Foster Wheeler Process Standard 306 Heater & Furnaces PDF

PROCESS STD 306
FOSTER WHEELER HEAT TRANSFER PAGE Contents-1

HEATERS/FURNACES REV 10
PROCESS PLANTS DIVISION DATE JULY 2002
CONTENTS
PAGE
1.0 GENERAL 1.0-1
1.1 Introduction 1.0-1

1.2 Definition of Terms 1.0-2
1.3 Types of Fired Heaters 1.0-6
2.0 DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS 2.0-1
2.01 Type of Fired Heaters Covered 2.0-1

2.02 Feed Description 2.0-1
2.03 Heat Duty 2.0-1
2.04 Average Radiant Heat Flux 2.0-1
2.05 Mass Velocity through Coil 2.0-2
2.06 Vaporization 2.0-3
2.07 Tube Size and Number of Passes 2.0-4
2.08 Pressure Drop 2.0-5
2.09 Turndown 2.0-7
2.10 Stack Temperature 2.0-8
2.11 Excess Air 2.0-9
2.12 Heater Efficiency 2.0-9
2.13 Burners 2.0-11
2.14 Air Preheat 2.0-13
2.15 Corrosive Compounds 2.0-15
3.0 PROCESS SPECIFICATION 3.0-1
3.1 Fired Heater Process Data Form 110-21A 3.0-1

3.2 Procedure for Completing Form 110-21A 3.0-1
3.2.1 Process Requirements 3.0-1
3.2.2 Mechanical Requirements 3.0-3
3.2.3 Notes for Additional Information 3.0-5
4.0 UTILITIES 4.0-1
4.1 Fuel 4.0-1

4.1.1 Main Burners 4.0-1
4.1.2 Pilots 4.0-1
4.2 Steam 4.0-1
4.2.1 Atomizing 4.0-2
4.2.2 Low Pressure Burners 4.0-2
4.2.3 Soot Blowers 4.0-2
FOSTER WHEELER ENERGY LIMITED 2002

PROCESS STD 306
CONTENTS PAGE
4.2.4 Furnace Box Purging 4.0-2

4.2.5 Header Box Smothering 4.0-3
4.2.6 Emergency Purging of Furnace Coil 4.0-3
4.2.7 Fan Drive 4.0-4
4.2.8 Steam-Air Decoking 4.0-5
4.3 Refinery Air 4.0-5
4.3.2 Steam-Air Decoking 4.0-5
4.4 Electricity 4.0-5
4.4.1 Fans 4.0-5
4.4.2 Regenerative Air Preheater 4.0-5
5.0 INSTRUMENTATION 5.0-1
6.0 STEAM-AIR DECOKING 6.0-1
6.1 Coil Decoking Sample Calculation 6.0-2

6.2 Coke Knockout Drum Sample Calculation 6.0-6
7.0 STACK DESIGN 7.0-1
7.1 Type of Stacks 7.0-1

7.2 Stack Diameter 7.0-1
7.3 Stack Height 7.0-2
7.4 Stack Design Sample Calculation 7.0-6
APPENDIX
Steam Air Decoking A-1

PROCESS STD 306
LIST OF FIGURE’S FIGURE DESCRIPTION PAGE
FIGURE 1 – VERTICAL-CYLINDRICAL FIRED HEATER, ALL RADIANT 1.0-8
FIGURE 2 – VERTICAL-CYLINDRICAL FIRED HEATER WITH INTEGRAL

CONVECTION 1.0-9
FIGURE 3 – VERTICAL-CYLINDRICAL FIRED HEATER WITH CROSS

FLOW CONVECTION 1.0-10
FIGURE 4 – ARBOR OR WICKET FIRED HEATER 1.0-11
FIGURE 5 – HORIZONTAL TUBE CABIN FIRED HEATER 1.0-12
FIGURE 6 – TWO-CELL HORIZONTAL TUBE BOX FIRED HEATER 1.0-13
FIGURE 7 – HORIZONTAL TUBE CABIN FIRED HEATER WITH DIVIDING

CENTRE-WALL 1.0-14
FIGURE 8 - FULJET NOZZLES CAPACITIES GI THRU H20 BASED ON

WATER AT 70oF 6.0-16
LIST OF TABLE’S TABLE DESCRIPTION PAGE
TABLE 1 – TYPICAL VALUES OF AVERAGE RADIANT HEAT FLUW

AND COIL MASS VELOCITIES 2.0-16
TABLE 2 - FULLJET NOZZLES 6.0-13
TABLE 3 - FULLJET NOZZLES - LARGER CAPACITIES 6.0-14
TABLE 4 - FOGJET NOZZLES 6.0-15

PROCESS STD 306
FOSTER WHEELER HEAT TRANSFER PAGE 1.0-1
1.0 GENERAL
1.1 Introduction
Information is given in this Process Standard to familiarize process

engineers with fired heaters and to aid them in completing process
specifications for fired heaters. Methods for estimating utilities associated
with fired heaters are also given. All preliminary estimates made will have
to be confirmed by the furnace vendor who is ultimately responsible for the
design of the fired heater.
Fired heaters are also called process heaters, furnaces, process furnaces,
and direct-fired heaters. Fired heaters are devices in which heat, provided
by burning fuel in a combustion chamber, is transferred to a process fluid
contained in tubes. The fuel is usually oil or gas or a combination of both.
Tubes are installed along the walls and roof of the combustion chamber,
and heat is transferred to the tube wall primarily by radiation in this section.
The partially cooled flue gases are then passed through a separate tube
bank section where heat is transferred to the tube wall primarily by
convection. After all the heat that can be economically recovered has
been transferred to the process fluid and used for any auxiliary services
such as steam generation, boiler feed water preheat, and combustion air
preheat, the flue gas passes through a stack to the atmosphere. The
usual flow pattern of the process fluid is to first pass countercurrent to the
flue gas through the convection section and then through the radiant
section of the fired heater.
Some fired heaters, for very low heat duty services, have no convection
section. This is based on economics. Such a design, which consists only
of a radiant section, is characterized by low thermal efficiency, but
represents the lowest capital investment for a specified duty. Most fired
heaters, however, have both a radiant and a convection section.
Fired heater size is defined in terms of heat duty (heat absorbed). Duties
range from about a half million Btu/hr for small, specialty units to about 500
million Btu/hr. By and large, the vast majority of fired heater installations
fall within the 10 to 350 million Btu/hr range.
Fired heaters fall into two main categories of application: process and
pyrolysis.
Process fired heaters provide heat, which is needed in equipment

downstream of the fired heater. Typical examples are crude heaters,
vacuum heaters, reactor charge heaters for hydrotreaters and catalytic
reformers, reboilers, and hot oil belt heaters.

PROCESS STD 306
Pyrolysis fired heaters provide heat for a chemical reaction taking place
inside the tubes. Examples are steam crackers for ethylene production
and steam reformers for hydrogen manufacture. These furnaces and fired
steam boilers are not covered in this Process Standard.
Some fired heaters, such as visbreakers, coker heaters, and thermal

crackers are considered to be process fired heaters even though they
have chemical reactions taking place inside the tubes. Their temperatures
are low compared to those of pyrolysis fired heaters and apart from the
cracking calculations, the furnace designs closely resemble those for
process fired heaters.
1.2 Definition of Terms (also see Figures 1-7)
The following list defines commonly used terms relating to fired heaters:
Air Preheater A heat exchanger which heats the air required for
combustion by transferring heat from the flue gas
leaving the convection section
Breeching The hood which collects the flue gas at the convection
section outlet for transmission to the stack
Bridgewall The temperature of the flue gas leaving the radiant

Temperature section. The term comes from the old horizontal box
furnace design in which a bridgewall physically
separated the radiant and convection sections
Burner A device for mixing fuel and air for combustion
Cell A portion of the radiant section, separated from other

cells by tubes or a refractory wall. Also called a "zone”
Coil A tubular configuration, usually a series of straight tube

lengths connected by 1800 return bends, forming a
continuous path, through which fluid passes and is
heated.
Convection The portion of the fired heater, consisting of a bank of

Section tubes, which receives heat from the hot flue gas,
mainly by convection
Corbelling Narrow ledges extending from the convection section

side walls to prevent flue gas from bypassing tube
rows.
Crossover Piping which transfers the process fluid from the

PROCESS STD 306
convection section outlet to the radiant section inlet
Damper A device to regulate flow of gas through a stack or duct

and to control draft in a fired heater. A typical damper
consists of a flat plate connected to a shaft which can
be rotated, similar to a butterfly valve
Draft The negative pressure (vacuum) at a given point inside

the fired heater usually expressed as inches of water
(vacuum gauge).
Excess Air The percentage of air in the fired heater in excess of

the stoichiometric amount required for combustion.
Fired Heater The ratio of heat absorbed to the heat fired. The lower
Efficiency heating value (LHV) of the fuel fired is almost always
used for fired heaters.
Fire Box The structure which surrounds the radiant coil and into
which the burners protrude
Flue Gas A mixture of gaseous products resulting from

combustion of the fuel
Forced Draft Use of a fan to supply combustion air to the burners

and to overcome the pressure drop through the
burners. This is in contrast to natural draft, where the
buoyancy of the column of hot flue gas in the stack
and fired heater provides the "suction" to pull
combustion air into the fired heater.
Gross Fuel The total fuel fired in the heater, usually expressed in
lb/hr.
Header Box The compartment at either end of the convection

section, which houses the return, bends (headers).
There is no flue gas flow in the header box, since it is
separated from the inside of the fired heater by an
insulated tube sheet. Header boxes are sometimes
also used in the radiant section

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Heat Duty The total heat absorbed by the process fluid, usually
expressed in Btu/hr. Total fired heater duty is the sum
of heat transferred to all process streams, including
auxiliary services such as steam superheaters
Heat Fired The total heat released in the fired heater, equal to
gross fuel times the lower heating value (LHV) of the
fuel, usually expressed in Btu/hr. It is also called "heat
liberated
Heat Flux The rate of heat transfer per unit area to a tube usually
based on total tube outer surface area. Typical units
are Btu/(hr-ft2). It is also called "heat density", "heat
transfer rate", "flux density
Higher Heating The theoretical heat of combustion of a fuel, beginning

Value (HHV) and ending at 600F, when the water formed is
considered as a liquid, i.e. credit is taken for its heat of
condensation. It is also called gross heating value,
and is usually expressed in Btu/lb for liquids and
gases, or Btu/SCF for gases
Hip Section The transition zone at the top of the radiant section in
cabin type furnaces. The wall of this section is usually
at a 450angle
Induced Draft Use of a fan on the flue gas side of the furnace to
provide the additional draft required over that supplied
by the stack to draw the flue gas through the
convection section
Lower Heating The theoretical heat of combustion of a fuel, beginning

Value (LHV) and ending at 600F, when no credit is taken for the
heat of condensation of water in the flue gas. The
LHV equals the HHV minus the latent heat of
vaporization of water. It is also called net heating
value, and is usually expressed in Btu/lb for liquids and
gases, or Btu/SCF for gases.
Mass Velocity The mass flow rate per unit of flow area through the
coil. Typical units are lb/(sec-ft2).

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Natural Draft The system in which the draft required to move

combustion air into the fired heater and flue gas
through the fired heater and out the stack is provided
by stack buoyancy effect alone
Net Fuel The fuel which would be required in the fired heater if
there were no heat losses. It is usually expressed in
lb/hr.
Pass A coil, which transports the process fluid from, fired

heater inlet to outlet. The total process fluid can be
transported through the fired heater by one or more
parallel passes
Radiant The portion of the fired heater in which heat is

Section transferred to the tubes primarily by radiation from the
flame and high temperature flue gas
Shield Section The first two tube rows of the convection section.
These tubes are exposed to direct radiation from the
radiant section and usually receive about half of their
heat in this manner. They are usually made of more
resistant material than the rest of the tubes in the
convection section. They are also called shock tubes
Soot Blower A steam lance (usually movable) in the convection

section for blowing soot and ash from the outer surface
of the tubes with high pressure steam
Stack A steel, concrete or brick cylinder which carries flue

gas to the atmosphere and provides necessary draft
Stack Effect The buoyancy obtained from the difference in density

between a column of high temperature gas inside the
fired heater and/or stack and an equivalent column of
external (ambient) air, usually expressed in inches of
water per foot of height
Stack The temperature of the flue gas as it enters the stack

Temperature

PROCESS STD 306
1.3 Types of Fired Heaters
There are many variations in the layout, design, and construction details of
fired heaters. A consequence of this flexibility is that virtually every fired
heater is custom engineered for its particular application.
The principal classification of fired heaters, however, relates to the

orientation of the heating coil in the radiant section; i.e. whether the tubes
are vertical or horizontal. Typical vertical arrangements are shown in
Figures 1 to 4. Horizontal arrangements are shown in Figures 5 to 7.
The main features for several configurations of fired heaters are noted
below:
Vertical-cylindrical, all radiant (Figure 1)
The tube coil is placed vertically along the walls of the combustion
chamber. Firing is vertical from the floor of the heater, parallel to the
tubes.
Heaters of this type represent a low cost, low efficiency design, which
requires a minimum of plot area. Typical duties are 0.5 to 10 million
Btu/hr.
Vertical-cylindrical, with integral convection (Figure 2)
Although this design is rarely chosen for new installations, because of the
difficulty in cleaning the convection section, the vast number of existing
units of this type warrants its mention.
As with the all radiant type, this design is vertically fired from the floor, with
its tube coil installed in a vertical arrangement along the walls. The
distinguishing feature of this type is the use of added surface area on the
upper section of each tube to promote convection heating. This surface
area is located in the annular space formed between the convection walls
and a central baffle sleeve. Medium efficiency can be achieved with a
minimum of plot area. Typical duties for this design are 10 to 100 million
Btu/hr.
Vertical-cylindrical, with cross flow convection (Figure 3)
These heaters are fired vertically from the floor and feature both radiant
and convection sections. The radiant section tube coil is arranged
vertically along the walls of the combustion chamber. The convection
section tube coil is arranged in a horizontal bank of tubes positioned above
the combustion chamber.

PROCESS STD 306
This heater configuration provides an economical, high efficiency design

that requires a minimum of plot area. The majority of new, vertical-tube
fired heater installations fall into this Category. Typical duties range from
10 to 200 million Btu/hr.
Arbor or Wicket (Figure 4)
This is a specialty design in which the radiant heat surface is provided by

U-tubes connecting the inlet and outlet terminal manifolds. This type is
especially suited for heating large flows of gas under conditions of low
pressure drop. Typical applications are found in petroleum refining, where
this design is often employed in the catalytic reformer charge heater, and
in various reheat services. The firing modes are usually vertical from the
floor, or horizontal between the U-tubes.
This design type can be expanded to accommodate several arbor coils

within one structure. Each coil can be separated by dividing walls so that
individual firing control can be attained. In order to increase heater
efficiency, a crossflow convection section is normally installed to provide
supplementary heating for services such as steam generation. In this
design, variations in operating conditions of the individual services must be
carefully considered since each radiant zone is providing heat to the
common convection section. Typical duties for each arbor coil of this
design are 50 to 100 million Btu/hr.
Two-cell horizontal tube box (Figure 6)
The radiant section tube coil is arranged horizontally along the sidewalls
and roof of the two combustion chambers. The convection section tube
coil is arranged as a horizontal bank of tubes positioned above and
between the combustion chambers. Vertically fired from the floor, this is
again an economical, high efficiency design. Typical duties range from
100 to 300 million Btu/hr. For increased capacity, the basic concept can
be expanded to include three or four radiant chambers.
Horizontal tube cabin, with dividing center wall (Figure 7)
The radiant section tube coil is arranged horizontally along the sidewalls of
the combustion chamber, and along the hip. The convection section tube
coil takes the form of a horizontal bank of tubes positioned above the
combustion chamber. A dividing center wall between the cells allows for
individual firing control over each cell in the combustion chamber.
Available options permit horizontal firing with sidewall-mounted burners (as
shown), or vertical firing from the floor along both sides of the center wall.
A typical duty range for this design is 20 to 100 million Btu/hr.

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2.0 DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
2.01 Type of Fired Heaters Covered
Guidelines for specifying process fired heaters are given in this Process
Standard. As mentioned in Section 1.1, pyrolysis furnaces and fired steam
boilers are not covered in this Standard.
2.02 Feed Description
Characteristics of the fluid to be heated must be given. If feed is all or part

liquid and vaporization will occur during passage through the heater, a
feed phase diagram must be provided which shows the LV% (liquid
volume %), or wt% vaporized at any given temperature and pressure. The
full operating range must be covered. Curves showing the vapor
molecular weights, liquid 0API, and wt% vaporized vs. LV% vaporized
should also be provided.
2.03 Heat Duty
The total furnace heat duty is obtained from the process requirements, and
is the sum of heat transferred to all process streams, including auxiliary
services such as steam superheaters. All operating cases must be
included. The process engineer should also establish any design margin
that may be required from the design case, based on experience with the
particular process.
2.04 Average Radiant Heat Flux
The selection of the average radiant transfer rate (heat flux) is an essential
step in the design of a fired heater. The higher the design radiant rates,
the less the amount of heat transfers surface, the smaller the heater, and
the lower the cost.
Unduly high radiant rates, however, result in higher maintenance costs

because the refractories and tube supports are exposed to higher
temperatures and thus have shorter service lives. Furthermore, high tube
wall temperatures reduce tube life and raise the potential for coke
deposition and product degradation.
Heat transfer is not uniform throughout the radiant coil. The average heat
flux is about 40 to 50% of the maximum for one-side fired tubes, the actual
maldistribution being determined by the fired heater configuration.
Therefore, the fired heater design and operation must be based on an
average heat flux low enough to obtain a satisfactory maximum heat flux.

PROCESS STD 306
The allowable average radiant heat flux rate is a function of several factors
including fired heater type, feedstock, service, and coil outlet temperature.
The allowable average radiant heat flux is, therefore, established by
experience. Table 1 lists typical values of average radiant heat flux for
various services.
2.05 Mass Velocity through Coil
Fired heaters in all-liquid or in vaporizing service where coking or fouling

can occur must be designed with high enough mass velocities to minimize
coking or fouling. Cracking and polymerization occur in the film on the
inside tube wall surface and a layer of coke or polymer gradually builds up.
The layer increases the coil pressure drop and increases tube metal
temperatures until at some point, the fired heater has to be decoked.
The higher the film temperature, the higher the cracking rate. The higher
the mass velocity, the higher the heat transfer coefficient, and the higher
the heat transfer coefficient, the lower the film temperature will be at a
given bulk fluid temperature. However, too high a mass velocity will cause
a high coil pressure drop, resulting in high pumping or compressor costs,
increased design pressure of upstream equipment, and possible erosion of
heater return bends. Therefore, the design mass velocity is usually kept in
the range of 250 to 350 lb (sec-ft2) for most process fired heaters in all-
liquid or vaporizing services where coking or fouling can occur.
Under turndown conditions, mass velocity should be kept above 150

lb/(sec-ft2) in order to prevent excessive coking or fouling. This may result
in a high mass velocity at design conditions (and associated high costs) for
fired heaters designed for large turndowns or where pre-investment is
made for substantial future increases in throughput. Recycling through the
fired heater can be considered as a means of maintaining mass velocity at
turndown conditions and yet avoiding high pressure drops at design
conditions, provided the recycle fluid is thermally stable.
In some special situations, such as at the outlet of a vacuum heater, it is

not possible to maintain this high mass velocity. Because of the low
pressure and resulting high specific volume of the vapor, sonic velocity
would be reached at the furnace outlet at high mass velocity. This can
cause erosion of the heater tubes or transfer line, and fogging of the fluid
(which could upset fractionation in the vacuum tower as well as limit tower
throughput). To avoid these problems, vacuum heater outlet tubes and
transfer lines are usually designed for velocities below 80% of sonic.

PROCESS STD 306
This practice usually requires reducing the design mass velocity in the
heater outlet tubes to about 80 to 120 lb/(sec-ft2), and no lower than bout
60 lb/(sec-ft2) under turndown conditions. Even with this reduced mass
velocity, coking is not normally a problem in the outlet tubes because of
the high linear velocity and low residence time. Refer to the FWEC
Vacuum Unit Design Manual for the specifics of vacuum heater and
transfer line design procedures.
Fired heaters with all-vapor flow are generally not susceptible to the same
severe coking problems as those in vaporizing services. Satisfactory film
coefficients usually can be obtained with a mass velocity at design
conditions as low as 15 lb/(sec-ft2). High mass velocities, such as those
used in vaporizing services, would cause very high pressure drops in all-
vapor flow.
Table 1 gives typical design fluid mass velocities for various services.
2.06 Vaporization
Usually it is best to avoid the situation in which the liquid or partially

vaporized feed to a fired heater reaches a point within the heater in which
it becomes 100% vaporized (dry point). Foreign material or polymer
formed in tankage which does not vaporize might deposit on the tube at
the dry point (point where the last liquid on the tube wall vaporizes) and
cause a coking or fouling problem. Therefore, maximum vaporization in
the coil should be limited to about 80 LV%.
When a clean distillate, such as a crude unit sidestream, is fed directly into
a fired heater with no intermediate storage, the risk of fouling associated
with going through the dry point is minimal, since the distillate has just
been completely vaporized and condensed.
Poor flow distribution to the coils in multi-pass fired heaters, which result in
low flow to one or more passes, can cause overheating, coking, and tube
burnout in those passes. Flow controllers are used on each pass to
assure equal flow distribution, but if there is partial vaporization at the
orifices which measure the flow rate through each pass, erroneous
indications of flow rate can occur. Therefore, partial vaporization upstream
of the control valves should be avoided, where reasonable, and the
following alternatives should be considered to prevent any vaporization.
Specify a higher than normal pressure drop for the inlet control valves in
order to prevent vaporization.

PROCESS STD 306
Install a flash drum and booster pump in the exchanger train. The
vapor bypasses the heater and the liquid is pumped through the
heater. In this scheme, the furnace coil outlet temperature will increase
because of bypassing vapor.
Split the feed stream before any vaporization occurs. The final preheat
is then accomplished in parallel trains, one for each furnace pass.
In some cases, the client will accept a degree of vaporization upstream of

the control valves. In such cases, the piping to the flow controllers on
each pass must be symmetrical, and flow must be dispersed under all
operating conditions. The maximum amount vaporized before the control
valves should be limited to 5 LV%.
2.07 Tube Size and Number of Passes
A combination of tube diameter and number of passes is selected to

satisfy both the mass velocity and throughput requirements. Tube
diameters are normally selected from standard nominal pipe sizes (IPS) in
the range of 4 to 8 inches. For small furnaces tubes may be only 2 inches,
and for vacuum furnaces, outlet tubes up to 10 inches may be used. Non-
standard sizes can also be used when design parameters cannot be met
with standard sizes.
The number of passes must be consistent with the furnace type, so that
each pass receives the same amount of heat. While vertical-cylindrical
furnaces can be designed for almost any number of passes, cabin
furnaces usually require an even number of passes so that they can be
symmetrically arranged in the furnace.
In vaporizing or all-liquid services, the cost and complexity of uniformly

distributing flow to multiple passes increases with the number of passes.
Therefore, the number of passes should be minimized, consistent with the
fired heater arrangement. The same number of passes should be
maintained throughout the furnace.
In all-vapor services, even distribution of flow to individual passes can be

obtained by proper manifold design. A different number of passes and
different tube sizes can be used for the radiant and convection sections,
since convection section outlets can be combined and then redistributed at
the radiant section inlets.
Example of How to Estimate Tube Size and Number of Passes Given
Atmospheric Crude Unit Fired Heater
Throughput = 1,700,000 lb/hr of crude oil

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Solution
Recommended Mass Velocity (Table 1) = 250-350 lb/(sec-ft2)
Tube Size Cross Sectional Mass Velocity

No. of Passes
IPS Flow Area, ft 2
lb (sec-ft2)
6 392
6 inch 0.2006 8 294
10 235
8 425
5 inch 0.1390 10 340
12 283
Since the most economical tube size is generally in the 4-6 inch range,
and the number of passes should be minimized, assume 8-pass, 6 inch
IPS as best combination. This method of estimating tube size and number
of passes can only be approximate, and the furnace vendor will have to
determine the most economical tube size/pass arrangement.
2.08 Pressure Drop
During detailed heater design, the pressure drop through the coil is
determined by the fired heater vendor. The calculation is complex for
vaporizing services where the pressure drop per unit length changes
continuously with changes in the gas-liquid ratio.
In general, after the number of tubes and the tube layout have been
established, the coil is divided into a number of sequential sections for the
pressure drop calculation. Smaller sections are used at the outlet (as few
as two tubes), where the specific volume is changing rapidly. Larger
sections are taken as one proceeds back into the coil. For a typical crude
unit fired heater, approximately 6 sections should be satisfactory.

PROCESS STD 306
Calculations are started at the coil outlet where the temperature and
pressure are known. Here the enthalpy and composition can be
calculated. Then a pressure is assumed at the inlet to the first section
back in the coil. The enthalpy added in this section (heat flux in radiant
section is assumed to be uniform) is subtracted from the coil outlet
enthalpy and the temperature and composition calculated with this
enthalpy and the assumed pressure. Using the inlet and outlet conditions,
and the equivalent length of the section (straight run plus fittings), the
pressure drop in the section is calculated, due to friction, changes in
kinetic energy, and changes in static head. In the case of partially
vaporized liquids, no appreciable error is introduced if the change in static
head is neglected, since the change is generally very small.
If the calculated pressure drop does not agree with the assumed inlet
pressure, a new pressure must be assumed and the calculations repeated.
When good agreement is reached, the calculations are continued
upstream until the coil inlet is reached.
In heaters with a high percent of vaporization, it is possible for a

temperature peaking condition to occur. As the mixed-phase fluid flows
through the coil, it undergoes a substantial drop in pressure per unit length
of flow. This can result in the rate of vaporization in a section to be high
enough to cause the fluid temperature to fall, even though the enthalpy of
the fluid increases. The fluid outlet temperature, therefore, could be less
then the temperature at some point back in the coil. In some fired heaters,
such as lube vacuum heaters, it is important to have a continually rising
temperature profile (no temperature peaking), and this may dictate tube
sizes.
The process engineer is required to give the maximum allowable pressure

drop through the heater coil on the process heater specification. This
pressure drop is obtained from experience with similar heaters. Generally
the pressure drop has to be estimated for both clean and fouled
conditions.
For heaters in vaporizing service, the pressure drop is usually relatively

high because of the required mass velocities and the fluid vaporization.
Typical pressure drops for crude unit heaters are 150-200 psi with clean
tubes and an additional 25-50 psi with fouled tubes. For vacuum unit
heaters, typical pressure drops are 50-75 psi with clean tubes and an
additional 15-25 psi with fouled tubes. Coker heaters take about a 350 psi
pressure drop clean and an additional 50-100 psi when fouled.

PROCESS STD 306
Heaters in all-vapor service have much lower pressure drops. As an

example a catalytic reformer preheater may have a pressure drop of 15-25
psi, and the reheat furnaces as little as 3-6 psi. These furnaces, of course,
are designed for low pressure drops in order to minimize recycle
compressor head.
2.09 Turndown
Turndown requirements will be set by process considerations. If multiple

design cases are specified, the furnace must be able to handle all
operations. Also, with any operation, a certain minimum throughput may
be required.
In general, turndown rates of 60% of design can be used without falling

below mass velocity rates needed to prevent excessive coking rates. If
very high turndown rates are required, it may be necessary to recycle
through the furnace in order to maintain the minimum desired mass
velocity.
Burner turndown is a function of burner design and type of fuel. However,

burner turndown does not normally affect furnace turndown, since burners
can be turned off or excess air increased when the furnace is operated at
greatly reduced firing rates. Below about 35% of design, many burners
are shut and uneven heating patterns limit lower rates.
If auxiliary services are included in the heater convection section, these

must be considered for the turndown case. For instance, if a steam
superheater coil is included in the convection section, the heater may have
to supply the design superheat duty while supplying the minimum process
duty.
The turndown analysis for multi-cell furnaces for two or more services is
even more complex. Consider a furnace with three radiant zones and a
common convection section, as might be used for a catalytic reformer.
The central radiant zone and the convection section would be used for
preheat and the other two radiant zones for reheat. The heat input to any
zone is influenced to some extent by the heat input to the other zones.
Also, since each radiant zone contributes flue gas to the convection
section, any reduction in the reheat radiant zones would require additional
firing to the preheat radiant zone to make up for the reduced convection
section heat input. Variations in relative duties over the run length would
have to be considered. A complete analysis sometimes shows that a
separate furnace is required for steam superheat, usually to meet "oil-side"
process needs. Also, small reheat duties are often put in separate heaters
to solve problems.

PROCESS STD 306
The furnace vendor must examine the tube metal temperature at the
convection section cold end at turndown conditions, particularly with
relatively cold coil inlet temperatures, to assure that the acid dewpoint of
the flue gas is not reached. See Section 2.10 - Stack Temperature.
2.10 Stack Temperature
The economic stack temperature is a function of fuel value, inlet oil

temperature, investment cost of incremental convection section, and the
required rate of return from incremental investment. The stack
temperature is determined by the fired heater designer, but the process
engineer generally has to estimate fuel requirements before the furnace
design is completed. For this purpose, it is reasonable to assume an
approach temperature (stack temperature minus coil inlet temperature) of
150°F. Stack temperatures usually range from 350-700°F. The 350°F
stack temperature can be achieved with a furnace firing very low sulfur and
using combustion air preheat.
Special attention must be given to the stack temperature when coil inlet
temperatures are low (below 250-300°F). The stack temperature must be
high enough to prevent acid condensation on the convection section inlet
tubes. When fuels containing sulfur are burned, the sulfur is converted to
sulfur dioxide (SO2), and part of the sulfur dioxide is converted to sulfur
trioxide (SO3) which combines with water vapor to form sulfuric acid. This
sulfuric acid remains in the vapor state as long as the temperature is
above the acid dewpoint of the gas, but condenses out on relatively cool
surfaces (below about 250 to 300°F) and causes metal corrosion.
The furnace vendor shall be asked to calculate the flue gas acid dewpoint
temperature. The process engineer can estimate this temperature from
correlations of acid dewpoint vs. the percentage of water vapor and sulfur
trioxide in the flue gas. The volume percent water vapor in the flue gas
can be calculated from the fuel analysis, the percent excess air, the air
humidity, and the fuel atomizing steam, if any. In the case of liquid fuels,
the composition is rarely provided. If only the gravity is given, the carbon
to hydrogen ratio can be estimated from the data in the "Liquid Fuels" table
on page 14.1 (Combustion Section) of the API Technical Data Book. If the
Watson Characterization Factor, K, is also known, Figure 2B6.1 of the API
Technical Data Book can be used. The calculation of the volume percent
sulfur trioxide is much more complex. The amount of sulfur dioxide
converted to sulfur trioxide depends on many factors including fuel
composition, excess air, firing rates, and the presence of vanadium in the
fuel oil. As a rough estimate, it can be assumed that 1-2% of the fuel
sulfur is converted to sulfur trioxide. For design purposes, assume 5% is
converted to sulfur trioxide.

PROCESS STD 306
Knowing the percentage of water vapor and sulfur trioxide in the gas, the
acid dewpoint temperature in degrees Kelvin can be calculated from the
following equation:
1,000
= 1.7842 + 0.0269 log10 P H 2O
T DP
- 0.1029 log10 P SO3 + 0.0329 log10 P H 2O log10 P SO3
Where TDP = Dewpoint in °K (273 + °C)

P = partial pressures in atmospheres
This equation was published on page 125 of the article, "Estimating Acid
Dewpoints in Stack Gases, " by Robert R. Pierce, Chemical Engineering,
11 April 1977, pages 125-128.
2.11 Excess Air
A higher combustion air rate is necessary than that theoretically required

for complete combustion of the fuel. This is caused by variations in the
distribution of air and fuel to the individual burners, as well as by imperfect
mixing of air and fuel in the burner and the flame. Consequently, extra air
must be supplied to obtain satisfactory combustion. However, no more
excess air should be furnished than that actually required, since any
additional air must be heated up to the stack exit temperature, wasting
fuel.
In estimating the combustion air requirements, assume 10% excess air for
all process fired heaters designed for forced draft firing (regardless of fuel)
or for natural draft firing of gas fuel. Fired heaters designed for natural
draft fuel oil firing, or combination gas/oil firing, encounter greater mixing
difficulties and should be assumed to require 20% excess air.
2.12 Heater Efficiency
In the United States, the thermal efficiency of process fired heaters is

almost always based on the LHV of the fuel. To avoid confusion, however,
the basis should be given when stating the efficiency.
The thermal efficiency of a fired heater in percent, based on the LHV of the
fuel, is defined as follows:
Heat Absorbed
E LHV = x 100
Heat Fired (LHV)

PROCESS STD 306
The heat absorbed is obtained from the process requirements. The heat
fired must be calculated. First the flue gas temperature leaving the
convection section must be estimated. As mentioned in Section 2.10, this
can be estimated as 150°F above the coil inlet temperature. Then the heat
extracted from the flue gas (in BTU/lb of fuel fired) in reaching the flue gas
outlet temperature is obtained from the fuel characteristics, percent excess
air, and the "Heat Available from Combustion" charts in the API Technical
Data Book (Figures 14B1.1-14B1.7). Use the chart for fuel closest to
characteristics of fuel fired.
To obtain the net fuel fired in lbs/hr, divide the heat absorbed in BTU/hr by
the heat extracted from the fuel gas in BTU/lb of fuel fired. To obtain the
gross fuel fired, the net fuel fired has to be increased to account for
furnace heat losses (excluding stack losses). As an estimate, the net fuel
fired can be increased by the following factors to obtain the gross fuel
fired:
Fired Heater Size
Million BTU/hr Heat Absorbed Factor
Greater than 100 1.01
15 to 100 1.02
Less than 15 1.03
Since the fired heater efficiency is to be calculated on the basis of fuel
LHV, the gross fuel fired is multiplied by the fuel LHV.
Example of Furnace Efficiency Calculation Given

Coil Inlet Temperature: 450oF
Heat Absorbed: 350 million BTU/hr
Fuel: 15o API fuel oil
LHV = 17,500 BTU/lb
Burners Combination Gas/Oil - Natural Draft
Solution
a) Flue gas temperature leaving convection section, using 150°F stack

approach = 450°F + 150°F = 600°F
b) Excess air = 20% (based on combination gas/oil natural draft

burners)
c) Heat extracted from flue gas (Figure 14B1.6 API Technical Data
Book) based on 600°F flue gas temperature and 20% excess air =
15,100 BTU/lb of fuel
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350 Million BTU/hr

d) Net Fuel Fired = = 23,180 lb/hr
15,100 BTU/lb
e) Gross Fuel Fired = 23,180 lb/hr x 1.01 = 23,410 lb/hr
f) Heat Fired = 23,410 lb/hr x 17,500 BTU/lb = 410 Million BTU/hr
350 Million BTU/hr

g) LHV Efficiency = x 100 = 85.4%
410 Million BTU/hr
The efficiency of a fired heater can be increased by reducing the stack gas
temperature, but the temperature should only be reduced to a point where
it is still certain that acid will not condense from the flue gas. To reduce
the temperature, auxiliary services such as steam generation and boiler
feed water preheat can be added, or combustion air preheat should be
considered. These options are all subject to economic evaluation.
2.13 Burners
Burners are classified according to the type of fuel, which they burn: gas,
liquid, or combination gas and liquid.
When only gaseous fuels are to be fired in process furnaces, and no

combustion air preheat is used, natural-draft gas burners are normally
specified. They are either of the raw gas or pre-mix type. The raw gas
burner is one in which the fuel gas is injected into the air stream for
ignition. The pre-mix burner uses the kinetic energy of the fuel gas to
inspirate and mix part or all of the combustion air with the fuel gas in a
mixing tube. The air/fuel mixture is then introduced into the ignition zone.
Any additional (secondary) air required enters through, and is controlled
by, an air register. Both types are easy to operate and maintain, and noise
attenuation is accomplished by primary air mufflers and acoustical plenum
chambers.
Pre-mix burners may be limited in turndown because of the possibility of

flashback into the mixing tube. Flashback occurs when the velocity of the
air/fuel mixture drops below the flame velocity for the mixture. Hydrogen
has a significantly higher flame velocity than do hydrocarbon gases. Thus,
with high hydrogen concentrations in the fuel gas (30 to 50%) the degree
of turndown can be limited, and pre-mix burners are not normally used.
Liquid burners of the natural draft type are available. Forced draft liquid
burners are more expensive than natural draft liquid burners, but they
provide more efficient fuel/air mixing, and noise in the system may be
more easily attenuated.

PROCESS STD 306
Liquid fuels must be properly atomized in order to achieve complete

combustion. For good atomization, the fuel should be supplied to the
burner at a viscosity of 125 SSU (26 centistokes) or less. However, high
viscosity burners are available which are capable of operating on vacuum
residue at 300 SSU. Atomization is usually accomplished by the use of
steam. The kinetic energy of steam jets break the fuel into small droplets
and the atomized fuel is carried into the ignition zone by the steam. The
fuel pressure at the burner should be 60 to 100 psig, with the higher
pressure preferable, if available. The steam pressure should be about 30
psi higher than the fuel pressure.
For those rare instances when steam is not available, air atomization or
mechanical atomization can be employed. The operating requirements of
air-atomized oil burners are similar to those of steam-atomized ones. A
slightly higher oil temperature may be needed, however, to compensate for
the cooling effect of the atomizing air. Mechanically atomized units take
advantage of the oil's kinetic energy to atomize the fuel stream in the tip
itself. High fuel pressure, 350 psig and greater, is required.
When volatile fuels such as naphtha are used, care must be taken that
partial vaporization of the fuel does not take place upstream of the fuel
gun. This condition would result in severe burner instabilities and possibly
cause burner flame out. Also, safety interlocks should be specified to
prevent removal of a burner gun without complete shutoff of the fuel and
prior to automatic steam purge of the fuel remaining in the burner gun.
Combination gas/liquid burners are essentially the combination of a liquid

burner and a multi-gun gas burner. These burners are capable of firing all
gas, all liquid, or both fuels simultaneously.
Several high intensity burners are available for fired heater applications. In
general, they feature a large, cylindrical-shaped, refractory-lined
combustion chamber. Combustion is fully established in this chamber, but
not completed. By means of the circulation patterns developed within the
chamber, flames of controlled shape and size can be produced at
relatively low excess air. High intensity combustion expels the flue gas at
high velocity and temperature producing very uniform firebox temperature
profiles.
For very low pressure gases, a special pre-mix burner with steam eductor
can be used. This burner (aspirating type) is often used to burn waste gas
streams as vacuum unit non-condensibles. Specialty burners are also
available for firing mixtures of unsaturated gases, which have a tendency
to polymerize. High pressure or steam injection is used.

PROCESS STD 306
Safety considerations require that flameout protection be provided for each

burner in a furnace. Usually this is accomplished by means of gas-fired
continuous pilots which will immediately reignite the fuel after flameout.
Only clean dry fuel gas may be used for the pilots. The fuel gas can be
supplied either from the main furnace fuel gas system or, preferably, from
a reliable independent source. If the fuel gas comes from the main
system, the pilot gas must come from upstream of the furnace fuel control
and shutoff valves.
2.14 Air Preheat
Fuel consumption in a fired heater can be reduced markedly by preheating

the combustion air. In the preheater, heat is transferred from the flue gas
to the combustion air, reducing the exit temperature of the flue gas and
raising the thermal efficiency. With air preheat systems, exit flue gas
temperatures often range around 325 to 3500F and efficiency levels
commonly reach 90 to 92% (LHV). When firing gas with very low sulfur
content, exit flue gas temperature can be as low as 2500F. With such
systems, the attainable thermal efficiency is no longer controlled by the
approach between the flue gas and inlet fluid temperatures. The
temperature of the flue gas leaving the preheater, which determines the
efficiency, should be as low as possible without risking low temperature
corrosion of the preheater elements. The cost of the air preheat system,
however, must be justified by the resulting fuel savings. The higher
combustion air temperature will increase the NOx level in the flue gas, and
if air pollution regulations would be violated, some form of NOx control
would have to be added. The fired heater vendor will have to consider the
cost of any such NOx control in making economic evaluations on the use of
air preheat.
Regenerative Air Preheater
The regenerative preheater consists of metallic elements that are

alternately heated and cooled. The most common type of regenerative
preheater is the Ljungstrom. The metallic elements are contained in a
subdivided cylinder that rotates inside a casing. Hot flue gas flows through
one side of this cylinder and heats the elements, while the air to be heated
flows through the other side. The cylinder rotates and heat is transferred
from the heated elements to the cooler air.
Baffles, which subdivide the cylinder, as well as seals between the cylinder
and the casing, limit the amount of leakage from the air side to the flue gas
side. Since the air side is at a higher pressure than the flue gas side,
leakage is always toward the flue gas side. This leakage, which is usually
10 to 20% of the total flow, must be taken into account in the design,
particularly of the fans.

PROCESS STD 306
The regenerative preheater is normally mounted at grade, adjacent to the

furnace. Ambient air is forced through the preheater by a forced draft fan
and is carried in ducts from the preheater to the furnace and burners. The
hot flue gas is carried in ducts from the top of the convection section to the
preheater. An induced draft-fan draws this flue gas through the convection
section, ducting, and preheater and discharges it into the stack. An
increase in plot area is required over that for a conventional furnace,
because of the preheater, fans, and ducts.
The regenerative type of preheater is often used for very large duty
heaters and with oil or dirty gas fuels where fouling or corrosion of
preheater elements could be a problem. It is the classical type of
preheater with a long history of use, and until relatively recently, was the
only type of design available. Its main advantage as compared to other
newer types of air preheaters is that it is mechanical in nature, with moving
parts, and thus may be subject to breakdown.
Tubular Air Preheater
A tubular air preheater normally consists of a large rectangular heat

exchange bundle. The air to be preheated is forced through the tubes,
while the hot flue gases pass across the tubes. The tubes are usually
finned to improve heat transfer on the flue gas side. This type of preheater
may be mounted either on the ground or above the process convection
section of the furnace. When it is mounted on the ground, the ducts and
fans are similar to those for the regenerative air preheater.
In the case of furnace mounted tubular air preheaters, the flue gas passes
directly from the furnace through the preheater and into the stack. In most
cases, the induced draft fan is eliminated. However, ducting is required to
carry the cool air from the forced draft fan up to the preheater and the hot
air back down to the burners. In some cases, the forced draft fan can be
mounted at the top of the furnace to eliminate the long ducts from the fan
to the preheater.
In certain applications where clean fuel gas is used, a tubular air

preheater installation may prove to be less expensive than a
regenerative one. It has the advantage of no moving parts, and no
leakage between the flue gas and the air.

PROCESS STD 306
Heat Pipe Air Preheater
Within the last few years, Q-Dot Corporation, which is partially owned by
Foster Wheeler, has been successfully manufacturing heat pipes as a new
innovation. The heat pipe, which is used for air preheating, is a tube which
has been fabricated with a capillary wick structure, evacuated, filled with a
suitably selected heat transfer liquid, and permanently sealed. Thermal
energy applied to either end of the pipe causes the heat transfer liquid at
that end to vaporize. The vapor then travels to the other end of the pipe
where thermal energy is removed, causing the vapor to condense, thereby
giving up the latent heat of condensation. The condensed liquid then flows
back to the evaporator section to be reused, thus completing the cycle.
Heat pipes have the advantage of no moving parts, no leakage, light

weight, and low pressure drop.
A bypass duct should be provided around the air side of the preheater. In
addition to its use in completely bypassing the preheater, this duct is used
to control flue gas exit temperature, thereby minimizing preheater
corrosion caused by condensation on the flue gas side at low firing rates or
low ambient air temperatures. A flue gas bypass duct to the stack should
also be provided to bypass the preheater and the induced draft fan.
2.15 Corrosive Compounds
The primary considerations for material selection are the required strength,
resistance to corrosion (or erosion), and oxidation (or reduction)
characteristics. Bearing upon these characteristics are the temperature
level, the fired heater atmosphere, and corrosive constituents of the
process fluid and the fuel.
Special construction materials may be required for refractory and tube

supports if the fuel contains high concentrations of corrosive materials
such as vanadium, sodium or sulfur. Not only do vanadium oxides cause
severe metallurgical attack at elevated temperature and refractory attack
through the formation of a lower melting temperature eutectic layer at the
surface of the refractory, but vanadium pentoxide is also a prime catalyst
for the conversion of SO2 to SO3.

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Sulfur is generally the principal corrosive constituent of the process fluid.

For hydrocarbon streams containing H2S and H2, the quantities of these
materials are important in choosing tube materials.
The process engineer must specify the quantities of corrosive components

in both the process fluid and the fuel so that the appropriate materials an
design features can be selected.

PROCESS STD 306
3.0 PROCESS SPECIFICATION
3.1 Fired Heater Process Data Form 110-21 A
A copy of Form 110-21 A is found on the next page. This form is to be

used when preparing a process specification for a process fired heater. A
completed form for an atmospheric unit fired heater is found at the end of
Section 3.
3.2 Procedure for Completing Form 110-21 A
Specific Customer/Licensor Requirements, the Basis of Design, and the

Basic Engineering Data for a specific project must be followed.
3.2.1 Process Requirements
a) Three columns are provided for different cases or for a case

with multiple coils in different services. All coils and/or cases
must be properly identified.
b) The type of fluid to be heated is given, and if pertinent, the

composition must be given in the Notes. Notes are usually
given on attached sheets. The flow rates are given both in
B/SD and in lbs/hr.
c) The inlet and outlet conditions are established from process

heat and material balances. Liquid viscosities should be
obtained from crude assays or from other data on the
specific fluid being heated. If no data are available,
viscosities will have to be estimated from correlations in
either the API Technical Data Book (Figure 11A4.1) or in the
FWEC Design Data Book (Charts 1-202, 1-203, 1-204, 1-
210, 1-211, 1-212, and 1-213). If vaporization occurs in the
heater, vaporization data as described in Section 2.2 should
be attached.
d) The maximum pressure drop allowable is estimated from

experience as discussed in Section 2.08.
e) The coil heat duty is obtained from the process

requirements. As discussed in Section 2.03, any safety
factor added should be based on experience with the
particular process.

PROCESS STD 306
f) The maximum bulk fluid temperature to be reached is

sometimes very important. The higher the temperature
reached by the fluid, the greater the tendency to crack or
polymerize. If the peak bulk fluid temperature is important, it
should be given.
g) The average radiant heat flux is discussed in Section 2.04.

Frequently, the customer or licensor will set this value, but
otherwise the process engineer does not normally specify it.
h) Corrosive compounds are discussed in Section 2.15. Any

material in the feed, which can cause erosion, should also be
described.
i) The total heat absorbed is set by process requirements and

is discussed in Section 2.03.
j) The minimum net efficiency required is sometimes set by the

customer. If not, none is usually given by the process
engineer, although the furnace vendor is often asked to
determine the economics of preheating combustion air.
k) The payout period for delta investment is given by the

customer. A typical value is three years, before taxes.
l) The fuel properties and steam available for fuel atomization

together with costs for payout calculations are given in the
Basic Engineering Data (BED) for the project, and it should
be so stated. If a project has no BED, the fuel and steam
data will have to be included in the notes.

PROCESS STD 306

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3.2.2 Mechanical Requirements
a) The type of heater is often specified by the customer or

licensor, or there may be a preference based on experience
with a particular service. Otherwise, the option can be left to
the furnace vendor. The vertical cylindrical furnace is
probably the most common in use for heat duties up to about
150 million Btu/hr and requires the least plot area. All-
radiant furnaces are rarely used and can be justified only for
very small furnaces or for furnaces used infrequently, as for
start-up heating.
b) The material and corrosion allowance is not specified by the

process engineer, unless specified by the customer or
licensor.
c) The minimum tube thickness and design temperature is to

be established by the furnace vendor. The design fluid
temperature is given by the process engineer.
d) The design pressure for the process coil is determined by

adding the safety valve set pressure on the vessel (or design
pressure of the vessel), that the furnace feeds (psig), the
pressure drop through the vessel (psi), the transfer line
pressure drop (psi), the maximum furnace coil pressure drop
(psi), and the transfer line static head (psi), assuming the line
to be full of cold liquid as at start-up. If necessary, this
design pressure can be revised when the furnace pressure
drop has been calculated by the furnace vendor.
e) The preferred tube size and number of passes are usually

not specified by the process engineer. For the preparation of
engineering flow diagrams, tube size and number of passes
can be estimated as outlined in Section 2.07. The final
values must be confirmed by the vendor.
f) Pipe and extended surface convection tubes can be used,

unless prohibited by the customer or licensor. Densely
finned tubes are easily fouled, and therefore are used only
with gas firing or with very light liquid fuels. Less densely
finned or studded tubes are used when firing fuel oil.
g) Return fitting data are not normally specified by the process

engineer unless special requirements have been set up by
the customer or licensor.
h) Terminal sizes are not specified by the process engineer.

PROCESS STD 306
i) Stack data are not normally specified except for specific

customer requirements. The process engineer must check,
however, to determine if there are any special environmental
requirements to be met by the stack design.
j) The type of burner (gas, liquid or combination gas/liquid

firing) should be specified, and continuous gas pilots are
usually used. The type of burner required is generally given
by the customer. The process engineer must check to
determine if any special type burner is required because of
environmental reasons. Also, the gas composition to be
used for pilots must be given in the BED or in the Notes.
3.2.3 Notes for Additional Information
In addition to the data covered in Section 3.2.1 and 3.2.2, any

special requirements requested by the customer, licensor, or by
FWEC for a specific service should be included in the Notes.
Some typical Notes are:
1. Vendor to advise maximum tube wall, fluid bulk, and film

temperature of the process and steam superheat (where
applicable) coils.
2. Vendor to advise economics of preheating combustion air.
3. Vendor to establish tube design temperature. In coking

services, vendor to advise maximum metal temperature
allowable during steam-air decoking.
4. Vendor to confirm that steam superheat coil is capable of

withstanding zero steam flow during normal process coil
operating conditions.
5. Turndown requirements to be specified, or vendor to advise

minimum operating rate when no turndown requirements
have been specified.
6. Vendor to advise heater pressure drop for both clean and

fouled tubes. In coking services, vendor to be given basis
for fouled tube pressure drop calculation, such as 1/8"
thickness of coke.
7. Vendor to be advised of any soot blower requirements.

PROCESS STD 306
8. Vendor to be advised if any very low pressure gas burners

are to be provided to burn waste gases. In such cases, the
pressure at the burner and the composition of the gases
must be given.
9. Vendor to supply estimate of SO2, SO3, NOx (as NO2), CO,

hydrocarbons, and particulate matter from stack.
10. Vendor to supply estimate of flue gas acid dewpoint

temperature.

PROCESS STD 306

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PROCESS REQUIREMENTS
Notes:
1. Vendor to advise maximum tube wall, fluid bulk, and film temperature of the
process and steam superheat coils.
2. Vendor to advise economics of preheating combustion air. Consideration should

be given to the use of heat pipes.
3. Design temperature for heater coil is to be established by heater vendor. The

heater vendor shall specify the maximum metal temperature allowable during
steam-air decoking.
4. Heater shall be designed for continuous operation at 50% turndown for both
Alaskan and Nigerian cases.
5. Vendor to advise heater pressure drop with both clean tubes and with 1/8" coke
laydown.
6. Gulf high intensity type (vortometric) burners shall be used. Controlled steam
pressure at burners will be 50 psig.
7. Vendor shall make provision for the future addition of steam soot blowers of the
multi-jet type for the convection section of this heater.
8. Heater shall be designed to operate for 4 years before requiring decoking.
9. Vendor to confirm that steam superheat coil is capable of withstanding zero steam
flow during normal process coil operating conditions.
10. Vendor to supply estimate of flue gas acid dewpoint temperature.

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4.0 UTILITIES
4.1 Fuel
4.1.1 Main Burners
The heat fired can be estimated as described in Section 2.12.

Fuel gas should have a knockout drum close to the furnace to
protect against slugs of liquid in the gas, and the minimum
pressure at the burner should be about 30 psig at the maximum
firing rate. As discussed in Section 2.13, the fuel oil pressure at
the burner should be 60 to 100 psig, with the higher pressure
being preferable, and the viscosity should be 125 SSU (26
centistokes) or less, but exceptions are possible with specially
designed burners. Also, a circulating system is used with fuel oil.
Usually the amount returned (not fired) is 1.5 to 2.0 times the
amount fired in fuel oil systems of 100 million BTU/hr or larger.
For smaller systems, or for high viscosity fuel, the circulation rate
is sometimes higher.
4.1.2 Pilots
If the gas for the pilots is the same as the gas for the main
burners, no pilot fuel gas has to be estimated, since the pilots also
supply heat to the process. If an independent gas supply is used,
however, the quantity needed can be estimated (for utility
consumption estimates) by assuming that the pilot heat fired will
be 5 percent of the furnace heat fired. Each pilot fires
approximately 100,000 BTU/hr and operates with fuel pressures of
2 to 15 psig.
4.2 Steam
4.2.1 Atomizing
As discussed in Section 2.13, liquid fuels must be atomized in

order to achieve complete combustion. This is usually done with
steam at a pressure about 30 psig higher than the fuel oil
pressure. For utility consumption estimates, atomizing steam can
be estimated as 0.5 pounds of steam per pound of fuel. For sizing
the steam lines, however, 1.0 pound of steam per pound of fuel
should be used.

PROCESS STD 306
4.2.2 Low Pressure Burners
As discussed in Section 2.13, very low pressure gas can be

burned in a special pre-mix burner with steam eductor.
Steam consumption for this type of burner can be estimated as 0.3

pounds per pound of fuel and should be supplied to the burner at
a pressure of 30 psig.
4.2.3 Soot Blowers
Furnaces firing a gas fuel or a clean liquid distillate will normally

encounter little convection section fouling. Furnaces firing a
typical residual fuel will encounter a build-up of soot throughout
the entire convection section. Unless the soot is removed, the
heat transfer rate is reduced in the convection section and the flue
gas pressure drop increases.
The retractable soot blower has been the most successful method
of onstream convection section cleaning to date and is specified
when firing residual fuels. A high investment cost is required for
the retractable system, but in the usual case, the facilities can be
justified.
The cleaning medium should be dry saturated steam at a pressure

of 250 psig or higher. Although steam pressures as low as 150
psig have been used, the higher pressure is recommended for
better cleaning. A steam rate of approximately 10,000 lbs/hr is
required for effective cleaning. Since blowers are operated
individually in sequence, the maximum steam demand is 10,000
lbs/hr, regardless of the number of blowers. Typical cleaning
cycles vary from one to three times a day.
Air can also be used for cleaning, but it is normally not

recommended. The maximum air demand would be about 10,000
lbs/hr.
4.2.4 Furnace Box Purging
Each furnace design should include provisions for carrying purging

steam to the furnace box. Before igniting the burners of a furnace,
the fire box must be purged to remove any fuel gas which may
have leaked into the furnace. Otherwise an explosion could occur.

PROCESS STD 306
The steam rate must be sufficient to provide 12 changes per hour,

and the steam must be distributed throughout the combustion
chamber. In order to estimate the steam rate required, the fire
box volume can be conservatively estimated by assuming a
furnace volumetric heat release of 5,000 BTU/(hr-ft3).
As an example, for a 100 million BTU/hr furnace, the fire box

volume would be estimated to be 20,000 ft3. For 12 changes per
hour, a steam rate of 240,000 ft3/hr is required. Using 15 psig
saturated steam, the specific volume at atmospheric pressure is
28 ft3/lb. The steam rate is then 8,570 lb/hr.
The purging steam control valve should be located a minimum of

50 feet from the furnace.
4.2.5 Header Box Smothering
Generally, smothering steam and condensate drain connections

are provided for each header box. Smothering steam is required
to the header box when plug headers (fittings with removable
plugs for mechanical cleaning) or flanged headers are used. For
an estimate of the steam required, a steam rate of 250 lb/hr to
each header box can be used.
4.2.6 Emergency Purging of Furnace Coil
Facilities for steam purging the furnace coil in the event of a loss
of flow are sometimes specified. This coil purge is used to prevent
the high temperature residual heat in the furnace refractory from
coking the hydrocarbon remaining in the coil. However, a steam
purge has little or no value in services containing light
hydrocarbons or mixtures of hydrocarbon and hydrogen. Coil
purge steam should never be considered as a substitute for
immediately shutting off the fuel upon loss of flow in the coil.
If coil purge steam is specified, a steam rate of 5 lb/(sec-ft2)

should be adequate for low pressure systems. This should
evacuate the coil in less than 2 minutes. The steam supply
pressure must be higher than the downstream system pressure.
4.2.7 Fan Drive
If induced and/or forced draft fans, which are steam driven, are
used, the steam consumption for the fans may have to be
estimated before the fans are selected by the vendor. The
horsepower of the induced draft fan for flue gas and the forced
draft fan for air can be estimated from the following equation:
PROCESS STD 306
HP = 1.6 x 10-7 (W)(T)(P)
Where HP = horsepower of fan

W = flue gas or air rate, lb/hr
T = temperature of flue gas or air, 0R
P = Fan !P, inches of water
For fired heaters without air preheat, use the following conditions
for a forced draft fan:
Fan !P, P = 7 inches of water
Air temperature, T = 5600R
For fired heaters with air preheat, both an induced draft and a
forced draft fan are required. For the forced draft fan, use the
following conditions:
Air temperature, T = 5600R
For the induced draft fan, use the following conditions:
Flue gas temperature, T = 9100R
The gross fuel fired can be calculated as outlined in Section 2.12,

and the flue gas rate, W, can then be calculated using Chart
14C1.1 of the API Technical Data Book. The pounds of air per
hour can then be obtained by subtracting the pounds of fuel fired
per hour from the flue gas rate in pounds per hour.
For design, add 20% to the HP determined above. The steam

rate for the fan turbine drives can be estimated as described in
Process Standard 400-1.1.
4.2.8 Steam-Air Decoking

Steam rates for this service are obtained as described in Section
6.0.

PROCESS STD 306
4.3 Refinery Air

4.3.1 Soot Blowers
If an air motor drive is provided for soot blowers, a 3 HP motor is
used to drive and rotate each lance, requiring air pressures
between 80 and 100 psig and air rates of about 80 SCFM. Air for
a motor drive must be dry.
4.3.2 Steam-Air Decoking
Air rates for this service are obtained as described in Section 6.0.
4.4 Electricity
4.4.1 Fans
If induced and/or forced draft fans, which are motor, driven are
used, the KW consumption for the fans must be estimated. Fan
horsepowers can be estimated as described in Section 4.2.7. The
KW consumption for the motor drives can be estimated as
described in Process Standard 400-1.1.
4.4.2 Regenerative Air Preheater
A small motor is required to rotate a regenerative preheater such
as the Ljungstrom. Motor HP ranges from 1• •to 7• •depending
on size. This type of air preheater is generally used on large units,
and if no vendor information is available, the motor HP can be
taken as 5, and the KW consumption as 3.5 for utility estimates.
4.4.3 Soot Blowers
If electric drivers are to be provided for soot blowers, a 1.5 HP
motor is used, and the KW consumption can be estimated as 0.8.

PROCESS STD 306
5.0 INSTRUMENTATION OF FIRED HEATERS
The general guidelines and recommendations for fired heater instrumentation are
contained in the FWEC Process Standard 508. Specific customer requirements
and the Basis of Design for a specific project must also be followed. In addition,
heater instrumentation should be discussed with the instrument engineer and fired
heater vendor.

PROCESS STD 306
6.0 STEAM-AIR DECOKING
FWEC Department Engineering Practice (DEP) 2241-01 defines the mechanics,

operating procedures, and precautions governing the principles of steam-air
decoking of process heater tubes. A copy of this DEP is included at the end of this
section.
Steam-air decoking refers to the cleaning of fired heater tubes by the action of
steam and air. The process is usually divided into two parts, known as "spalling"
and "burning".
During spalling, steam only is admitted to the normal coil inlet of the fired heater at
fairly high rates while the furnace is fired. Coke is removed by the cooling action of
the steam on the hot tubes, causing the coke to contract and break away; by the
scouring action of the high velocity steam; and by chemical action, such as the gas
reaction, C + H2O = CO + H2. With proper operation, as much as 90 to 95 percent
of the coke can be removed by spalling.
During the burning period, both air and steam flow through the coil, and the
remaining coke is removed by direct oxidation.
Steam and combustion product effluent is fed to a coke knockout drum. In order to
remove coke dust from the vapor effluent, it has been FWEC practice to condense
steam and cool the gas with quench water. The gas is cooled to about 10°F lower
than the boiling point of water. At sea level, this is 200°F. The water then carries
the coke to the sewer.
The plant sewer and water treatment facilities have to be checked to assure that
200°F water can be sent to the sewer. If it cannot, more quench water will have to
be used. In the case of excessive water requirements, consideration should be
given to quenching only to approximately 5000F and discharging the total vapor to
the atmosphere. In this case, only the solid coke is collected in the drum and the
drum will have to be made big enough to hold all the coke from the spalling
operation. Depending on environmental regulations, it may be necessary to
provide a coke separator (such as made by Peerless Manufacturing Co.) For the
vapor effluent.
The process engineer is responsible for estimating the steam, air, and quench
water requirements for the steam-air decoking operation, as well as for designing
the coke knockout drum in which the steam is condensed with quench water. A
sample calculation is provided below to be used in conjunction with DEP-2241-01.

PROCESS STD 306
6.1 COIL DECOKING SAMPLE CALCULATION
Atmospheric crude unit fired heater
6" SCH 80 low chrome molybdenum steel tubes
1/8" coke laydown tubes (coke density = 90 lb/ft3)
pass heater
One heater pass to be decoked at a time
Steam inlet pressure and temperature = 150 psig and 5000F
Steam outlet pressure and temperature = 20 psig and 1150°F (max)
Tube metal temperature is monitored to prevent exceeding 1200°F
Quench water inlet temperature = 90°F
Determine
A) Spalling steam rate
B) Temperature of effluent steam from spalling operation
C) Water rate to condense all steam from spalling operation and cool
condensate to 200°F
D) Steam and air rates for coke burning
E) Coke burning rate and effluent from this operation

PROCESS STD 306
Solution
A) Spalling Steam Rate
a Use steam mass velocity = 18lb/(sec-ft2)(dep-2241-01)
Section V.A.6.h)
Cross sectional area of 6" SCH 80 tube = 0.1810 ft2
18 lb sec
2
x 3,600 x 0.1810 ft 2 = 11,729 lb/hr,
sec- ft hr
say 12,000 lb/hr spalling steam
b Steam must also be introduced to all tubes not being decoked

to prevent overheating. The actual amount of steam required
is determined by monitoring tube temperatures during
operation. To estimate the steam required, assume it to be 25
percent of the spalling steam rate.
Cooling steam/coil = 12,000 lb/hr x 0.25 = 3,000 lb/hr
c Total steam rate during spalling operation = 12,000 lb/hr + 3

(3,000 lb/hr) = 21,000 lb/hr
B) Temperature of Effluent Steam from Spalling Operation
a Duty to heat steam in each coil not being decoked to the

maximum temperature of 1,150°F:
3,000 lb/hr x (hg 35 psia/1150°F - hg 165 psia/500°F)
3,000 lb/hr x (1,612.5 BTU/lb - 1,272.5 BTU/lb) = 1,020,000

BTU/hr per pass
b Outlet temperature of spalling steam assuming heat transferred

to coil being decoked is the same as to the other coils:
1,020,000 BTU/hr
hg out spalling steam = + 1,272.5 BTU/lb
12,000 lb/hr
= 1,357.5 BTU/lb

PROCESS STD 306
From steam tables, temperature of 20 psig steam with hg =

1,357.5 Btu/lb is 6490F. Since heat pickup in spalling coil should
be greater than that in other coils because of higher steam mass
velocity in this coil, add 2000F as design margin. Use outlet
temperature of spalling steam = 8500F.
C) Water Rate to Condense All Steam and Cool to 200°F
Quench Duty
= 3,000 lb/hr-coil x (3 coils) x (hg 35 psia/1150°F - hL 200°F)
+ 12,000 lb/hr-coil x (1 coil) x (hg 35 psia/850°F - hL 200°F)
= 9,000 lb/hr x (1,612.5 Btu/lb - 168.07 Btu/lb)
+ 12,000 lb/hr x (1,457.4 Btu/lb - 168.07 Btu/lb)
= 28.5 Million Btu/hr
28.5 x 106
Required Quench Water = = 518 GPM
(1.0)(200 - 90)500
D) Steam and Air Rates for Coke Burning
a From DEP-2241-01, Section V.A.6.m.
1) Steam rate = 4,000 lb/hr
2) Air rate = 400 lb/hr (10% of steam rate)
E) Coke Burning Rate and Effluent from this Operation
a Chemical Reaction for Burning Operation
1) 302 + 4C 2 CO2 + 2CO
Air: 400 lb/hr
O2: 400/29 x 0.21 = 2.90 mols/hr;
2.90 mols/hr x 32 lb/mol = 92.8 lb/hr
CO2: 2.90 X 2/3 = 1.93 mols/hr;
CO: 2.90 x 2/3 = 1.93 mols/hr;

PROCESS STD 306
2) 3H2O + 2C CO2 + CO + 3H2
Assume 200 lb/hr of steam reacts (5% of steam)
Steam: 200/18.02 = 11.1 mol/hr
CO2:11.1 x 1/3 x 44 = 162.8 lb/hr
CO: 11.1 x 1/3 x 28 = 103.6 lb/hr
H2: 11.1 x 3/3 x 2 = 22.2 lb/hr
b Burning Operation Material Balance (assume combustion

proceeds according to above reactions
Component Lbs/Hr MW Mol/Hr
Steam 3,800 18 211.1
CO2 248 44 5.6
CO 158 28 5.6
H2 22.2 2 11.1
N2 307 28 11.0
Total 4,535 18.6 244.4
Dry Gas 735 22.1 33.3
c Coke Burning Rate
1) Burning rate from the reactions assumed in "a" above:
Coke reacting with oxygen = 2.90 x 4/3 x 12 = 46 lb/hr
Coke reacting with steam = 11.1 x 2/3 x 12 = 89 lb/hr
Total coke reacting rate = 135 lb/hr
135 lb/hr
Coke burning rate = = 2.25 lb/min
60 min /hr

PROCESS STD 306
2) From DEP-2241-01, Section V.A.6.n, the maximum

permissible burning rate during decoking is 1.5 ft/min. Using
this rate and the coke laydown given, the maximum coke
burning rate should be calculated to assure that enough air
was used in the assumed reactions to permit the maximum
decoking rate. If too little air was used, the effluent rate
calculated above will be too low.
Coke per foot of coil length:

( . 5.761 in +2 . 5.761 in - 0.25 in +2 % "
Vol = & ,, )) - ,, )) # x x 1 ft
&' - 12 in/ft * - 12 in/ft * #$ 4
= 0.0154 ft3/ft
Wt. = 90 lb/ft3 x 0.0154 ft3/ft = 1.4 lb/ft
Maximum permissible coke burning rate
= 1.4 lb/ft x 1.5 ft/min = 2.1 lbs/min
Since the maximum burning rate is less than the rate obtained
from the oxidation reactions assumed, even with no coke
removed by spalling, the effluent rates calculated are
satisfactory for design. If the maximum burning rate calculated
were higher than the rate obtained from the oxidation
reactions, a higher air rate would have to be assumed, and the
calculations repeated to obtain a conservative effluent rate for
the coke knockout drum design.
6.2 COKE KNOCKOUT DRUM SAMPLE CALCULATION GIVEN
/ Information from Section 6.1.
/ Water pressure available at quench nozzles is 65 psig.
Determine
/ Dimensions of coke knockout drum and spray nozzles required. (Drum

sketch shown at end of Section 6.2.)

PROCESS STD 306
Solution
A- Drum Diameter
a) Vapor leaving drum:
1) Dry gas = 33.3 mols/hr (Section 6.1.E.b)
2) Water vapor to saturate gas @ 2000F and 14.7 psia
11.53
= 33.3 x = 121.1 mols/hr
(14.7 - 11.53)
where 11.53 = vapor pressure of water at 2000F, psia
3) Total vapor is as follows:

Component lbs/Hr MW Mol/hr
Dry Gas 735 22.1 33.3
Water Vapor 2,182 18.02 121.1
Total 2,917 18.9 154.4
The drum diameter is sized on the basis of an allowable
vapor velocity obtained by using a Souders-Brown coefficient
of 0.15.
0L
V a = 0.15 -1
0v
where Va = allowable vapor velocity, ft/sec
0L = liquid density, lb/ft3
0v = vapor density, lb/ft3
MW x P 18.9 x 14.7
4) 0v = = = 0.0392 lb/ ft 3
R xT 10.731 x 660
2,917 lb/hr
5) Vapor flow = 3
= 20.7 ft3/sec
0.0392 lb/ ft x 3,600 sec /hr
6) 0L = 60.11 lb/ft3 (H2O @ 2000F)
60.11
7) Va = 0.15 - 1 = 5.87 ft/ sec
0.0392

PROCESS STD 306
8) Drum cross-sectional area required
20.7 ft 3 / sec
= = 3.53 ft 2
5.87 ft/ sec
(4)(3.53)
9) Drum diameter = = 2.12 ft
"
b) Vapor entering drum:
1) Maximum vapor rate is during spalling operation.
Steam rate = 21,000 lb/hr (Section 6.1.A.c)
2) Enthalpy of entering steam (Section 6.1C):
(9,000)(1,612.5) + (12,000)(1,457.4)
h steam =
21,000
= 1,523.9 Btu/lb
3) With pressure of 15 psia: (from steam tables)
Steam temperature = 9800F
0v = 0.0175 lb/ft3
0L = 60.11 lb/ft3 (H2O @ 2000F)
21,000 lb/hr
4) Vapor flow = =
0.0175 lb/ ft 3 x 3,600 sec /hr
= 333.3 ft3/sec
5) For entering superheated steam, use a Souders-Brown

coefficient of 0.6 to determine the allowable vapor velocity.
60.11
Va = (0.6) - 1 = 35.16 ft/ sec
0.0175
(333.3)(4)
6) Drum diameter = = 3.47 ft
35.16)( " )
c) The entering vapor rate controls. Use a 3'-6" diameter drum (a

minimum diameter of 3'-0" should be used for coke knockout drums).
PROCESS STD 306
B- Spray Nozzles
a Two relatively large capacity spray nozzles are used to supply

quench for the cooling and condensing loads.
It has been determined that the most efficient dust removal

occurs when the spray droplet mean diameter is in the range of
500 to 1,000 microns (Industrial Gas Cleaning, W. Strauss, 2nd
Edition, page 369). Since the relatively large quench nozzles
for cooling and condensing produce larger diameter droplets, a
cluster of smaller nozzles are installed above the two main
nozzles in order to improve dust removal efficiency. For this
service, a minimum of 10 gallons of water per 1,000 actual
cubic feet of vapor leaving the drum should be used.
The higher the pressure drop across the spray nozzles, the
smaller will be the droplet size. Therefore, the maximum
pressure available should be used for the spray nozzles.
Nozzle data for full cone nozzles, from Spraying Systems Co.,
can be obtained from Tables 2, 3, and 4, and Figure 8.
b Use as many Spraying Systems Co. ¾" - 7G1.5 nozzles, or

equivalent, as required to give a water rate of approximately 10
gallons per 1,000 cubic feet of vapor leaving:
1) Vapor flow = 20.7 ft3/sec x 60 sec/min = 1,242 CFM

(Section 6.2.A.a(5))
1,242 CFM
2) Water flow = x 10 GPM = 12.4 GPM
1,000 CFM
3) Number of 7G1.5 nozzles required
12.4 GPM
= = 5 (Table 4)
2.5 GPM/nozzle
c Quench water required = 518 GPM (Section 6.1C)
d Nozzles required for cooling and condensing:
(518 GPM - 12.4 GPM)

1) = 253 GPM/nozzle
2 nozzles
2) Use two 3H90 nozzles from Spraying Systems Co., or

equivalent (Table 3).

PROCESS STD 306
C- Drum Height
a Provide a height of 3 feet above the top spray to the upper

tangent line.
b Provide a height of 3 feet between the top spray nozzle and the
upper cooling and condensing nozzle.
c Calculate the spacing between the two cooling and condensing

nozzles and between the vapor inlet and lower nozzle based on
the drum diameter and the spray angle of the nozzle chosen.
1) Spray angle = 800 (Table 3)
2) Drum diameter = 3'-6" (Section 6.2.A.c)
1.75 ft
3) Spacing = S = = 2.1 ft, say 2'-6"
tan 401

PROCESS STD 306
4) Experience has shown that the heat transfer coefficient for

condensing steam by direct contact with water is very
high, and that the volume obtained by this calculation
method will be adequate to condense the steam.
d) Provide 2 ft from the vapor inlet nozzle to the liquid level

(maintained by seal leg).
e) Provide 2 ft from liquid level to lower tangent line for seal.
D- Furnace Coil Effluent Line Quench
Although the coke knockout drum is designed as described above, a

water quench nozzle should be installed in the coke knockout drum
header system, immediately downstream of the furnace coil effluent
connection, to reduce the downstream temperature and velocity. A
straight run pipe length of 12 to 15 feet should be provided
downstream of the quench nozzle.
The decoking effluent lines should be sized to limit the velocity to a

maximum of 600 ft/sec to avoid severe erosion. Enough line quench
should be added to desuperheat the steam, and the quantity of water
vaporized should be included in line size calculations.
Operating instructions, if any, should make a point of requiring the

use of the line quench, and the engineering flow diagram should
contain the following note next to the inline quench valve: "Wash
water to be put into service only when line is cold prior to initiating
steam air decoking procedure."

PROCESS STD 306

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7.0 STACK DESIGN
The process engineer does not normally design the furnace stack, but only
provides special requirements, such as a minimum height, in the process
specification. Occasionally, however, the process engineer may have to estimate
a stack size for a cost estimate.
7.1 Type of Stacks
Stacks may be mounted on top of the furnace itself or may be placed on

the ground beside the furnace. Ground-supported stacks are often used to
serve several furnaces.
Stacks are usually made of steel or concrete; below a height of 250 feet
they are usually made of steel. Furnace-supported stacks are always
made of steel.
In order to assure good flue gas distribution throughout the convection

section, it is usual for a flue gas withdrawal opening to be provided for
each 40 feet of convection section length. Multiple furnace-supported
stacks may be used, or the take-offs may be ducted to a common stack,
which can be either furnace-supported or ground-supported.
7.2 Stack Diameter
The stack diameter can be estimated using an inlet flue gas velocity of 25
ft/sec. (When relatively high stacks are required because of environmental
requirements, higher stack gas velocities may be used because the extra
draft generated can overcome the higher pressure drop. Higher velocities
may also be required for pollution control considerations.) The gross fuel
fired can be calculated as outlined in Section 2.12, and the flue gas
quantity can be obtained using Chart 14C1.1 of the API Technical Data
Book.
The molecular weight of the flue gas can be assumed to be the same as
that of air, and the flue gas density can be calculated from the following
equation.
39.5
0g=
Tg
where 0g = flue gas density @ sea level, lb/ft3
Tg = flue gas temperature, 0R
To correct density for altitude, the value obtained from the above equation
should be multiplied by a factor obtained from the following table:
PROCESS STD 306
Elevation, ft. Correction Factor

0 1.000
1,000 0.965
2,000 0.930
3,000 0.896
4,000 0.863
5,000 0.831
6,000 0.800
7,000 0.770
8,000 0.742
9,000 0.714
10,000 0.686
The temperature of the flue gas to the stack can be estimated as
discussed in Section 2.10.
7.3 Stack Height
The main function of a stack is to produce draft sufficient to overcome all

obstructions to the flow of flue gas and maintain a negative pressure
throughout the furnace. Sometimes stacks are made taller than required
to produce the necessary draft because of pollution control requirements.
The actual draft required cannot be calculated accurately before the

furnace configuration has been determined. If a minimum stack height of
say 200 feet is specified because of pollution control, this height will
normally be more than adequate to provide the required draft, but this
should be confirmed. Previous designs of similar furnaces may be
checked.
When the furnace design is known or can be estimated, the minimum

stack height can be calculated by balancing the pressure gains and losses
to produce a negative pressure of 0.10 inches of water at the top of the
radiant section.
The following pressure losses and gains, in inches of water, should be

included in the system pressure balance:

PROCESS STD 306
1 Stack Exit Loss
(0.0030)( G g )2
Use 1 velocity head !P =
0g
Where !P = one velocity head, inches of water

Gg = Flue gas mass velocity, lb/(sec-ft2)
0g = flue gas density, lb/ft3
The flue gas temperature leaving the stack is lower than at the
inlet because of heat loss through the stack. The magnitude of
the differential depends on several factors, including the type of
stack, stack dimensions, and the insulation.
The approximate temperature drop through stacks can be

obtained from a chart published by Babcock & Wilcox in their book
"Steam". The chart can be represented by the following equation:
Texit = Tinlet (1 - 0.11 X) + 19 X

Where Texit = Stack exit gas temperature, 0F
Tinlet = Stack inlet gas temperature, 0F
X = (3.7134 - 0.10484 D) (H/100) +
(0.02098D - 0.6576) (H/100)2
D = Stack diameter, ft
H = Stack height, ft
The equation is limited to the following ranges:
Stack heights: 0-300 ft
Stack diameters: 2-24 ft
Inlet gas temperatures: 250-9000F

Do not use the above equation with stack heights greater than
300ft

PROCESS STD 306
2 Loss Across Damper
For damper wide open, use !P = 1.5 velocity heads.
3 Losses in Ducts
The pressure losses through the ducting connecting the

convection section and the stack are obtained by standard fluid
flow calculation procedures. The pressure drops in psi are
converted to inches of water by multiplying by 27.7.
For calculating the pressure drop in a duct of rectangular cross-

section, it is necessary to use an equivalent hydraulic diameter in
the equations intended for pipe. The hydraulic diameter is four
times the hydraulic radius, and the hydraulic radius is defined as
the conduit cross sectional area divided by its wetted perimeter.
For rectangular ducts:
2a b
De =
a+b
Where De = equivalent hydraulic diameter, ft
a depth of duct, ft.
b width of duct, ft.
In determining the friction factor, f, for use in the pressure drop
equation, use a surface roughness factor, 2, of 0.0027 ft for
internally insulated steel ducts.
Depending on the ducting and stack arrangement, other pressure

drops will result from sudden expansions and contractions, bends,
and the combining of flue gas streams.
4 Stack Entrance Loss
Use 1 velocity head at the stack entrance to account for a sudden

contraction plus a change in direction.
5 Loss Through Convection Section
Estimate the pressure drop as 0.5 velocity heads per row of tubes.
The mass velocity should be based on the free flow area at the
tube row centerline. For extended surface tubes, the free flow
area should be based on bare tubes of diameter equal to the
extreme diameter of extended surface. No credit is taken for the
free area between individual studs or fins on a tube.

PROCESS STD 306
6 Negative Pressure at Top of Radiant Section
Use !P = 0.10 inches of water
7 Stack Effect
There is a pressure gain in the convection section due to a stack

effect which must be subtracted from the above pressure drop in
order to obtain the net stack effect required. The following equation
should be used to calculate this pressure gain:
( 1 1 %
!PSE = (0.52) (L) (P) & - #
' Ta Tg $
Where !PSE = Stack effect, inches of water

L = Height of stack, ft
P = Atmospheric pressure, psia
Ta = Summer design air temperature, 0R
Tg = Average flue gas temperature, 0R
The net stack effect per foot is obtained by subtracting the stack
pressure drop per foot from the stack effect per foot. The stack
effect is obtained from the same equation used for the convection
section stack effect, and the stack pressure drop is obtained by
standard fluid flow calculation procedures. The stack average flue
gas temperature is used in both cases. In determining the friction
factor, f, for use in the pressure drop equation, use a surface
roughness factor, 2, of 0.0027 ft for internally insulated steel
stacks and for concrete stacks.
8 Calculated Stack Height
The stack height is obtained by dividing the net stack effect

required by the net stack effect per foot and multiplying by a safety
factor of 1.05.
7.4 Stack Design Sample Calculation

Given
/ Atmospheric Crude Unit Fired Heater
Gross Fuel Fired = 23,410 lb/hr of 150 API fuel oil
Percent Excess Air = 20

PROCESS STD 306
Temperature of Flue Gas to Convection Section = 1600°F
Temperature of Flue Gas Leaving Convection Section = 600°F
Convection Section
1) 4 rows of bare tubes with flue gas mass velocity = 0.35 lb/(sec-
ft2) and average temperature = 1500°F
2) 2 rows of studded tubes with flue gas mass velocity = 0.50

lb/(sec-ft2) and average temperature = 1250°F
3) 5 rows of studded tubes with flue gas mass velocity = 1.05

lb/(sec-ft2) and average temperature = 850°F
4) height = 11 ft and length = 65 ft
/ Design Air Temperature = 90°F
Determine
Furnace mounted stack diameter and height required for draft.
Solution
Since convection section is 65 feet long, assume 2 stacks will be used.
A Stack Diameter
a From fuel fired with 20% excess air and Figure 14C1.1 from
the API Technical Data Book, the flue gas rate is calculated.
W = 23,410 x 17.7 = 414,360 lb/hr
39.5 39.5
0g= = = 0.0373 lb/ft3 (Section 7.2)
Tg (600 + 460)
414,360
Volumetric Flow Rate = = 3,086 ft3/sec
(0.0373)(3,600)
b Using a flue gas velocity of 25 ft/sec, calculate stack diameter

required.
3,086
Area per stack = = 61.7 ft2
(25)(2 stacks)

PROCESS STD 306
(4)(61.7)
Diameter of each stack = = 8.86 ft, say 9'-0"
"
B) Stack Height
a Estimate stack exit gas temperature from equation given in

Section 7.3(1). Assume a stack height of 100 ft.
X = (3.7134 - 0.10484D) (H/100) + (0.02098D - 0.6576)

(H/100)2
X = (3.7134 - 0.10484 x 9.0) (100/100) + (0.02098 x 9.0

- 0.6576) (100/100)2 = 2.301
Texit = Tinlet (1 - 0.11 X) + 19 X
Texit = 600 (1 - 0.11 X 2.301) + (19) (2.301)
= 492°F say 490°F
b Pressure Balance (as per Section 7.3)
1) Stack Exit Loss
(0.0030)( G g )2
!P =
0g
414,360
Gg = = 0.9046 lb/(sec-ft2)
(" ) 2
(3,600) (9.0 ) (2 stacks)
4
39.5
0g = = 0.0416 lb/ft3
(490 + 460)
(0.0030) (0.9046 )2
!P = = 0.059 inches water
0.0416
2) Loss across damper
0g = 0.0373 (Section 7.4 A.a)
(0.0030) (0.9046 )2
1 velocity head = = 0.066 inches water
0.0373
!P = 1.5 velocity heads = (1.5) (0.066)

PROCESS STD 306
= 0.099 inches water
3) Losses in ducts
None for this case.
4) Stack entrance loss
3 !P = 1 velocity head = 0.066 inches water
5) Loss through convection section
Through 4 rows of bare tubes
39.5
0g = = 0.0202 lb/ft3
(1,500 + 460)
(0.0030) (0.35 )2
0.0202
!P = (0.5) (0.018) (4 rows) = 0.036 inches water
Through 2 rows of studded tubes
39.5
0g = = 0.0231 lb/ft3
(1,250 + 460)
(0.0030) (0.50 )2
0.0231
Through 5 rows of studded tubes
39.5
0g = = 0.032 lb/ft3
(850 + 460)
(0.0030) (1.05 )2
0.0302
Total convection section loss
!P = 0.036 + 0.032 + 0.275 = 0.343 inches water

PROCESS STD 306
6) Negative pressure at top of radiant section
Set !P = 0.10 inches water
7) Stack effect in convection section
1,600 + 600
Tg = = 11000F
2
( 1 1 %
!PSE = (0.52) (L) (P) & - #
' Ta Tg $
( 1 1 %
= (0.52) (11) (14.7) & - #
' (90 + 460) 1,100 + 460) $
8) Net stack effect required
!P = 0.059 + 0.099 + 0.066 + 0.343 + 0.100 - 0.099
9) Net stack effect per foot of stack
600 + 490
Tg = = 5450F
2
( 1 1 %
!PSE = (0.52) (1) (14.7) & - #
' (90 + 460) (545 + 460) $
= 0.00629 inches water/ft
f L 0gV2
!Pf =
2,316 D
Where !PSE = Stack effect, inches of water
!Pf3 = Frictional pressure drop, psi
L3 = Stack height, ft
0g = Average flue gas density, lb/ft3
V3 = Flue gas velocity, ft/sec
D = Stack diameter, ft
PROCESS STD 306
F = Fanning friction factor

DV 0 g
Re = 1,488
4
Where Re = Reynolds number

D,V, 0g = As above
3 43 = Flue gas viscosity, cp
39.5 39.5
0g = = = 0.0393 lb/ft3
Tg (545 + 460)
 @ 545°F = 0.0275 cp
(Use curve for nitrogen or carbon dioxide, whichever gives

higher viscosity at given temperature from Figure 11C1.2 of API
Technical Data Book or, if available, use chart on page 191 of
"Data Book on Hydrocarbons" by J. B. Maxwell.)
" D2
Stack cross-sectional area = A
4
" (9.0 )2
= = 6.36 ft2
4
414,360 lb/hr
V =
(2 stacks)(3,600 sec /hr)(0.0393 lb/ ft 3 )(63.6 ft 2 )
= 23.0 ft/sec
(9.0) (23.0) (0.0393)

Re = 1,488
0.0275
= 440,180
2 0.0027
Using = = 0.0003 (assuming lined stack)
D 9.0
From Fanning friction factor chart, f = 0.004
(0.004) (1) (0.0393) (23.0 )2

!Pf = = 4.0 x 10-6 psi/ft
(2,316) (9.0)

PROCESS STD 306
(4.0 x 10-6 psi/ft) (27.7 in water/psi)
Net stack effect = 0.00629 - 0.00011
10) Calculated stack height required for draft
0.568
H= (1.05) = 97
0.00618
say 100 feet above convection section.

PROCESS STD 306
FOSTER WHEELER HEAT TRANSFER PAGE A-1
APPENDIX
STEAM AIR DECOKING
I SCOPE
This DEP shall define the mechanics, operating procedures, and precautions
Governing the principles of Steam-Air Decoking of process heater tubes.
II DEFINITION
Steam-air decoking is the art of removal of coke deposited inside heater tubes by
spalling and/or burning, utilizing steam and air as agents.
III MECHANICS OF STEAM-AIR DECOKING
The mechanics of steam-air decoking for heater tubes are:
a) Contraction of the tubes due to cooling will cause the coke deposits within the
tube to crack and spall. Reduction of the number of burners being fired and
the introduction of steam will speed this action. Steam injection in addition to
accelerating spalling will remove loose coke from the tubes.
b) It is of utmost importance that steam be injected into the tubes not being
decoked to prevent damage to these tubes.
c) Injection of steam into the tubes is a chemical reaction-
3H 2O 5 2C 6 CO2 5 CO 5 3H 2
The oxygen in the air also generates a chemical reaction with the heated
coke- 3O2 5 4C 6 2CO2 5 2CO
IV GENERAL
a) Steam-air decoking is less expensive and more efficient than mechanical

decoking, however it is a more critical operation in that heater tubes can be
damaged at elevated temperatures if operations are not properly conducted.
b) The decoking operation normally requires the services of two men. Their
functions are:
1. One man will be required to check continuously the coke burning rate
by observing the metal temperature of the tubes.
2. The second man will be required to for control of the steam-air rates
PROCESS STD 306
and for the checking of the effluent samples from the tubes.
c) This type of operation lends itself to being conducted at might since the glow
of the tubes can be observed more easily during the coke burning operation.
The use of an optical pyrometer is recommended.
d) The metal content of the tubes governs the controlling temperature at which
the operation shall be conducted. Coke will burn at temperatures between
10500F to 13500F. The tube metal temperatures recommended below are
approximate and the manufacturer must advise the maximum temperature
the tubes supplied can withstand.
e) The time required for completion of the decoking operation can vary from six
hours to three days, dependent upon the thickness of coke deposits and/or
the detailed procedures to be followed.
f) A schematic piping diagram showing piping manifolds for the injection of

steam, air, and water is shown on page 11.
g) The steam-air decoking should not be used where tube deposits contain a
large proportion of salt or lime. This is apt to occur in topping or other crude
processing unit when the crude has not been desalted.
h) Steam(150 psig), water, and air (50psig), are to be manifolded to permit

simultaneous and/or alternate injection into the hot tubes. Steam and air are
used to accelerate coke spalling and burning, whereas, water is injected into
the tubes after completion of spalling and burning.
Water washing of the tubes for ash removal shall be done only after the tube
metal temperatures have cooled to 5000F.
i) The total tube length to be decoked in a single operation is of major

importance in securing a satisfactory operation. Using 150 pound steam, and
assuming five (5 pounds pressure drop per hundred (100’-0”) feet permits
3000 equivalent feet of tubing to be decoked in one operation. The tube
arrangement in heaters in delayed coker and visbreaker service is usually
two-pass and in crude units, four pass. These passes may be joined together
by means of a jump over to develop a series flow.
i) The length of time between decoking operations is dependent upon a number

of variables such as flow rates, operating temperatures, pressure drop,
properties of fluids and operating procedures. Pressure drop through the
heater is the operator’s best indication of when decoking is required.

PROCESS STD 306
V OPERATING PROCEDURES
Three operating procedures are outlined herein. The procedure to be used is

dictated by the tubing materials and functions of the heater.
a) Case I Low Chrome Molybdenum Steels
1. Case I is applicable to heaters equipped with low chrome-

molybdenum tubes, normally in crude unit, delayed coker, and
Visbreaker service.
2. A pressure drop increase of 20 to 30 psig through the tubes during

operation is an indication that decoking is required.
3. Tube temperatures must be carefully controlled since the materials in

this category cannot withstand, without damage, temperatures
greater than 1200oF for extended periods.
4. Steam and effluent should not be vented to the stack of the heater
since carbon may precipitate out and form undesirable deposits on
outer surfaces of tubes in the top of the heater. Since CO, CO2 , and
H2 are formed during decoking, the vapors should be vented through
a portable stack or other equivalent means and discharged to
atmosphere at least 10 feet above grade.
5. It is desirable to remove as much coke as possible by spalling action

in the tubes prior to removal of the remaining coke by burning.
Sequential Operation
a) The piping connections for steam, air and water are connected to the
pass or passes of tubes. See typical Piping Detail for Steam-Air
Decoking page 11, this standard.
b) The feed to the heaters is shut off and the burners extinguished.
c) Steam is introduced to the tubes to purge the lines of residual oil and
oil vapors. The steam purge is a precautionary measure to prevent
the ignition of a flammable mixture of air and oil vapors.
d) When the purge is complete, drains are opened and the heater is
taken out of service. Jump overs are installed where required (See
paragraph IV-1 General). Figure eight blinds are put in place. Swing
elbows are rotated. Steam is introduced to all tubes (even those
tubes not being decoked) to prevent overheating. Quench water to
the sample connections and drain is turned on.
e) Every other burner is ignited to provide an even distribution of heat.

PROCESS STD 306
f) Increase flue gas temperatures leaving the radiant section at the rate
of 3000F/hr. until it reaches 13500F. Hold this flue gas temperature
though the spalling period or until air is introduced.
g) The furnace temperature shall be increased at the rate of 3000F per

hour with a close check being made on tube metal temperature. The
metal temperature is not to exceed 1200OF. Steam injection shall be
used to regulate metal temperatures of the tubes during the
controlled heating period in the heater. Skin thermocouples on the
tubes, if installed, and flue gas outlet thermocouples are to be used
in verifying and controlling tube and gas temperatures during the
decoking operations. Excessive use of steam can cause severe
erosion in the tubes and fittings during spalling since the coke is very
abrasive. Steam velocity is to be as low as possible while still
removing the coke from the tubes.
h) When the flue gas outlet temperature reaches 10000F, increase

steam injection to the equivalent of a mass velocity of 18 pounds per
square foot per second. The approximate steam flows for a mass
velocity of 18 pounds per square foot per second are:
Tube I.D., Inches Steam Flow, lbs/Hour
2 1,200
2.5 1,900
3 2,800
4 5,100
5 8,200
i) The quench water is to be sampled for indications of spalled coke,
and if after five to ten minutes, spalling has not started, the following
method and/or methods shall be used to start spalling.
/ Alternately reduce and increase the steam flow rate though the
tubes.
/ Reverse the steam flow through the tubes.
/ Lower the flue gas temperature 1000F to 2000F.
/ Add a small quantity of air to the steam for a few minutes, then
shut off air.
j) The sample connection must be observed constantly for evidence

and extent of spalling. The degree of spalling will be indicated by the
color of the water flowing from the sample connection, to the sewer,
PROCESS STD 306
and the number of coke particles settled in a standard sample

container. The color and condition of the effluent streams will vary
during various stages as follows:
1) The discharge will be milky with a slight gray colour before and
after decoking has started and has been completed.
2) A light gray color will be seen in the effluent to the sewer when
a fine soot is being removed
3) As spalling increases, large particles of coke will be removed.

This condition is indicated by a dark gray to black color in the
effluent to the sewer.
4) At the completion of the spalling and burning cycle the effluent

will be reddish brown in color.
k) When heavy spalling starts, steam flow should be reduced to prevent

erosion. There is no strict measure to the amount of steam required,
and the operator must depend on pressure control and visual
observation of discharge at bleeder. Maintain pressure and flow at
lowest point and yet maintain spalling. This will reduce the abrasive
action of the coke particles being removed.
l) When sampler outlet shows fine coke dust, reduce inlet pressure for
a minimum of 10 minutes to see if any grainy coke will show up. If
fine coke dust continues, reduce pressure further to be sure dust is
not produced by high velocities.
m) After all spalling has stopped and cannot be restored by method V-

A6(i) reduce flue gas to 12000F and set steam flow approximately as
follows:
Tube ID # Steam/hr. TubeID # Steam/hr

. 2 500 3.5 1500
2.5 700 4 1800
3 1000 5 3000
6 4000
Gradually add air to approximately 1/10 of steam quantities.

PROCESS STD 306
n) It is important that the operator be in a position to observe, through

the observation port, the coke burning in the tube. Coke burning,
indicated by a slight glow on the tube surface, approximately one foot
in length will start at the inlet end of the tubes and will progress at the
rate of one to one and one half feet per minute. Metal surfaces
should not be permitted to glow cherry red since this indicates a
temperature in excess of the 12000 F maximum allowable. If metal
does glow cherry red reduce the air input or stop air altogether.
o) The air-steam mixture will require adjustment, increasing the air or

reducing the steam volume, if there are indications (tube glow) that
burning has stopped or is slowing down. As an added means for
restarting burning, the flue gas outlet temperature can be increased
1000F. Should burning not be resumed, reverse the steam-air flow
through the tubes.
p) Should burning proceed at too rapid a rate, causing excessive

heating of the tubes, the air volume should be reduced or the steam
volume increased. Should the adjustment of the air-steam mixture
fail to slow down the burning rate, the flue gas temperature should be
lowered in steps of 1000 F until the desired burning rate has been
achieved.
q) Completion of coke burning can be checked by the color of the

effluent as outlined in paragraph VA6(j), and should be confirmed by
the results obtained in a gas analysis. This gas analysis should
indicate about one percent CO2 confirms that burning has been
completed.
r) Another method for verification of the decoking operation is by

performance of the “glow” test. A glowing wood ember is placed in
the effluent from the sample connection after the water has been
turned off. If the ember is extinguished, decoking has not been
completed. If the ember glows more brightly the decoking operation
has been completed.
s) Upon completion of the decoking operation air injection into the tubes
is to be stopped and steam flow rate increased for the removal of
residual ash giving the effluent a milky white colour.

PROCESS STD 306
b) Case II – 9% Chrome, 18-8, Incoloy Tubes
1. The procedure outlined under Case II is applicable for heaters

equipped with tubes of high alloy steels, primarily 9 per cent chrome-
moly steels, 18-8 stainless steels, and Incoloys. This type of heater
is normally in ethylene pyrolysis and equivalent process service. For
typical piping arrangement, see detail “A” 11 this standard.
2. When the pressure drop increases about 10 per cent, the tubes
require decoking. An alternate method is to schedule decoking at
regular intervals.
3. Tubes fabricated from these materials can withstand temperature of

13000F to 13500F during decoking operations without suffering
damage.
4. The spalling action, outlined in Case I, is not desirable for Case II

because this type of coke is very hard and abrasive, and furthermore,
the tubes can become plugged with the loose coke.
5. Normally there is no requirement for reversible flow. The deposition

of coke is towards the outlet end of the heater. However, steam
connections should be provided on the outlet side of the heater as a
precautionary measure.
6. Vapors, resulting from the decoking operations, can be vented

through the heater stack without producing undesirable side effects.
The coke is converted, almost completely, to CO2 and CO2 during the
burning operation. There is little or no ash residue.
7. The decoking operation normally requires 6 to 8 hours for

completion.
8. Sequential Operation
a) Interrupt the process flow through the heater.
b) There is no need to extinguish the burners as in Case I.
c) Introduce steam into the tubes. It is assumed that connections

for steam-air decoking are included in the design of the heater
piping. See typical steam-air decoking detail A page 11 this
standard. This arrangement presupposes series flow – note
the jump over.

PROCESS STD 306
d) Wherever possible the tubes in one heater should be decoked

in series. An exception to this rule is Cracking Heaters, which
usually are two (2) pass. Each pass should be decoked
separately with cooling steam flowing thru the other passes.
e) Steam mass velocity through tubes being decoked should be at

the rate of approximately 10 pounds per square foot per
second.
Approximate steam flow for a mass velocity of 10 pounds per

square foot per second for various tube diameters are:
Tube, I.D. Inches Steam Flow, lbs/Hr.
2” 670
2.5” 1,050
3” 1,550
4” 2,800
5” 4,500
f) A pressure drop of 1 ½ psi per one hundred feet is to be
expected when the recommended steam mass velocity is
achieved through the tubes. Appreciable variations in pressure
drop can be indicative that spalling has occurred and the tubes
have become plugged with coke. Should this occur the
direction of steam flow is to be reversed to free the tubes.
g) Quench water is to be turned on to the sample connection to

the sewer at the time steam is injected into the tubes.
h) Samples of the effluent should be checked to ensure that

effluent is not carrying coke removed by spalling. If spalling
occurs, the mass velocity should be reduced slightly.
i) A small amount of air may be required to start the coke burning.
j) The operator must watch carefully to ensure that tubes are not
overheated during the burning operation. Tubes will not be
damaged if they glow cherry red at the point of coke burning.
Tubes shall not be permitted to reach white heat. At the point
where coke is burning, the tube will have a cherry red glow,
approximately one foot long. The rate of burning will be
approximately one and one-half feet per minute.

PROCESS STD 306
k) Should tubes reach white heat, cut off air injection to the steam
and reduce the flue gas temperature 2000F, and continue step-
wise temperature reduction until the tube metal temperature
has been lowered.
l) When it appears that coke burning is about to stop or is nearing

completion, gradually increase the quantity of air being injected
with the steam.
m) It is recommended that a gas analysis be used to verify the

completion of coke burning. During decoking operations the
CO2 content will be about 4 to 5 percent, and the CO-CO2 ratio
will be high because of insufficient oxygen. As the decoking
operation nears completion, the CO-CO2 ratio will be reduced,
and in the last stages O2 will be evident in the sample.
CAUTION: Air injection during burning must be regulated to
control tube temperature. The “glow” test outlined in Case I can
be used as additional means of verifying the completion of coke
burning.
n) Upon completion of the decoking operation the heater can be

placed in normal service.
o) At no time is water to be injected into the tubes.
c) Case III – Tubes Containing Catalyst – 25/20 Inconel Tubes
1. The procedure outlined in Case III is applicable for decoking of

Catalyst Heaters equipped with high alloy steel tubes fabricated
from materials similar to those outlined in Case II. However, in
Case III the tubes have been charged with catalyst. This method
of decoking is employed for steam methane reforming heaters and
similar services.
2. Tubes fabricated from high alloy steels can withstand

temperatures of 1500 – 18000F during decoking operations
without suffering damage.
3. Vapors resulting from the decoking operations can be vented

through the heater stack.
4. An increase of 6 to 10 psi pressure drop through the tubes in an

indication of coke build-up on tubes and catalyst.
5. Coke formation in the tubes and on the catalyst normally is the

result of system upsets or improper operation of the heater.

PROCESS STD 306
6. The time required for the decoking operation ranges between 2

and 3 days, dependent upon the degree of coke build-up.
7. a) Remove the heater from service.
b) Only process steam is used in decoking operations for Case

III. It is assumed that connections have been provided in the
heater for the injection of steam.
c) The steam flow rate for decoking should be equivalent to the

normal operating steam flow rate.
d) During the decoking operation the burners are to be fired as

for normal product service and could outlet temperatures and
tube metal temperatures maintained at/or below design.
e) The operator must watch continuously the temperature of

the tubes. This material can glow cherry red without
incurring damage, but a white heat will result in damage to
the tubes.
f) Under no circumstances are water or air to be used in

decoking operations for these heaters.
g) Changes in the pressure drop through the tubes during

decoking must be observed very carefully, since a reduction
in the pressure drop is the only indication that coke is being
removed. Small quantities of CO will be produced but
measurement will be difficult.
h) It is of utmost importance that once started the supply of

steam be continued without interruption to completion of
decoking. Loss of steam for only a few minutes will result in
the deposit of carbon on the catalyst and require the
removal of catalyst from the tubes.
i) Upon completion of the decoking operation the heater can be

returned to normal service without any further handling.

PROCESS STD 306

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PROCESS STD 306

FOSTER WHEELER HEAT TRANSFER PAGE Contents-1

1.0 GENERAL 1.0-1

1.1 Introduction 1.0-1

2.0 DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS 2.0-1

2.01 Type of Fired Heaters Covered 2.0-1

3.0 PROCESS SPECIFICATION 3.0-1

3.1 Fired Heater Process Data Form 110-21A 3.0-1

4.0 UTILITIES 4.0-1

4.1 Fuel 4.0-1

FOSTER WHEELER ENERGY LIMITED 2002

4.2.4 Furnace Box Purging 4.0-2

5.0 INSTRUMENTATION 5.0-1

6.0 STEAM-AIR DECOKING 6.0-1

6.1 Coil Decoking Sample Calculation 6.0-2

7.0 STACK DESIGN 7.0-1

7.1 Type of Stacks 7.0-1

Steam Air Decoking A-1

FOSTER WHEELER ENERGY LIMITED 2002

LIST OF FIGURE’S FIGURE DESCRIPTION PAGE

FIGURE 1 – VERTICAL-CYLINDRICAL FIRED HEATER, ALL RADIANT 1.0-8

FIGURE 2 – VERTICAL-CYLINDRICAL FIRED HEATER WITH INTEGRAL

FIGURE 3 – VERTICAL-CYLINDRICAL FIRED HEATER WITH CROSS

FIGURE 4 – ARBOR OR WICKET FIRED HEATER 1.0-11

FIGURE 5 – HORIZONTAL TUBE CABIN FIRED HEATER 1.0-12

FIGURE 6 – TWO-CELL HORIZONTAL TUBE BOX FIRED HEATER 1.0-13

FIGURE 7 – HORIZONTAL TUBE CABIN FIRED HEATER WITH DIVIDING

FIGURE 8 - FULJET NOZZLES CAPACITIES GI THRU H20 BASED ON

LIST OF TABLE’S TABLE DESCRIPTION PAGE

TABLE 1 – TYPICAL VALUES OF AVERAGE RADIANT HEAT FLUW

TABLE 2 - FULLJET NOZZLES 6.0-13

TABLE 3 - FULLJET NOZZLES - LARGER CAPACITIES 6.0-14

TABLE 4 - FOGJET NOZZLES 6.0-15

FOSTER WHEELER ENERGY LIMITED 2002

Information is given in this Process Standard to familiarize process

Process fired heaters provide heat, which is needed in equipment

FOSTER WHEELER ENERGY LIMITED 2002

Some fired heaters, such as visbreakers, coker heaters, and thermal

1.2 Definition of Terms (also see Figures 1-7)

Bridgewall The temperature of the flue gas leaving the radiant

Burner A device for mixing fuel and air for combustion

Cell A portion of the radiant section, separated from other

Coil A tubular configuration, usually a series of straight tube

Convection The portion of the fired heater, consisting of a bank of

Corbelling Narrow ledges extending from the convection section

Crossover Piping which transfers the process fluid from the

FOSTER WHEELER ENERGY LIMITED 2002

convection section outlet to the radiant section inlet

Damper A device to regulate flow of gas through a stack or duct

Draft The negative pressure (vacuum) at a given point inside

Excess Air The percentage of air in the fired heater in excess of

Flue Gas A mixture of gaseous products resulting from

Forced Draft Use of a fan to supply combustion air to the burners

Header Box The compartment at either end of the convection

FOSTER WHEELER ENERGY LIMITED 2002

Higher Heating The theoretical heat of combustion of a fuel, beginning

Lower Heating The theoretical heat of combustion of a fuel, beginning

FOSTER WHEELER ENERGY LIMITED 2002

Natural Draft The system in which the draft required to move

Pass A coil, which transports the process fluid from, fired

Radiant The portion of the fired heater in which heat is

Soot Blower A steam lance (usually movable) in the convection

Stack A steel, concrete or brick cylinder which carries flue