classification and
prediction. On the one hand, spectral variations due to morpho-
logical changes of most fruits and vegetables (for example, round
or cylinder-shaped objects) diminish the power of models; on the
other hand, the interferences that samples possess (for example, the
stem and calyx to bruise detection, the fluorescence compound to
feces identification) might deteriorate the classification accuracy.
In future research, spectral and image processing techniques in
dealing with morphological influence are required. From the as-
pect of data analysis, extraction of ROIs (feature wavebands or
areas) for modeling is generally conducted by manual observation
and operation, which accounts for the majority of analyzing time.
Automatic recognition of representative ROIs based on computer
software to improve analytical efficiency is another challenge. With
technological advances in both hardware and software, HSI systems
with low-cost and fast-detecting properties are anticipated. Cur-
rently, multispectral imaging based on critical wavebands derived
from HSI receives great attention. It is expected that multispectral
imaging system would be of broad use in widespread industrial ap-
plications due to its relative low instrument cost and high analytical
speed. Additionally, HSI can be performed in different modes, and
each mode has its own superiority on providing specific sample
information. Previous studies on integrating 2 different modes (for
example, reflectance and transmittance [Xing and others 2008; Lu

C 2015 Institute of Food Technologists® Vol. 14, 2015 r Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety 185
and Ariana 2013], reflectance and fluorescence [Lefcout and
others 2006]) in one HSI system had achieved success in assessing
safety and quality attributes of fruits and vegetables. Thus, future
HSI systems performing in a multimode manner would have a
good potential by offering more comprehensive information on
the same object.
Conclusion
Getting full benefits of spectroscopy and computer vision,
chemometrics-assisted HSI is a potential measurement tool for
qualitative and quantitative determination of many agro-food
products. This review stressed the recent progress of HSI in as-
sessing textural quality attributes (bruise, chilling injury, firmness),
biochemical components (MC, soluble solid content, acidity, and
others), and safety attributes (fruit fly infestation, bacterial diseases,
feces contamination) of fruits and vegetables. The striking advan-
tage of this technique is its chemical-free and nondestructive de-
tecting nature together with the abundant information provided,
which enables multiple quality features to be examined. With
continued technical innovations in manufacturing and comput-
ing, HSI performing in a low-cost and high-speed way for online
and real-time detection of various products is foreseen.
Acknowledgments
Financial support from Univ. College Dublin (UCD)
and the Chinese Scholarship Council (CSC) is gratefully
acknowledged.
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