[6] Cellular Physiology and Biochemistry

Respiration:

1) List and give an overview of the 4 stages of aerobic respiration and indicate where each stage takes place in an
eukaryotic cell and add up the energy captured.

Glycolysis: Cytoplasm

A sequence of reactions that breaks down glucose to pyruvate.

- Glucose is phosphorylated twice to produce hexose bisphosphate

- Phosphate group donated by 1 ATP molecule for each phosphorylation step
- Hexose bisphosphate is lysed to produce 2 molecules of glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate
- this is oxidised,together with formation of NADH and phosphorylated to form 1,3-diphosphoglycerate(hence a total
of 2 NADH)
- followed by 2 steps of substrate-level phosphorylation
- where 1,2-disphosphoglycerate is dephosphorylated to form glycerate-3-phosphate
- than this is again dephosphorylated to form pyruvate
- 2 ATP is formed
- Overall 2 net ATP formed

Link reaction: Matrix of mitochondrion

- Pyruvate is decarboxylated via removal of carbon dioxide to form a 2-carbon fragment

- 2C molecule reacts with CoA to form acetyl CoA and is oxidised at the same time with formation of NADH.

Krebs Cycle: Matrix of mitochondrion

- The acetyl groups are oxidised after being added to oxaloacetate.Acetyl and oxaloacetate are condensed together to
form citrate
- Decarboxylation than occurs until oxaloacetate is regenerated
- Dehydrogenation is accompanied by the formation of NADH and reduced FAD
- Total of 3 reduced NAD and 1 reduced FAD,1 ATP is formed when each acetyl CoA is put through the Krebs Cycle

Oxidative phosphorylation: Inner mitochondrial membrane(cristae)

- Hydrogen or electrons from reduced NAD and FAD are passed from one carrier of the ETC to the next,moving
downhill in energy terms and at each transfer,some energy is released.
- Energy from the transfer of electrons/hydrogen is used to transport the protons into the intermembrane space of
the mitochondrion.The mitochondrial membranes are impermeable to protons and thus there is a build-up of a
higher conc of protons in the intermembrane space compared to the matrix.This represents the proton motive
force(energy stored in the form of an electrochemical gradient)
- Protons are then allowed into the matrix at certain points;stalked particles and each of these points consist of a
protein complex with the enzyme ATP synthase.As the protons move down the conc gradient, the movement
provides energy for synthesising ATP from ADP and Pi
- Oxygen is the final hydrogen/electron acceptor (not both) in the ETC
- Each NADH oxidised produces 3 ATP whilst each reduced FAD oxidised will produce 2 ATP each.
- Proton react with the oxygen to form water.

Total ATP produced: 38,detailed breakdown ref notes.

2) Explain the production of a small yield of ATP from anaerobic respiration and the formation of ethanol in yeast and
lactate in mammals.
Oxygen is the final electron/hydrogen acceptor in the ETC. It’s absence will lead to the electron carriers in the ETC to
be in a reduced state/unable to pass electrons to the next carrier. Cannot create a proton gradient thus there is no
proton motive force generated for ATP synthesis.

Hence oxidative phosphorylation is stopped,so will krebs cycle and link reaction. Only glycolysis will be
ongoing,producing only a net of 2 ATP,19 times lower.

Photosynthesis

1) With reference to the chloroplast structure, explain the light dependent reactions of photosynthesis.

Relating structure of chloroplast to function pls ref to lecture notes page 7 and 8

Non-cyclic light dependent reaction:

1) When a photon of light strikes a pigment molecule,accessory pigments in the light harvesting complex of the
photosynthesis absorb light energy. Energy is transferred from one pigment molecule to the other and is
eventually relayed to the chlorophyll a molecule P680 in reaction complex of PS||.

2) Electrons from the reaction center complex are excited and boosted to a higher energy level and are transferred to
a primary electron acceptor molecule X which passes the electrons along the ETC,become P680+.

3) An enzyme catalyses the splitting of water molecule into 2 electrons,2 protons and an oxygen atom(photolysis of
water) and the electrons are accepted by P680+ which has lost electrons to a primary electron acceptor molecule.
Oxygen atom combines with another oxygen atom to form oxygen molecule. This will bring the chlorophyll a
molecule back to its unoxidised state.

4) Electrons accepted by the electron acceptor are transferred downhill on ETC to PS| and the exergonic fall of
electrons to a lower energy level provides energy to synthesize ATP by chemiosomosis.

5) Chloroplasts generate ATP via chemiosomosis (same logic as that in respiration)

6) Meanwhile light energy is absorbed by the light-harvesting complex pigments in PS| and is passed to the reaction-
center complex,hence exciting an electron from P700 chlorophyll pigment and the electrons are transferred to the
primary electron acceptor molecule of PS| causing them to be oxidised(which will be filled up by electrons from
PS|| aforementioned.

7) These excited electrons are eventually passed on in a series of redox reactions to NADP+ together with H+ ions in
the thylakoid space to form reduced NADP.

2) Outline the 3 phases of the Calvin cycle...and indicate the roles of ATP and NADP in the process.

1) Carbon dioxide molecule is added to ribulose bisphosphate(RuBP),catalysed by enzyme RuBP carboxylase which
produces an unstable 6-carbon molecule that splits to form 2 molecules of glycerate-3-phosphate.

2) Glycerate-3-phosphate is reduced to triose phosphate(glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate) using ATP as an energy source

and reduced NADP as the reducing power from the light reaction.

3) Some of the glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate is channelled to form glucose via condensation reaction;used as the
starting material.

4) Remainder used to regenerate RuBP.

3) Discuss limiting factors in photosynthesis and carry out investigations on the effects of limiting factors...

Limiting factor: A factor which directly affects the biochemical process if its quantity is changed and is a factor nearest
to its minimum value and is the limiting factor.

1) Light intensity:

When 0,rate of photosynthesis is 0. At low light intensity,there is a shortage of photochemical products ATP and
reduced NADP. The rate liming step is he point in calvin cycle where glycerate-3-phosphate is reduced.

Thus at low light intensity,rate of photosynthesis increases linearly with increasing light intensity.At the light
saturation point, some other factor is limiting and increasing light intensity beyond this point has no further effect on
rate of photosynthesis.

This rate is often measured by evolvement of oxygen or absorption of carbon dioxide.

Light compensation point is the point where rate of photosynthesis is equal to the rate of respiration.

2) Carbon Dioxide concentration

Is the major limiting factor.CO2 compensation point is the point where all CO2 produced during respiration is equal to
CO2 used in photosynthesis.

3) Effect of temperature

Dark stage aka calvin cycle is affected by temperature due to involvement of enzymes.

At low temperatures,all the enzymes that catalyse calvin cycle work very slowly. Reduced NADP accumulates and the
rate of photosynthesis decreases at higher temperatures as enzymes start to denature.

4) Effect of water

Deficiency in water can significantly reduce yield if wilting is induced and the stomata of the plant closed and this will
decrease the entry of CO2 which in turn causes it to become the limiting factor.

5) Effect of Oxygen

Oxygen competes with CO2 for the active site in RuBP carboxylase, and decreases the overall rate of photosynthesis.

Cell Signaling and homeostasis

1) Recognise the need for control in organised systems and explain the principles of homeostasis in terms of
receptors, effectors, and negative feedback

The need for control; Homeostasis is the maintenance of a constant internal environment that provides the optimal
conditions in which organisms can live and reproduce efficiently. It also provides organisms with a degree of
independence from the external environment.

Principles:

1) Principle of self-adjusting mechanism where the corrective mechanism is triggered by the very entity which is to be
regulated.
2) Principle of negative feedback where a disturbance in the system sets in motion a sequence of events which
counteracts the disturbance and tends to restore the system to its original state

Think of these 2 as working in a sequential manner.

A stimulus sets forth a disturbance to the system eg increase in blood sugar level and this stimulus is detected by a
receptor that is continually monitoring the environment. The effector is the cell or tissue that carries out the
appropriate response to restore the system back to balance.

2) Explain what is meant by an endocrine gland, with reference to the islets of langerhans in the pancreas

The endocrine system communicates using hormones that are chemical signals secreted into the blood and
distributed all over the body by the circulation. Endocrine glands are a group of secretory cells that pass their
secretions directly into the bloodstream.

Properties of hormones:

-small molecules
-proteins or steroids while some are amines
-secreted directly into the blood in small amounts
-perform regulatory role
-short time span

Islets of langerhans are found in the pancreas. Alpha cells secrete glucagon in response to a fall in blood glucose levels
to increase blood glucose levels by acting on the liver. Beta cells secrete insulin in response of high glucose levels and
it will decrease the blood glucose levels by acting on the liver and muscles.

3) Explain how the blood glucose concentration is regulated by insulin and glucagon

Insulin:

1) Blood glucose levels increase

2) glucose enters B cells of islets of langerhans via glucose transporters
3) increase in KATP channel activity
4) causing inhibition of KATP channel activity and depolarisation
2+
5) volatage gated Ca channels open
6) influx of Calcium ions into cell stimulates the exocytosis of vesicles containing insulin and this results in the release
of insulin into the blood

Mechanism of action, 5 different ways:

1) Insulin facilitates transport of glucose into cells by increasing number of glucose carriers at the membranes of the
cells

-insulin binds to cell surface receptor forming hormone-receptor complex

-chemical signal transduced into the cell
-cause vesicles that contain glucose carrier proteins to move and fuse to the cell membrane
-increase in glucose carrier proteins, increase in glucose uptake into cells

2) Activates glucokinase; glucokinase attaches phosphate group to the glucose molecule and as liver cells are
impermeable to glucose phosphate, the phosphorylated glucose is trapped and a steep concentration gradient is
maintained.

3) Activates enzymes involved in synthesis of glycogen from glucose eg glycogen synthetase

4) Inhibits phosphorylase, the enzyme that catalyses breakdown of glycogen to glucose.

5) Increase in rate of protein and fat synthesis.

6) Increase in nuclei acid and ATP synthesis in all cells.

Glucagon:

1. Ligand-receptor interactions:

-Hormone glucagon is secreted by a-cells of the islets of langerhans of pancreas in response to glucose levels below
norm
-receptor sites in liver cell membrane bind glucagon
-forming a hormone-receptor complex
-hormone is the first messenger molecule that triggers subsequent cellular signaling events in target cell.

2. Signal-transduction:

-binding of glucagon with its receptor on the cell surface membrane then initiates process of transduction
-by triggering a change in the structure of this receptor
-which in turn affects a protein on the inner surface of the membrane, called a G-protein
-GTP replaces the GDP on the G protein
-Active G-protein moves freely along the membrane
-binds to and activates adenyl cyclase
-which in turn catalyses the conversion of ATP to cAMP
-an intracellular messenger or second messenger within liver cell
-each cAMP in turn activates a protein kinase
-protein kinase phosphorylates and thereby activate several copies of a specific enzyme/trigger phosphorylation
cascade

-Hence amplification of signal whereby a single glucagon molecule causes a strong response inside the cell

3. Cellular response:

-activates transcription factors that move into the nucleus and activate genes
-activation of glycogen phosphorylase
-which is needed for the breakdown of glycogen--> glucose-1-phosphate
-thereby increasing the availability of glucose for cellular respiration
-increase blood glucose levels back to norm
-enzymes needed for formation of glycogen from glucose are also inhibited by protein kinase A through
phosphorylation.

4) Recognise the need for communication systems within organisms

-An animal’s tissues, organs and organ systems must act in conjunction with one another
-Coordinating activity across an animal’s body in this way requires communication
-2 major systems: endocrine system and nervous system
-Endocrine system uses hormones
-different hormone-->different effects and only cells with the right receptors will respond
-cells in turn,can express more than 1 receptor type
-Hormones are slow-acting and exert longer lasting effects

Used in: growth, development, reproduction and metabolic processes

-nervous system uses nerve impulse as signal

-other neurons, muscle cells, endocrine and exocrine cells are the effectors
-nerve impulses are faster and are often used for directing immediate and rapid responses to the environment.
5) Describe the three main stages of cell-signaling: ligand-receptor interaction, phosphorylation and signal
transduction and signal amplification.

Cell signaling involves 3 stages:

1) Reception- target cell detect signaling molecule coming from outside the cell and binds to receptor protein located
at cell’s surface or inside cell.

2) Transduction- binding changes receptor protein in some way and initiate transduction, converts signal to a form
bringing about specific response. May occur in one or more steps and require a series of different molecules.

3) Response- transduced signal finally triggers specific cellular response and help ensure crucial activities occur in the
right cells and in proper coordination.

A) Ligand-receptor interaction:

- Signaling molecule acts as a ligand that is complementary in shape to a specific site in the receptor and attaches
there and this binding causes a receptor protein to undergo a conformational change.
- Hydrophobic ligands can enter and go through transmembrane proteins while hydrophilic ligands must bind to
receptor protein.

Examples:

1) G-protein coupled receptor

-plasma membrane receptor with 7 alpha-helices spanning the membrane

-specific loops form binding sites for signaling and G protein molecules
-signal molecule binds
-cause a structural change to receptor and GTP displaces GDP
-activates G protein and cause it to dissociate from receptor, diffusing along the membrane and binds to adenylyl
cyclase and alter the enzyme’s shape and activity
-enzyme will catalyse conversion of ATP to cAMP for transduction
-G protein also functions as a GTPase enzyme and hydrolyses GTP to GDP, terminating the reaction.

2) Tyrosine kinase receptor

-membrane receptors that attach phosphates to tyrosines

-binding of signaling molecule cause 2 receptor polypeptides to dimerise
-this activates tyrosine kinase region of each polypeptide and each tyrosine kinase adds a phosphate from an ATP to a
tyrosine on tail of polypeptide
-this fully activated receptor protein is recognised by relay proteins inside the cell
-each such protein binds to phosphorylated tyrosine and undergoes a structural change that activates the relay
protein
-can lead to transduction and ultimately a response

3) Ion channel receptor

-binding of signaling molecule causes opening or closing of gate for ions to flow through the channel in the receptor

4) Intracellular receptors

-found in either cytoplasm or nucleus of target cells

-must be hydrophobic or small enough to readily pass through the membrane phospholipids
One key difference b/w G-protein receptors and tyrosine is the ability of a SINGLE ligand-binding event to trigger so
many pathways.

B) Phosphorylation:

-include activation of proteins by adding or removal of phosphate groups

-in a phosphorylation cascade a series of different molecules in a pathway are phosphorylated in turn with each
molecule adding a phosphate group to the next one in line
-A relay molecule can activate protein kinase 1 and this active protein kinase 1 transfers a phosphate from ATP to an
inactive molecule of protein kinase 2 and this carries on.
-enzymes like protein phosphatases catalyse removal of phosphate groups to inactivate proteins and ensure they are
available for reuse.
-second messenger like cAMP is able to trigger a phosphorylation cascade when it further phosphorylates other
molecules/proteins that can bring about a response.

C) Signal Transduction:

The series of steps involved in the conversion of cell surface signals to a cellular response.

-Use of small molecules and ions as second messengers

-Relay molecules are protein in nature, note.
-second messengers include relay molecules also non-protein and water soluble molecules or ions
-can readily spread throughout the cell by diffusion
-participate in pathways of both G-protein coupled receptor and tyrosine kinases
-can become more efficient by using scaffolding proteins

eg. cAMP(aforementioned) and Calcium ions.

D) Signal amplification:

-generally stems from that a small number of signal molecules can lead to numerous cellular reactions at once
-lead to many cells becoming activated simultaneously
-these proteins persist in the active form long enough to process numerous molecules of substrate before becoming
inactive again
-respond depends on type of ligand and relay proteins

E) Response:

-A response usually takes place in either the cytoplasm or nucleus of cell

eg. Nuclear response

-initial signaling molecule for instance a growth factor triggers phosphorylation cascade upon binding to receptor on
cell membrane.
-once phosphorylated, the last kinase of the sequence enters the nucleus and activates a gene regulating protein, a
transcription factor for instance.
-protein stimulates a specific gene so that mRNA is synthesised which then directs the synthesis of a particular protein
in cytoplasm.

FINE TUNING OF RESPONSE

-signaling pathways with numerous steps allow amplification of signal and thus the response and provide different
points where a cell’s response can be regulated
-allow coordination of signaling pathways and also contributes to specificity of the response

-overall efficiency enhanced by scaffolding proteins

-activation of many cells simultaneously

-ability of molecule reaching a cell membrane to activate genes in nucleus

Cell membrane and organelles

1) Outline the roles of membranes within the cell and at the surface of cells.

Within:

-COMPARTMENTALISATION
-allows division of labour/specialisation
-synthesis of lipids in sER
-modification and packaging of proteins in golgi apparatus

-LOCALISATION OF ENZYMES AND SUBSTRATES

-helps increase efficiency of reactions by allowing the concentration of specific substances within parts of cells
-like enzymes and substrates needed for krebs cycle are compartmentalised in the mitochondiral matrix
-allows the creation/maintenance of special environment
-pH for optimal enzymatic reactions

-REGULATION
-of substances in and out of organelles
-pores on nuclear envelope regulates substances moving in and out of the nucleus/outer membrane of chloroplasts

-INCREASE SURFACE AREA FOR ATTACHMENT OF MORE ENZYMES OR ELECTRON CARRIERS

-like the inner membrane of mitochondria that is greatly folded to form cristae
-for attachment of more ATPase involved in ATP production
-for attachment of chlorophyll so that they can be positioned to receive the maximum amount of light

-ACT AS PLATFORM FOR ATTACHMENT OF HYDROGEN/ELECTRON CARRIERS

-that requires a specific spatial arrangement
-linear arrangement of hydrogen/electron carriers of ETC
-on the inner mitochondrial membrane facilitates the transfer of hydrogen/electrons down the chain from an electron
carrier at a higher energy to one at a lower energy level
-allows generation of high H+/proton motive force

-INTRACELLULAR TRANSPORT
-rER--> GA --> secretory vesicles

-PROTECTION
-compartmentalisation of hydrolytic enzymes into lysosomes
-prevents the digestion of cellular contents
-membrane surrounding a lysosome allows the digestive enzymes to work at the 4.5 pH they require

Surface:

-phospholipid bilayer of plasma membrane creates a boundary b/w the contents of cell and external environment
-allowing it to function as a separate entity from external environment
-partially permeable
-regulates the passage of substances in and out of cell
-allows the entry of nutrients
-exit of waste products
-via diffusion/facilitated diffusion
-Osmosis via aquaporins
-bulk transport/endo and exocytosis
-active transport; Na+ and K+ pump
-phospholipids are fat-soluble substances
-proteins are polar/hydrophilic molecules
-help maintain constant internal environment within the cell
-helps to maintain an ionic balance inside cell that is different from outside
-for nervous transmission

-receptor proteins enable the cell to communicate with external environment

-receptor proteins receive chemical messenger moelecules
-glycoproteins and glycolipids
-enable cell-to-cell recognition
-immune system for recognition of foreign pathogens
-helps to maintain structural r/s with neighbouring cells
-enable cell-cell adhesion
-enables tissue formation

2) Describe and explain the fluid mosaic model of membrane structure including an outline of the roles of
phospholipids, cholestrol, glycolipids, proteins and glycoproteins

Fluid mosaic model

-proposes that protein molecules are scattered in a fluid phospholipid bilayer with only hydrophilic portions exposed
to water
-scattered protein molecules resemble a mosaic but since the phospholipid bilayer is fluid, forming a fluid mosaic
pattern
-lipid extracted from a complete cell membrane was estimated as sufficient to form a layer 2 molecules thick
-about 7.5 nm

1) Phospholipids

-most abundant lipid

-has phosphate head with 2 hydrophobic fatty acid tails
-long hydrocarbon chains of fatty acid tails are insoluble in water
-in aqueous environment phospholipids assemble into a bilayer forming a spherical liposome
-with hydrophilic heads facing outwards and hydrophobic tails facing inwards

2) Cholestrol

-enhances fluidity of phospholipid bilayer and act as ‘plugs’, prevent leakages

-hydrophobic region of cholestrol molecule interacts with the long hydrocarbon chains of phospholipids behind the
polar heads
-presence of cholestrol disturbs close packing of phospholipids molecules, making them more fluid

3) Membrane proteins

-extrinsic/peripheral proteins
-associate superficially with membrane surface, do not penetrate into the phospholipid bilayer
-largely hydrophilic
-easily dissociated from the membrane by relatively gentle extraction procedures

-intrinsic/transmembrane proteins
-have both hydrophilic and hydrophobic portions
-hydrophilic portions are exposed to the aqueous environment on both sides of the membrane
-hydrophobic portions are in the middle associated with the hydrophobic tails of the phospholipid bilayer
-held in place by hydrophobic interactions b/w the long, hydrocarbon tails of phospholipids and hydrophobic region of
membrane protein(mention the neutral an hydrophobic R groups)
-hydrophilic bonds may also form b/w the phosphate heads and the charged R groups of amino acids in the
membrane proteins

Functions include:

a) Transport proteins, providing a hydrophilic channel for passage of a polar solute

b) Enzymes;an enzyme with active site exposed to molecules in adjacent solution
c) Receptor sites,like receptor for glucagon
d) Cell adhesion, membrane proteins of adjacent cells may be attached together forming various intercellular
junctions
e) Attachment to cytoskeleton, important in maintaining cell shape

4) Glycoproteins and Glycolipids

-Glycolipids for cell recognition

-Glycoproteins for cell adhesion
-enable cells to orientate and form tissues

Nervous system,electrical signaling

1) Describe and explain the transmission of an action potential along a myelinated neurone. The importance of Na+
and K+ ions in the impulse transmission should be emphasised.

If a nerve is stimulated there will be a rapid change in potential difference across the axon membrane termed the
action potential.

INITIATION

a) Depolarisation

-application of stimulus changes the permeability of axon membrane to Na+ and K+ at the point of application
-permeability of the membrane to Na+ will increase due to opening of Na+ gated channels
-Na+ from tissue fluid diffuses into the neurone causing the inside of the neurone to be less negative than resting
potential. This is due to influx of positive ions into neurone and Na+ diffuses in because of the higher [Na+] in tissue
fluid and higher negative potential on inside of axon.

-initial influx of Na+ causes more Na+ gated channels to open causing greater depolarisation termed POSITIVE
FEEDBACK
-membrane potential increases from -70mV to +40mV

b) Repolarisation

-at peak of action potential, membrane permeability to Na+ decreases due to closure of Na+ gated channels
-permeability of axon membrane to K+ begins to increase as K+ gated channels open
-K+ diffuses out of the neurone causing +ve charges inside the neurone to decrease
-membrane potential decrease from +40mV to -70mV.

c) Hyperpolarisation

-refers to a brief period during repolarisation where the membrane potential becomes more negative than -70mV
-due to slight delay in closing of K+ gated channels hence allowing more +ve ions to leave the axoplasm
-complete return to resting potential is achieved by the Na-K pump with FACILITATED DIFFUSION.

d) Action potential follows an all-or-nothing law

-response only generated if stimulus applied causes a depolarisation potential that is greater than a threshold
potential
-below a certain threshold, there is only local depolarisation and not an action potential thus no impulse is generated.
-threshold is -50 to -60mV
-however any stimulus that causes depolarisation above threshold will give the same action potential of +40mV
-a strong stimulus produces a high frequency of impulses

e) Refractory period

-short time immediately after action potential in which neuron cannot respond to another stimulus
-Important in ensuring that there is i) Unidirectionality of impulse and ii) No overstimulation of nerve by imposing a
limit on the speed of impulse conduction.
-2 types
-ABSOLUTE and RELATIVE
-Absolute is when Na+ channels are open or recovering thus second action potential absolutely cannot be initiated
-Relative is when voltage-gated K+ channels are open and membrane is hyper-polarised thus action potentials are
more difficult to generate during this period relative to resting potential

PROPAGATION

1) Adjacent node of ranvier of axon is still at resting potential. This difference in resting potential b/w 2 neighbouring
points create a local electrical circuit.

2) This local electrical circuit allows Na+ to diffuse into the adjacent node and triggers an increase in the permeability
of the membrane to Na+ as Na+ gates open causing this area to depolarise and a new action potential occurs.

3) While this is taking place in the adjacent node of navier, the original point of impulse undergoes repolarisation and
hyperpolarisation as K+ diffuses outwards.

TERMINATION AND RESTORING RESTING POTENTIAL

-There are 2 factors that cause and maintain this potential difference:

A) Active transport of Na+ and K+ by Na-K pump.

-involves a transmembrane protein pump that transport Na+ out of axoplasm and transport K+ into axoplasm
-energy required as Na+ and K+ ions are being transported against concentration gradient
-unequal transport because 3 Na+ out compared to 2 K+ in thus resulting in unequal distribution of Na+ and K+ b/w
the axoplasm and tissue fluid
-results in a net loss of positive ions from the axoplasm thus resulting in unequal distribution of charges where
axoplasm is more -ve than tissue fluid.

B) Facilitated diffusion of Na+ and K+ down their concentration gradients

-axon membrane considerably more permeable to K+ and less to Na+ due to more K+ channels
-as K+ concentration in axoplasm is greater than tissue fluid, K+ diffuses out and there is more K+ diffusing out from
neuron than Na+ diffusing in
-greater net loss of positive charges from neuron and hence the axoplasm is more -ve relative to the tissue fluid.

At equilibrium:

[K+] (axoplasm) > [K+] (tissue fluid)

[Na+] “ > [Na+] “

Factors affecting:

1) Diameter of axon, narrower slower and vice versa

2) Myelin sheath-saltatory conduction in myelinated neurons is faster
3) Temperature
2+
2) Describe the structure of a cholinergic synapse and explain how it functions, including the role of Ca ions.

1) Arrival of impulse at synaptic knob depolarises the presynaptic membrane and this opens up the calcium ion
channels
2) Calcium ions from synaptic cleft diffuses into synaptic knob.
3) Calcium ions induce a few synaptic vesicles to fuse with the presynaptic membrane and release their contents into
synaptic cleft(exocytosis)
4) Acetylcholine released diffuses across the synaptic cleft to postsynaptic membrane;the synaptic delay
5) On the postsynaptic membrane, ACh binds with receptor protein present on the membrane as part of the receptor
protein molecule has a complementary shape to the ACh molecule
6) This changes shape of the protein, opening channels through which the Na+ ions can pass through
7) The entry of the Na+ depolarises the postsynaptic membrane, producing an EPSP(if reaches threshold value, an
action potential is generated and travel down the axon)
8) Action of ACh does not persist an removal of ACh is done by enzyme acetylcholinesterase and it hydrolyses ACh to
choline and ethanoic acid.

Uses of ATP:

-Na-K pump to actively pump 3 Na+ out and 2 K+ in to maintain resting potential
-Calcium pump, in pre-synaptic knob to actively pump Calcium ions out
-Active transport of choline back into pre-synaptic membrane
-Synthesis of acetylcholine
-Facilitate vesicle transport to pre-synaptic membrane prior to release of neurotransmitters

EPSP VS IPSP

There are synapses that can inhibit or propagate the nerve impulse.

EPSP:

Where a single EPSP event cannot produce enough depolarisation to exceed threshold for action potential in
postsynaptic neuron. Overcome by allowing depolarising effect of several EPSPs to add up(summation).

2 types of summation:

i) Spatial-summation of several EPSP produced by different presynaptic neuron terminating on a single post-synaptic
neurone
ii) Temporal-summation of EPSP because of repeated stimulation of one pre-synaptic neurone at high frequency

IPSP:

-Effect is to produce a hyperpolarisation effect

-Make neuron less likely to trigger an action potential
Functions of synapses

1) Transmit information b/w neurones

2) Pass impulses in one direction only(as transmitter substance only released from one side of a synapse)
3) Act as junctions-neurones converge at a synapse and release sufficient transmitter to generate a new action
potential
4) Filter out low level stimuli
5) Allow adaptation to intense stimulation