The Power of Syllable OṀ in Hindu Thought:

Creative and Unifying Qualities of Sound

Azalea Tang

Senior Thesis

Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Religion Major

Prepared for Religion 401: Senior Colloquium

Davidson College

December 11, 2014

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Introduction

Among the myriad components associated with religious experiences, the

experience of sound is the most intriguing sense in characterizing the incomprehensible

aspect of divine mystery. Many religious traditions regard the power of sound and word

to be creative and meaningful. We see such sensibilities for example in the Christian

theology of the Word as expressed in the Gospel of John and in the importance of

Qur’anic recitation in Islam. However, in many religious traditions the relationship

between the power of sound and the meaning of words remains a mystery. In my studies

of Hinduism, I have noticed a significant emphasis on the syllable OṀ in many of the

foundational texts and in yogic practices. More specifically, I have observed a focus on

the function of OṀ in Vedic and Kashmir Shaiva contexts. This has led me to ask: What

makes the sounding of OṀ sacred? How can one syllabic utterance be so powerful?

Through my research, I have come to see that the essence of the Vedas can be understood

through this one mantra. When chanted or sung repeatedly, OṀ serves as a unifying

pillar for all meditative thought. Fundamental to this perspective is the idea that word and

consciousness, or the divine will to relay meaning, are inseparable. Because of this,

spoken word has important ramifications for both the divine and empirical worlds. In

Hinduism, the specific sonic relationship between the divine and empirical worlds can be

illustrated in just one phrase: OṀ.

Used first as a mystical symbol in the Vedic songs dating from 1800-1000 B.C.E.

and in the major Upaniṣads dating from 1000-200 B.C.E., OṀ takes on concrete

ontological purposes in the later Upaniṣads and Tantric texts that form the forefront of
   2  

sacred sound philosophy in Kashmir Shaivism from 8th to 12th century C.E.1 Held to have

burst forth from Absolute Reality (Brahman) and given rise to the Vedas, OṀ is

understood to contain all knowledge and to help a person unify with Absolute Reality.

OṀ becomes the highest form of speech and evolves into the ultimate mantra. In this

perspective, the power in the inherent deliberate utterance of OṀ is identical to the

creative power of the goddess Vāc, who created the universe through the power of her

voice. According to the texts, one will find the very essence of Vedic and Hindu thought

within the utterance of OṀ.

In this paper, I will show that the pronunciation of OṀ has two specific functions

in Hindu thought: 1) On the cosmic level, the pronunciation of OṀ creates multiplicity

and 2) On the empirical level, the pronunciation of OṀ in mantra reunifies multiplicity

into its original, nondifferentiated nature. The absolute unity becomes the manifest many,

and in contemplation, the many can return to the unified Absolute.

As early as the Vedic times (ca. 1800 B.C.E.), preference lay in focusing in on the

unified nature of Absolute Reality rather than the relative experience of a dispersed

multiplicity. As the source of ‘the divine chaotic floods’, what an ancient Vedic song

calls the diverse aspects of our empirical world; the sound of OṀ was the means by

which divinity descended into the human world. Made intelligible to humans, OṀ

became an aid of unification and was used as a way of establishing and maintaining a

connection with divinity. The Upaniṣads further elaborate on the creative and unifying

functions of OṀ through a variety of stories and allegories. Texts associated with the

Shaiva tradition of Kashmir in the 6th to 12th centuries C.E. are evidently informed by

                                                                                                               
1
Kashmir Shaivism is a non-dual philosophy and theology that shares some views with
Vedic perspectives, but is not a Vedic tradition.
   3  

concepts in the Veda with regard to OṀ and sacred sound.2 These latter texts provide the

forefront of Kashmir Shaiva literature and belong to a broader collection of works known

as Tantras. The Tantras give techniques to participate in what is regarded to be the sacred

word by way of meditation and to provide a path to liberation.

OṀ in the Vedic Context:

Sacred sound as Cosmogonic Force

Regarding the creative quality of OṀ, I will rely primarily on Vedic knowledge

and analyze specific poems from the Ṛg Veda (ca. 1800-1000 B.C.E.) as well as selected

Upaniṣads (ca. 800-200 B.C.E.). Etymologically, Vedic knowledge is rooted in the

Sanskrit word veda and implies a person’s specific inner vision or ‘wit’ to perceive the

sacred.3 The Ṛg Veda refers to a “collection of verses expressing sacred visionary

knowledge” belonging to a larger body of work known as the Mantra Saṁhitā.4 Because

the poet experienced the divine world sonically, these poems and verses were initially

passed down by means of song and were concretely established in Sanskrit around 1000

B.C.E.5 In combination with the Upaniṣads, these earlier texts lay an important

foundation for understanding the divine manifestation of sound from the divine world

into relative sound. ‘Relative’ sound in this case will refer to the audible phonemes we

can hear and produce, specifically the sound of OṀ as mantra. Taken by the wonders of

the natural world, poets in the Vedic time period developed a strong reverence for

                                                                                                               
3
William K. Mahony, "Vedas and Upanishads" (lecture, Davidson College, Davidson,
NC, August 27, 2014).
4
William K. Mahony, The Artful Universe: An Introduction to the Vedic Religious
Imagination, SUNY Series in Hindu studies (Albany, NY: State of University of New
York Press, 1998), 8.
5
Mahony, The Artful Universe, 8.
   4  

occurrences in nature. Examples of this include the breaking of dawn, the mysterious

power of wind, and the movement of water. In addition to visual experiences of what

they regarded to be the Absolute, poets perceived gods and goddesses sonically as well.

References to divine sound in Vedic songs that establish an early case for the supremacy

of the syllable OṀ. According to the texts, the process by which the syllable OṀ was

made audible to man had a quality of mysterious creativity for early Vedic poets.

Forming their intuitions with regard to ‘higher’ notions of sound, the Vedas create

important soteriological implications for later schools of Hindu thought, specifically the

non-dualistic Shaiva tradition of Kashmir.

For the latter part of my investigation, with regard to the unifying qualities of

OṀ, I will look briefly at the Vākyapadīya by Bhartṛhari to establish an understanding of

Indian philosophy of language during the 5th century C.E. I will also turn to the Netra

Tantra and other works of Kashmir Shaivism, as presented by André Padoux, to

construct the process by which spoken mantra OṀ flows back to its divine source. The

explanation in this section involves a metaphysical interpretation of the reunification

process. Through a detailed investigation of the Kashmir Shaiva tradition, Padoux

references many of the Tantric texts that are relevant to the reunifying aspect of OṀ and I

have chosen those that are imperative to my argument.

Sacred Sound in the Ṛg Veda Mantra Saṁhitā

As the earliest body of work in the Vedic canon, ranging from 1800-1000 B.C.E.,

the Ṛg Veda creates a strong foundation for the supremacy of OṀ in the Hindu tradition.

Although the syllable OṀ is not explicitly mentioned in the Ṛg Veda Mantra Saṁhitā, it
   5  

is symbolically foreshadowed in every portion of the texts to lay basis for the Upaniṣads.

Focusing first on the creative, or disseminating functions of OṀ, there is a plethora of

imagery in the Mantra Saṁhitā alluding to the principal existence of OṀ in creating our

empirical world. The image of creation as portrayed in this poem is delightfully artful:

41. The buffalo cow lowed

producing the tumultuous chaotic floods.

She who is in the highest heaven has a thousand syllables,

having become one-footed, two-footed, eight-footed, and

nine-footed.

42. It is from her whence

the four cardinal directions

derive their being.

It is from her whence

flow the immortal waters.

It is from her whence

the universe assumes life. . . .6

The buffalo cow in this poem is Vāc, the Vedic goddess of speech and sound. Believed to

have existed before the onset of time, Vāc creates the physical world by pronouncing a

single, primordial sound: the sound of OṀ. The ‘feet’ in this poem can be interpreted as

the various syllables of the Word, emanating from OṀ to become the physical forms of

the world. In other words, the original, unified sound of Vāc became the diverse aspects

of our empirical world. While this is only one of many cosmogonies in the Vedic

                                                                                                               
6
Ṛg Veda 1.164.41-42, translated by Mahony, The Artful Universe, 55.
   6  

tradition, poets and priests had a particular affinity for this story and a series of later texts

also focus on the primacy of OṀ in encapsulating the entire Word in its diversity. For

example, in the Chāndogya Upaniṣad: “As all leaves are held together by a spike, so all

speech is held together by Om. Verily, Om is the world-all. Verily, Om is this world-all”.7

Here, we see that OṀ has a special place in speech as well as the entire world.

Among the manifold deities in the Vedic world, the goddess Vāc is one of the

most mysterious and powerful goddesses of the Vedic Revelation: “Above the distant

sky, so they say is Vāc, who knows all but does not enter all.”8 This verse speaks to the

mysterious quality of Vāc in suggesting that there are aspects of the goddess that remain

veiled for humankind. While many deities were experienced visually, Vāc is manifest as

sound, thus making her the primal example for sonic perceptions of the sacred. Given

many names, the most important identifications of Vāc include: the Word, the Poetess,

the Firstborn of Truth, and Mother of the Veda. Vāc creates the entire universe in space

through her lowing voice and is typified by a female water buffalo. For the poets, her

voice is perceived to be so powerful that it is responsible for creating the dimensions of

space. In her creative extolling, the dissipating function of sound breaks into thousands of

syllables to become aspects of physical reality such as trees, creatures, and humans.

Therefore, the entire cosmos can be viewed as one poetic work of art: we are all her

syllables and we are all her song.

The goddess Vāc is also closely related to Ṛta, the Vedic principal of divine

natural order. The Sanskrit word Ṛta is related to the English words ‘art’, ‘ritual’ and

                                                                                                               
7
Chāndogya Upanishad 2.23.3, translated by Robert Ernest Hume, The Thirteen
Principal Upanishads, 2nd, Rev. ed. Madras, India: Oxford University Press, 1949, 201.
8
Ṛg Veda 1.164.10, translated by William K. Mahony
   7  

‘rite’ and maintains an order that is not created by any god. Ṛta is considered to be

eternally present as an uncreated order or balance.9 As the universal Poetess, Vāc is

associated with sacred sound and word. Vāc personifies Ṛta, giving voice to “the unified

nature of ultimate truth”, the universal principal of harmony.10 In the Vedic perspective,

although the universe is maintained by divine natural order, Ṛta cannot be fully

articulated through human effort. Because of her close identification with Ṛta, it is

important to note that likewise Vāc can only be partially rendered by human effort:

45. Vāc was divided into four parts: these

those insightful priests know.

Three parts, hidden in mystery,

Mortals do not render into motion;

they speak only the fourth part of Vāc.11

In other words, Vāc has made part the Word intelligible to man even though three

quarters of her remain incomprehensible. This creative process of sound emanation will

have important ramifications later on when analyzing the process by which Vāc created

the universe.

The divine power invested in OṀ as emitted by Vāc showcases her creative

power while simultaneously exhibiting a thematic concept in the Vedas: the One becomes

the many. In addition to creating all the syllables of speech, the low of the buffalo cow

creates “the four cardinal directions.” With respect to other deities in the Vedic Mantra

Saṁhitā, it is important to note the similarity of creation stories between Vāc and

                                                                                                               
9
Mahony, The Artful Universe, 55.
10
Mahony, The Artful Universe, 56.
11
Ṛg Veda 1.164.45, translated by Mahony, The Artful Universe, 55.
   8  

Prajāpati, the Lord of Creatures. Both creation stories incorporate the theme of the One

becoming the many. For example, in one rendering of Prajāpati’s creation, his divine

body is “dismembered” to become the divine and terrestrial worlds: “Prajāpati produced

the creatures. Having produced those creatures…he became broken.”12 In other words,

the once-unified body of the divine person, Prajāpati, separates to become the multiplicity

of the worlds. Furthermore, at the beginning of the Jaiminīya Upaniṣad Brahmana, a 6th

century B.C.E. Vedic text, Prajāpati conquers the universe, and afraid that other gods will

steal it away from him, attempts to deplete the world of its essence through a syllabic

uttering: bhūr bhūvah svar. For a moment it seems as though the text posits a conflict to

the creative power of Vāc. However, reading on we see that Prajāpati was able to deplete

the universe of its essence but for one syllable: “Somehow it happened that of one

syllable he could not take the essence: of om, just of om. This [syllable] became speech,

and this [speech] namely om, breath is the essence thereof.”13 Evidently, the supreme

essence of the syllable OṀ transcends the powers of gods. There is an early intuition that

the essence of OṀ is aligned with an Absolute reality that exists within, yet outside of

time. In later texts, there will be a more in-depth exploration of how the syllable OṀ

embodies the past, present, future, and that which is beyond time.

From the Vedic perspective, the goddess Vāc is the sonic articulation of Ṛta.

Returning to Ṛg Veda 1.164, there is a verse that illumines the specific relationship

between Vāc (who emits OṀ) and Ṛta. Existing within yet also outside of time, Ṛta

                                                                                                               
12
Śatapatha Brāhmana 7.1.2.1, translated by Mahony, The Artful Universe, 133.
13
André Padoux, Vāc: The Concept of the Word in Selected Hindu Tantras, The SUNY
series in the Shaiva traditions of Kashmir (Albany, NY: State University of New York
Press, 1990), 16. Padoux’s book has been very helpful to me and I have gained much
information from this book. However, I have taken a somewhat different approach to the
material than he has.
   9  

governs the universe as well as the gods. Because Vāc is united with Ṛta, subsequently,

OṀ can also be thought of as the eternal syllable, a syllable unbounded by time.14 The

verse says:

39. He who knows not the Veda’s eternal Syllable,

that highest point on which dwell all the Gods

What has he to do with the Veda? Only those

Who know it sit in peaceful assembly.

45. The Word is measured in four quarters. The wise

who possess insight know these four divisions.

Three quarters, concealed in secret, cause no movement.

The fourth is the quarter that is spoken by men.15

Verse 39 states that the true essence of the Vedas is encapsulated in one syllable, the

unalterable and eternal sound OṀ. According to this verse, only those who recognize and

understand OṀ to be the true essence of the Vedas live in accordance with Ṛta. Although

there is an intuition that OṀ is the syllable that is extolled at the beginning of time, the

way in which it happens remains a mystery to the seers in the Vedic world. Verse 45

points to the mysterious quality of OṀ and at this point the ‘three quarters, concealed in

secret’ are left unexplained by the Vedic seers. The process of sounding forth the syllable

OṀ is elaborated upon by the Kashmir Shaiva tradition many centuries later. All the

Vedic seers knew for sure was that it was a conscious effort on behalf of the divine.

Later, I will elaborate on the four quarters of OṀ mentioned in verse 45. For now, I will

                                                                                                               
14
See Mahony, The Artful Universe, 54, for extended explanation on relationship
between Vāc and Ṛta.
15
Ṛg Veda 1.164.39-45, translated by Raimundo Panikkar, The Vedic Experience:
Māntramañjarā, (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1977, 102-103.
   10  

continue to investigate the fourth division of the Word, the division spoken by men. In

doing so, I will analyze OṀ as mantra, as well as the function of OṀ in the Upaniṣads.

OṀ as Mantra

In the Hindu tradition, mantras refer to sacred phrases upon which when spoken,

express cosmic truths. In the Vedic world, mantras are primarily used for ritual purposes

and evolved to become foundational tools in meditation. In both ritual and meditation,

mantras are used to put one in direct access with divine energy. Like Vāc’s spoken Word,

all mantras are phonic aspects of the universal energy, “they correspond to specific stages

or planes of the cosmic process. To assimilate a mantra means therefore reaching this

plane, both on the human and on the cosmic level.”16 Proceeding from divine energy,

mantra – when formulated with intention – is then a primary way in which man can

interact with the divine and tap into the liberating powers of OṀ. Throughout the

Upaniṣads, the mantra OṀ is used to commence many teachings on the qualities and

powers of OṀ: “Om. One should meditate on the Udgītha [chant] as this syllable, for one

sings the loud chant, beginning with ‘Om’.”17 Many songs and chants within the

Upaniṣads begin with OṀ. By turning to the principal Upaniṣads, we will gain a better

understanding of the nature of mantra OṀ and its use in meditation.

                                                                                                               
16
Padoux, Vāc: The Concept of the Word, 50.
17
Chāndogya Upanishad 1.4.1, translated by Robert Ernest Hume, The Thirteen
Principal Upanishads, 2nd, Rev. ed. (Madras, India: Oxford University Press, 1949), 181.
   11  

OṀ in the Upaniṣads

As important reflections and interpretations of the Mantra Saṁhitā, the Upaniṣads

are understood to be the purpose, true meaning, or “end” (anta) of the Veda.

Accordingly, they are described as vedānta. As vedānta, the Upaniṣads offer significant

insight as to the unifying power within OṀ. In the principal Upaniṣads, the essence of

OṀ begins to merge with the Vedāntic concept of Brahman. For our purposes, Brahman

is the absolute presence or Supreme Reality that cannot be changed or reborn. Many of

the classical Upaniṣads teach that Brahman is the entire world, and that without Brahman,

there is nothing. As a result, OṀ serves as the phonic expression of Brahman, forming

the bija-mantra, or seed mantra, for which all mantras as well as any form of speech can

be reduced. OṀ, then, can be viewed as the primordial mantra of Supreme Reality that

created the universe. The Taittirīya Upaniṣad puts the relationship between OṀ and

Brahman most aptly: “Om is Brahma. Om is the whole world.”18 The significance of

syllable OṀ in the Upaniṣads deepens in affirming the relationship between mantra OṀ

and Brahman. Not only is the syllable OṀ the sound that created the universe, it is also

the mantra that pervades the entire universe. This signifies a slight departure from Vedic

thought in that OṀ begins to take a more tangible purpose for poets and priests in the

Upaniṣads. In addition to its formation of the world, OṀ as mantra becomes accessible to

those who seek liberation and a better understanding of Brahman. As said in the Katha

Upaniṣad:

                                                                                                               
18
Taittirīya Upanishad 1.8.1, translated by Hume, The Thirteen Principal Upanishads,
279.
   12  

15. The word which all the Vedas rehearse,

And which all austerities proclaim,

Desiring which men live the life of religious studentship (brahmacarya) –

That word to thee I briefly declare.

That is Om!

16. That syllable, truly, indeed, is Brahma!

That syllable indeed is the supreme!

Knowing that syllable, truly, indeed,

Whatever one desires is his!”19

Although liberation is not explicitly mentioned in the passage, there is the notion that

knowing OṀ will bring one whatever he desires. This sets the stage for OṀ as a mantra

that can be used in meditation and contemplation. We will see that there are a number of

teachings that address the proper sounding and understanding of OṀ. Having established

the magnitude of mantra OṀ in the Upaniṣads, it is important to further explore the

quality of OṀ as the essence of all things.

OṀ as the Universal Essence of all Things

From an Upaniṣadic perspective, OṀ serves as the quintessential essence of all

things and for that reason, the correct pronunciation of OṀ is very important. At the very

beginning of the Chāndogya Upaniṣad, a text that emphasizes the importance of proper

chanting and pronunciation for priests leading ritual, the essence of loud chanting

(Udgītha) is identified as OṀ:

                                                                                                               
19
Katha Upanishad 2.15-16, translated by Hume, The Thirteen Principal Upanishads,
348-359.
   13  

1. Om! One should reverence the Udgītha (Loud Chant) as this first syllable, for

one sings the loud chant with ‘Om.’

The further explanation thereof [is as follows]

2. The essence of things here is the earth.

The essence of water is plants.

The essence of plants is a person

The essence of a person is speech.

The essence of speech is the Rig

The essence of the Sāman is the Udgītha

3. This is the quintessence of the essences, the highest, the supreme, the eighth –

namely the Udgītha.

5. The Rig is speech. The Sāman is breath. The Udgītha is this syllable ‘Om.’20

Here, the teaching reviews empirical components of our world. Starting with the broadest

category, earth, it breaks down each element into its essential form. Beginning with the

earth, the essentializing of each element becomes progressively more abstract until it

arrives at the indivisibility of the syllable OṀ. In addition to identifying OṀ as the

supreme essence and smallest division of all that is, the Chāndogya Upaniṣad posits the

importance of chanting and pronouncing the syllable as mantra. One of the earliest

Upaniṣads, dating to around 700 B.C.E., the Chāndogya Upaniṣad contains technical

information for the Udgātr priests – the people responsible for chanting of the Veda. It

was important for priests to explain and understand the syllable OṀ, because only from

there could one lead the chant correctly. In this perspective, entering into the immortal

                                                                                                               
20
Chāndogya Upanishad 1.1.1-5, translated by Hume, The Thirteen Principal Thirteen
Upanishads, 177.
   14  

sound OṀ provides a way for one to know Brahman: “Verily, this syllable is assent; for

whenever one assents to anything he says simply ‘Om.’ This, indeed, is fulfillment – that

is, assent is.”21 The conclusion is that OṀ provides a means for one to know Brahman

and the proper sounding of OṀ allows one to pass upwards towards its original source.

Triplicate Division of OṀ

The proper sounding of OṀ becomes clearer in the Praśna Upaniṣad, where OṀ

is divided into its three phonemes: A+U+M.22 In this Upaniṣad there is an inquiry about

the value of meditation on the syllable OṀ and an early separation of OṀ into the

triplicate AUM (A+U together create the diphthong ‘O’ sound). It says: “if he meditates

on the highest person with the three elements of the syllable Aum (a, u, m), he becomes

one with the light, the sun.”23 In this progression, A, as the first sound in the Sanskrit

syllabary, embodies the primal sound in creating the universe. Produced in the back of

the open mouth, the letter A encapsulates all of creation: “If he meditates on one element

(a), he, enlightened even by that, comes quickly to the earth.”24 Moving through to the U,

this second sound is formed by the openness of A, but shaped through the closing of ones

lips and if one “meditates on this as of two elements (au) he attains the mind. He is led by

the yajus (formulas) to the intermediate space, the world of the moon.”25 Travelling

                                                                                                               
21
Chāndogya Upanishad 1.1.8, translated by Hume, The Thirteen Principal Upanishads,
178.
22
From this point on, I will use OṀ and AUM interchangeably. The latter spelling
emphasizes the partition and phonetics of the syllable, but carries no difference in
meaning.
23
Praśna Upaniṣad 5.2.5, translated by Radhakrishnan, The Principal Upaniṣads, (India:
Harper Collins, 1994), 665.
24
Praśna Upaniṣad 5.2.3, translated by Radhakrishnan, The Principal Upaniṣads, 664.
25
Praśna Upaniṣad 5.2.4, translated by Radhakrishnan, The Principal Upaniṣads, 664.
   15  

beyond U, one arrives at M, or the closing of the lips, signifying completion and release.

In succession, then, A+U+M refers to the past, present and future of all things. In

meditation, the completion of this triplicate AUM liberates one from saṁsāra, the cycle

of re-birth and re-death, “as a snake is freed from its skin.”26 In this perspective, every

syllable and sound hearable to a person resides inherently in AUM. Knowing this, when

one employs AUM in mantra it leads him to the world of Brahman. In this perspective,

the triplicate division of OṀ into AUM becomes the Sound Brahman, or nāda-

brahman.27 Later on, in the Māndūkya Upaniṣad, we will see a fourth division of AUM

into “no stage”, which will also have important ramifications for the unifying function of

OṀ in mantra. Before discussing the fourth aspect of AUM, we will look briefly at the

power of mantra OṀ in meditation.

The Transformative Power in OṀ

Further explanations of OṀ are presented in the Muṇḍaka Upaniṣad, where the

teaching suggests that meditative use of OṀ as mantra can yield transformative results.

As a source of reunification, OṀ must be attended to with utmost poise and intention.

Once one understands the power invested in the mantra, then can OṀ be used as a

vehicle for becoming one with Brahman. Using the analogy of a bow as the great weapon

of the Upaniṣads, the arrow set within it must be sharpened by meditation. The mark for

which one is aiming is that which is imperishable:

                                                                                                               
26
Praśna Upaniṣad 5.2.5, translated by Radhakrishnan, The Principal Upaniṣads, 665.
27
William K. Mahony, "Vedas and Upanishads" (lecture, Davidson College, Davidson,
NC, October 1, 2014).
   16  

4. ‘The mystic syllable OṂ (praṇava) is the bow, the arrow the self:

Brahman is its target, it is said.

It must be pierced by one who is not careless:

So, like the arrow, one will become of a kind with it.28

If one is able to pierce the imperishable in meditation, he also becomes imperishable

because he has reunited with Brahman. According to this teaching, each person is already

equipped with the necessary tools, OṀ and the self, to reunite with Brahman. Because of

this, one should focus attention on the correct pronunciation of mantra in meditation. The

Muṇḍaka Upaniṣad teaches us that a person does not need superfluous material in order

to reunite with Brahman; one should properly manifest OṀ as mantra in meditation to

attain liberation.

Brahman and the Four-fold Nature of OṀ

Some of the later Upaniṣads further elaborate on the four-fold division of the

Word we saw in the Ṛg Veda. Among the multiplicity of mantras and utterances, OṀ

lends itself to a particular four-fold quality that seeks to reunite with the supreme Word

into Brahman-OṀ. In order to highlight the significance of the four-fold division, I will

focus on the Māndūkya Upaniṣad and the Nāradaparivrājaka Upaniṣad. These teachings

show us that meditation on the four-fold nature of OṀ allows one to reunite with

Brahman-OṀ.

Previously, I discussed the triplicate division of AUM, as depicted in the Praśna

Upaniṣad into the creative state, the activity state and the release state (or past, present,

                                                                                                               
28
Muṇḍaka Upaniṣad 2.2.4, translated by Valerie J. Roebuck, The Upaniṣads, (New
Delhi, India: Penguin Books, 2000), 380.
   17  

future). While the AUM triplicate maintains its aforementioned significance, the fourth

component of AUM as explained in the Māndūkya Upaniṣad refers to the ‘silent’

resonance that follows the audible mantra. Therefore, the fourth aspect of AUM is the

‘silence’ that the syllable always emerges from and returns to. Although the fourth part is

unheard by the human ear, the vibration following ‘M’ holds within it the essence of

Brahman. The Māndūkya Upaniṣad describes the progression of AUM as follows:

1. Aum, this syllable is all this. All that is the past, the present and the future, all

this is only the syllable AUM. And whatever else there is beyond the

threefold time, that too is only the syllable AUM.

2. All this is, verily, Brahman. This self is Brahman. This same self has four

quarters. 29

The silent aspect of AUM contains everything beyond the threefold division of

time. As the sound of Brahman, OṀ represents the triplicate division of our manifest

world – past, present, future – as well as the supreme consciousness, or that which is

beyond time.30 In a cycle of creation and reunification, AUM always arises from and

returns to the fourth state of silence. Having knowledge of the four-fold nature of OṀ in

relation to Brahman results in reunification.

In the Nāradaparivrājaka Upaniṣad, Brahman-OṀ is identified as ‘the highest

light’, and the teaching suggests that one should meditate on his own extolling of OṀ. It

says: “Having experienced that one, immortal, and undecaying being by means of OṀ,

                                                                                                               
29
Māndūkya Upaniṣad 1.1-2, translated by Radhakrishnan, The Principal Upaniṣads,
695.
30
The official terms for the four quarters are: viśva, the waking state, taijasa, the dream
state, prajñā, the state of dreamless sleep and turīya, the state of dreamless
consciousness. See Radhakrishnan’s commentary under Māndūkya Upaniṣad in The
Principal Upanishads, 670.
   18  

learn that this very syllable, which has been extolled by the term Brahman, is the self.”31

Not only does this verse hold OṀ as being manifested by Brahman, but it also suggests

that this extolling has the same resonance as the OṀ uttered by the self. Also further

explored in the Nāradaparivrājaka Upaniṣad, the four-fold division of OṀ will provide

an important foundation for the reunification process of OṀ as understood by the sages

in the Shaiva tradition of Kashmir, a tradition to which I now turn.32

OṀ in Kashmir Shaivism:
Contemplative Use of OṀ

From Vedism to Kashmir Shaivism

Acknowledging that there are many different threads in Hinduism, I am choosing

to concentrate this exploration on the connection between Vedism and Kashmir

Shaivism. Kashmir refers to a northwestern region of South Asia that became an

important center of Hinduism from 8th to 12th century C.E. Kashmir Shaivism is a

nondualistic school of Hinduism in Kashmir that focuses on monistic theology. The texts

that provide the foundation for Kashmir Shaivism consist of Tantras discovered in

Kashmir. Regarding the levels of the Word, there is an internal consistency on sound

from the early Vedic speculations on the Word and Tantric conceptions of word-energy,

or śakti, in Shaivism. Both characterize an important relationship between the syllable

OṀ and divine energy. The syllable OṀ is recognized by the Kashmir Shaiva

community to be identical to the primal divine energy that brings forth the creation of the

                                                                                                               
31
Nāradaparivrājaka Upaniṣad 210, translated by Patrick Olivelle, Samnyāsa Upaniṣads
(New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 1992), 219.
32
See Chapter 8 in the Nāradaparivrājaka Upaniṣad, translated by Olivelle, Samnyāsa
Upaniṣads, 217-221.
   19  

universe. Rooted in early Vedic notions about the creative power of OṀ, Tantric texts in

Kashmir Shaivism greatly elaborate on the fourth, non-sound state of AUM to focus on

divine energy.

Sphoṭa Theory

One way to link ideology between Vedism and Kashmir Shaivism is to focus on

Indic language theory. Understanding the meaning and power of AUM as mantra is

central to its creative and reunifying functions. In order explore the linguistic aspect of

this phenomenon, it is worthwhile to refer to sphoṭa theory as explained in the

Vākyapadīya by Bhartṛhari. Written in the 5th century, the Vākyapadīya offers many

insights on the metaphysical and philosophical functions of language in mantra and

provides a helpful analysis that pertains to Vedic as well as Tantric experiences of AUM.

Written after the Upaniṣads, this text helps to set the stage for sound philosophies in

Kashmir Shaivism. In accordance with the Upaniṣadic identification of AUM as

Brahman, the Vākyapadīya begins as follows:

9. That true and pure knowledge alone proclaimed by that one word (namely Om)

is state there (in the Veda) under the form of the word Om – a knowledge which

is not contradictory to any school of thought.33

After establishing the supremacy of AUM, the Vākyapadīya goes on to identify AUM as

a root mantra, from which all other mantras arise. According to the sphoṭa theory, root

mantras such as AUM should precede all other sentences and phrases. As a result, the

syllable AUM that contains within it a single indivisible potency called sphoṭa. Sphoṭas

                                                                                                               
33  Vākyapadīya 1.9, translated by K. Raghavan Pillai, The Vākyapadīya (India: Shri

Jainendra Press, 1971), 2.  

   20  

cannot be pronounced or written: they are integral units of language that permeate the

meanings of all sounds. Perhaps the simplest and clearest image for the meaning of

sphoṭa is to picture a light bulb flashing on when one understands (or gets) and idea.34

The meaning of sphoṭa in the mind is revealed through the repetition of particular fixed

sounds, making mantras imperative to reach understanding. According to this theory, the

way to reach understanding is by repeatedly producing mantra. As Bhartṛhari says: “the

production of speech-sounds is caused by the need for the sphoṭa to be revealed, i.e.,

when the meaning-conveying principle is to function.”35 Tantric texts will rely on the

sphoṭa theory to show that the imparting of a mantra contains the essence of divine

meaning.

Apart from intellectual meaning, OṀ as mantra has an inherently powerful

spiritual meaning as well. The Vākyapadīya affirms the understanding that mantras have

important implications for human reason as well as interaction with the divine. In line

with the sphoṭa theory, it is impossible to separate words from meaning and “without the

fixed power of words to convey meaning, inference based on words could not take

place.”36 The mantra OṀ, then, is helpful in revealing the original sphoṭa of Brahman

and the mantra is permeated with divine power. Here, Bhartṛhari has provided us with a

psychological philosophy of language with regard to OṀ: “Repetition of the uttered

sounds of the mantra, especially if spoken clearly and correctly, will evoke fresh the

sphoṭa each time, until finally the obscuring ignorance is purged and meaning-whole of

                                                                                                               
34
Guy L. Beck, Sonic Theology: Hinduism and sacred sound, Studies in Comparative
Religion (Columbia, SC: University of South Carolina Press, 1948), 67.
35
K. Raghavan Pillai, trans., The Vākyapadīya (India: Shri Jainendra Press, 1971), 149.
36
Harold Coward, "The Meaning and Power of Mantras in Bhartṛhari’s Vākyapadīya," in
Mantra, ed. Harvey P. Alper, SUNY series in religious studies (Albany, NY: State
University of New York Press, 1989), 171.
   21  

the mantra is seen (pratibhā).”37 Therefore, the mantra OṀ is permeated with divine

energy to reveal the meaning of Brahman. Here, we can see that Bhartṛhari has provided

a strong foundation for the chanting of OṀ in mantra as a vehicle for salvation in

Kashmir Shaiva philosophy. Sphoṭa theory helps to identify the specific relationship

between word and meaning and philosophizes about a higher notion of language where

the two are nondifferentiated.

Sacred Sound in Advaita Shaivism of Kashmir

As the most important school of Shaivism in north India, Advaita (“nondual”)

Shaivism of Kashmir has an underlying theory of sound that is important for this

investigation. This school is the first to introduce the term Parā-Vāc, “the word Parā

means ‘supreme’, and Parā-Vāc is the supreme speech. It is that soundless sound which

resides in your own universal consciousness.”38 Although OṀ as mantra has important

sonic qualities, Kashmir Shaivism focuses on aspects of the mantra that are imperceptible

to the human ear. Acknowledging the important sonic qualities of OṀ, the Kashmir

Shaiva tradition also has many speculations on the nature of silence, or non-sound. This

investigation acknowledges the supremacy of ‘non-sound’ in Kashmir Shaiva tradition,

but will primarily focus on the audible utterance of OṀ in reunifying with Brahman.

Although Advaita Shaiva texts do not use the word Brahman, recognizing Śiva as the

highest reality instead, for consistency I will continue to identify Brahman as the ultimate

reality, as is widely accepted by major schools of Hindu thought.39 Despite the

                                                                                                               
37
K. Raghavan Pillai, trans., The Vākyapadīya, 20.
38
Beck, Sonic Theology,162.
39
Padoux, Vāc: The Concept of the Word, 404.
   22  

appropriation of technical terms, Kashmir Shaivism reflects a major preoccupation with

OṀ as mantra and utilizes sacred sound as a vehicle for reunification with Brahman.

Levels of Sound

In order to understand the reunification process that reintegrates OṀ with

Brahman, it is important to look at the levels of sound as described in Kashmir Shaivism.

Returning to Ṛg Veda 1.164, there is evidence of influence on Kashmir Shaiva thought

from ancient India:

45. The Word is measured in four quarters. The wise

who possess insight know these four divisions.

Three quarters, concealed in secret, cause no movement.

The fourth is the quarter that is spoken by men.40

With reference to the four parts of the Word, verse 45 sets the stage further for Kashmir

Shaiva religious philosophy on the four-fold nature of OṀ. The four quarters of the Word

take on tangible descriptions that point to metaphysical aspects of mantra OṀ. In this

speculation, the first and highest dimension of sound is parā, or Parā-Vāc. This first level

is transcendent and inaccessible to humankind. The second dimension, known as

paśyantī, is also on the transcendental plane but illuminated or projected. Thirdly, there is

the middle dimension, madhyamā, which constitutes mental formation. These upper

levels are all contained within ‘silence’, and cannot be processed by the human ear.

Finally, the dimension of OṀ that is intelligible to us is the intoned, external expression

of word: vaikharī. Vaikharī equates to human language, therefore it is what we are able to

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                         
40
Ṛg Veda 1.164.45, translated by Panikkar, The Vedic Experience: Mantramañjari, 103.
   23  

pronounce in a literal sense. The Tantric texts themselves represent the power of

articulating sound, or divine manifestation from parāvāc to vaikharī, but I found it

interesting to work backwards through the stages in order to express the reunifying power

of OṀ.41

Vaikharī

Beginning with vaikharī, we have the audible level of speech or the ‘fourth

quarter’ that consists of non-supreme energy. It is the level of OṀ that can be known

through human speech, constituting the level of the Word “where all distinction and

delimination become clearly apparent.”42 Because this is the level at which sounds are

perceptible to the ear, OṀ is strongly linked with active breath in the body. The

phonemes expressed here are significant in that they are condensed form of the Word so

we can understand them. Even so, it is important to recognize that this level of OṀ is

inherently connected with the other, higher levels: “in its deepest nature, it is identical to

and inseparable from the two preceding levels and from parā.”43 Vaikharī, then, provides

the platform for reunification with Brahman at the audible intonation.

Madhyamā

Continuing upwards with madhyamā, we arrive at the intermediate stage of the

syllable OṀ. Here, the Word is in between the manifest and audible articulation of OṀ.

As one enters the subtle and undifferentiated stage of speech, OṀ becomes synonymous

                                                                                                               
41
For the original orientation of parāvāc to vaikharī, see Padoux, Vāc: The Concept of
the Word, 166-222.
42
Padoux, Vāc: The Concept of the Word, 221.
43
Padoux, Vāc: The Concept of the Word, 218.
   24  

with cognition, or word-energy. At the level of cognition, there “occurs an awareness of

the expressed and of what it expresses”: a form of impersonal consciousness.44 From the

perspective of sphoṭa theory, madhyamā is the level of energy that refers to thought-

consciousness, standing at the junction between the differentiated and the

undifferentiated. The object of OṀ becomes the expressing and the expressed,

intermingling the spoken word with its divine essence. In this stage, differentiation of

OṀ from language to thought return to oneness. With regard to speech, madhyamā

appears as the inward OṀ; it is “a necessary link for connecting any form of speech to

the supreme Word”, and makes logical sense when considering the subtle and supreme

states of OṀ.45 When one speaks mentally to oneself, or repeats OṀ in mantra, he is in

madhyamā. There is no articulatory process in this stage, making OṀ both distinct and

non-distinct.

Paśyantī

Moving higher yet, we then arrive at paśyantī, or “the Visionary” level of OṀ. At

this stage, objectivity and subjectivity are no longer separable, because it is at this point

that OṀ moves toward reabsorption. In paśyantī, there occurs “this reabsorption of the

linguistic process…which is proper to a consciousness turning back upon itself.”46 The

paśyantī aspect of OṀ consist of phonemic energy rather than expression, acting as a

stage that is audible through resonance rather than speech. It returns to the original

                                                                                                               
44
Padoux, Vāc: The Concept of the Word, 206.
45
Padoux, Vāc: The Concept of the Word, 215.
46
Padoux, Vāc: The Concept of the Word, 199.
   25  

intention to produce sound, to the will of divine consciousness that brings one closer to

parāvāc.

Parāvāc

Finally, we reach the highest, uncreated aspect of OṀ, namely parāvāc. As the

state of primordial non-differentiation, parāvāc is the receptacle as well as the supreme

source of universal sound and meaning. Although parāvāc, referred to in the feminine,

represents the highest level of speech, she “is actually present at the level of paśyantī, and

so forth”, because she is identical to the supreme consciousness.47 In other words, the

condensed form of OṀ when spoken in vaikharī already exits in essence in the body of

parāvāc. When OṀ reaches this level, consciousness turns back upon itself in a way that

it not only recognizes itself but also becomes aware that it is the supreme Word.

Returning to the foundation of all sound and meaning, reaching parāvāc is likened to

coming back to one’s own inner nature: “This brahman without beginning or end, sound

principle, imperishable syllable.”48 To reach this state of OṀ is to be immersed in divine

consciousness and one experiences inner reunification with ultimate reality.

Nāda and Bindu

Similar to the Ṛg Veda, Tantric texts also focus on the emanation of OṀ from the

divine world to the empirical world. With emphasis on the energy aspects of sound, the

texts distinguish many subtle phases of OṀ within Parāvāc. The most important stages

for us to consider are nāda and bindu. Both refer to a concentrated form of vibrating

                                                                                                               
47
Padoux, Vāc: The Concept of the Word, 173.
48
Vākyapadīya 1.1, translated by K. Raghavan Pillai, Vākyapadīya, 1.
   26  

energy that result from an intoned mantra. Nāda refers to “the condensation of the

primeval sound vibration”, a form of sound that remains imperceptible to humans; it is

the first resonance, or sphoṭa, of the Supreme Word OṀ.49 It is the resonance of the

mantra OṀ that merges with divine energy.

Bindu is the “drop” of energy – the concentrated energy within a single drop or

point – endowed with special potency. Grammatically, the bindu signifies the “the

nasalization that prolongs the sound of the mantra OṀ and is charged with its whole

divine energy.”50 It condenses the power of OṀ into a point so that the energy of the

mantra can gather up on itself and be reabsorbed into the universe. These levels of sound

emanation play an integral role in the reabsorption of OṀ into ultimate reality. The

Shaiva texts, including the Svacchanda Tantra, Netra Tantra, Tantrāloka, and

Yoginīhṛdaya, describe these levels in great detail with reference to extolling OṀ as

mantra.51 The vibrations of OṀ become progressively subtler, moving upward through

nāda and bindu, until the sound merges into the pure transcendent energy identical to

Brahman. This merging unites one with the original sonic vibration of Brahman and

achieves unity.

Kashmir Theory of the Mantra OṀ

Once again, we return to the use of OṀ as mantra within the Kashmir Shaiva

context, to focus on how it serves as a pathway that leads back to the primordial Word.

By referring to the Kashmir levels of speech (vaikharī, madhyamā, paśyantī, parāvāc) we

                                                                                                               
49
Padoux, Vāc: The Concept of the Word, 96.
50
Padoux, Vāc: The Concept of the Word, 106.
51
Padoux, Vāc: The Concept of the Word, 94.
   27  

can dictate a more detailed explanation of the reabsorption process for mantra OṀ. The

Netra Tantra in thoroughly describes the divine manifestation of sound from supreme

sound to the relative A+U+M phonemes in our empirical speech.52 In other words, the

Netra Tantra asserts that there was a great divine will to make OṀ audible to humankind

in mantra. The highest form of mantra in the Tantric texts refer to an “all-knowing

thought and release from transmigration”, positing OṀ as the all-encompassing mantra.53

According to this theory, then, OṀ is considered to be a spiritual reality – the original

creative expression of ultimate reality. The yogic extolling of OṀ in meditation is

therefor the means for one to become reabsorbed into cosmic reality. The Svacchanda

Tantra and the Netra Tantra explore the uccāra, meditative utterance, of OṀ, in which

case the ritual involves one rises through the various levels of the sonic universe back to

the divine origin.54 In this process, the human and cosmic aspects of reunification cannot

be separated and the phonic energy of OṀ moves through the body and the cosmos.

Reabsorption into the Nondual Absolute through OṀ

Now that we have discussed the significance of OṀ as primordial mantra as well

as the proper pronunciation of OṀ, it is important to investigate the reunifying quality of

OṀ. By now, it is evident that this process of reabsorption requires much more

understanding than the simple phonemic sounds. As stated previously, the yogic

meditative uccāra of OṀ is described in several chapters of the Svacchanda Tantra as

well as the Netra Tantra. Kṣemarāja, a late 10th century philosopher who composed

                                                                                                               
52
Padoux, Vāc: The Concept of the Word, 119.
53
Padoux, Vāc: The Concept of the Word, 374.
54
Padoux, Vāc: The Concept of the Word, 404.
   28  

original works in Kashmir Shaivism, comments on both Tantras and his commentary will

serve as the primary text for my explanation of this contemplative practice. Essentially,

there is an ascending movement of the uccāra through twelve levels of subtlety until the

phonic energy of mantra OṀ “dissolves in its transcendental, changeless source, beyond

time and all possible utterance.”55 Thus, moving from the audible pronunciation of OṀ,

the mantra reunifies at its source: the supreme resonance of Brahman. When correctly

manifested, OṀ will move through the process as described below and results in divine

reabsorption.

Process of Reabsorption

The phonic evolution of OṀ back to its original source is described thoroughly in

the Netra Tantra. The correct yogic meditative utterance of OṀ allows one “to rise

through the various levels of the universe, back to their divine origin” through a series of

uccāra, some of which we have already discussed.56 Beginning with the uccāra of the

three phonemes of OṀ: A, U and what the Netra Tantra identifies as MA, the mantra,

supported by energy of prāṇa, breath, rises first through the heart with A – rising to the

throat with U, then reaching the palate with MA. Following the phonemes, the yogi

reaches the bindu – or the nasally sound following MA – remember that this is the point

of extreme potency at which the energy of the universe gathers up on itself.

According to these Tantras, bindu and nāda also consist of subtle layers.

Becoming progressively subtler, the bindu rises higher through two stages known as

ardhacandra and nirodhinī. Ardhacandra is a subdivision of bindu that signals an initial

                                                                                                               
55
Padoux, Vāc: The Concept of the Word, 405.
56
Padoux, Vāc: The Concept of the Word, 405.
   29  

withdrawal from objectivity into undifferentiated knowledge.57 Nirodhinī refers to a

subdivision that precedes nāda: it is the level at which OṀ experiences an energized

dynamism as it continues to nāda. These two stages mark an important transition from

bindu to nāda; however, they represent mere moments within the phonic vibration

procession. Arriving, then, at nāda, comes the vibration that condenses the power of OṀ

so that it can merge with the energy of Brahman. At the end of nāda, or nādānta, the

rising condensation of OṀ is entirely absorbed into the energy of Brahman.

The following levels become progressively higher and can only come as a result

of sound vibration from OṀ. At this point, the yogi reaches the cosmic uccāra of śakti, in

which there is a moment where the utterance dissolves while simultaneously merging

with the divine energy aspect of Brahman. Quickly after, the dissolution of the vibration

reaches vyāpinī. Here, the sound of OṀ fades away completely to become one with

sound energy. The sound energy of OṀ arrives at samanā, the radiation of consciousness

for divine reabsorption. Samanā, although high, is still a latent stage in which the yogi is

still not entirely reunified with Brahman. It is not until the yogi attains unmanā, the stage

of absolute consciousness, that the phonic energy of OṀ is reabsorbed into its

transcendental, changeless source, beyond time and all possible utterance. Here, the yogi

has phonically reunified with Brahman.

Reunited State of Brahman-OṀ

In the Kashmir Shaiva tradition, the process of reunification through OṀ has

significant soteriological implications. When the uttered OṀ has been successfully

                                                                                                               
57
Padoux, Vāc: The Concept of the Word, 108.
   30  

reabsorbed into the sonic energy of Brahman, one will experience transcendence and

unification with Absolute Reality. After moving through the twelve levels of the uccāra,

the yogi transcends all stages into the unsurpassable highest level, which is equated with

divinity. Reuniting with the primary universal vibration, one is inseparable from pure

sound energy and consciousness. When the vibration of the empirical mantra resonates at

the same frequency as the cosmic Word, one is joined with Absolute Reality. This idea

that there is a reunification of Brahman and OṀ is reminiscent of Vāc when she

unleashes her artful low. The One becomes the many and, in the reunited state of

Brahman-OṀ, the many returned to the One. In understanding the energy flow from the

divine to the empirical, one returns to the state of oneness in Vāc through relative sound:

“As creation consists of the inherent power of this Vāc to become manifold…, salvation

consists in the equally inherent power of man as partaker of Vāc to return to this state of

oneness.”58

Conclusion

It is time now to return to the beginning. The process of emanative creation and

integrative return to Brahman could be described as a journey of sorts. As said in the

Maitrī Upaniṣad: “Having crossed over with the raft of the syllable Om to the other side

of the space in the heart, in the inner space which gradually becomes manifest one should

enter the hall of Brahman.”59 In this verse of the Maitrī Upaniṣad, we arrive at the

conclusion that OṀ serves as a pathway to reunification with Brahman. The ‘crossing

                                                                                                               
58
Klaus Klostermaier, “The Creative Function of the Word,” Language in Indian
Philosophy and Religion (1978), 9 as quoted in Sonic Theology, 73.
59
Maitrī Upanishad 6.28, translated by Hume, The Thirteen Principal Upanishads, 441.
   31  

over’ can be interpreted as an upward manifestation of sound into pure energy

consciousness. The ‘hall of Brahman’ symbolizes the place where OṀ emerges as well as

returns to. We can say that the all-powerful activity of OṀ as mantra provides a sonic

orientation of the relationship between the divine and the relative levels of reality.

In the course of this study, we have seen that these movements of emanation and

reunification have important implications on both the human and cosmic plane.

Cosmically, sound and energy-consciousness undergo a metaphysical process so that

humankind can comprehend the highest levels of divine consciousness. This process

keeps the sacred quality of OṀ intact so that it can be employed as a way to return to

Brahman. The utterance of OṀ as mantra can then be a vehicle to deliver one who

pronounces it from the material world toward a permanent, transcendent reality. In

particular, the triplicate division of OṀ into A+U+M is identified with Brahman. In its

highest aspect, the vibration that resonates with OṀ becomes non-sound in that it is

incomprehensible to the human ear. It is the very essence of Brahman. Evidently, through

this investigation it can also be determined that the Vedic and Upanishadic notions of

OṀ were strong forerunners to the meditative use of OṀ in Kashmir Shaivism.

Although the Kashmir Shaiva tradition explores the metaphysical aspects of OṀ

– which were not present in the Veda – the focus on OṀ as a persisting phenomenon

remains significant. Throughout all of the texts, OṀ stays pristine in its all-encompassing

meaning. Despite the creative process, which disassembled OṀ into a phonetic form that

can be empirically understood, the mantra consistently prepares one to return to its

eternal origin. The uccāra process as described in Kashmir Shaivism provides a useful

platform in understanding the sonic downward – and upward – passage of sound. With
   32  

regard to nāda and bindu, as well as the ultimate four-fold nature of the Word, one can

see the complexity within a single syllable. In understanding how OṀ emerges from and

dissolves back into divine resonance, the power of mantra swells significantly. Thus, OṀ

as mantra is fundamental to both the bringing forth of the universe and to the

reintegration of one’s self back into the cosmos.

   33  

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