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APPENDIX
1.0 GENERAL
1.1 Introduction
Fired heaters are also called process heaters, furnaces, process furnaces,
and direct-fired heaters. Fired heaters are devices in which heat, provided
by burning fuel in a combustion chamber, is transferred to a process fluid
contained in tubes. The fuel is usually oil or gas or a combination of both.
Tubes are installed along the walls and roof of the combustion chamber,
and heat is transferred to the tube wall primarily by radiation in this section.
The partially cooled flue gases are then passed through a separate tube
bank section where heat is transferred to the tube wall primarily by
convection. After all the heat that can be economically recovered has
been transferred to the process fluid and used for any auxiliary services
such as steam generation, boiler feed water preheat, and combustion air
preheat, the flue gas passes through a stack to the atmosphere. The
usual flow pattern of the process fluid is to first pass countercurrent to the
flue gas through the convection section and then through the radiant
section of the fired heater.
Some fired heaters, for very low heat duty services, have no convection
section. This is based on economics. Such a design, which consists only
of a radiant section, is characterized by low thermal efficiency, but
represents the lowest capital investment for a specified duty. Most fired
heaters, however, have both a radiant and a convection section.
Fired heater size is defined in terms of heat duty (heat absorbed). Duties
range from about a half million Btu/hr for small, specialty units to about 500
million Btu/hr. By and large, the vast majority of fired heater installations
fall within the 10 to 350 million Btu/hr range.
Fired heaters fall into two main categories of application: process and
pyrolysis.
Pyrolysis fired heaters provide heat for a chemical reaction taking place
inside the tubes. Examples are steam crackers for ethylene production
and steam reformers for hydrogen manufacture. These furnaces and fired
steam boilers are not covered in this Process Standard.
The following list defines commonly used terms relating to fired heaters:
Air Preheater A heat exchanger which heats the air required for
combustion by transferring heat from the flue gas
leaving the convection section
Breeching The hood which collects the flue gas at the convection
section outlet for transmission to the stack
Fired Heater The ratio of heat absorbed to the heat fired. The lower
Efficiency heating value (LHV) of the fuel fired is almost always
used for fired heaters.
Fire Box The structure which surrounds the radiant coil and into
which the burners protrude
Gross Fuel The total fuel fired in the heater, usually expressed in
lb/hr.
Heat Duty The total heat absorbed by the process fluid, usually
expressed in Btu/hr. Total fired heater duty is the sum
of heat transferred to all process streams, including
auxiliary services such as steam superheaters
Heat Fired The total heat released in the fired heater, equal to
gross fuel times the lower heating value (LHV) of the
fuel, usually expressed in Btu/hr. It is also called "heat
liberated
Heat Flux The rate of heat transfer per unit area to a tube usually
based on total tube outer surface area. Typical units
are Btu/(hr-ft2). It is also called "heat density", "heat
transfer rate", "flux density
Hip Section The transition zone at the top of the radiant section in
cabin type furnaces. The wall of this section is usually
at a 450angle
Induced Draft Use of a fan on the flue gas side of the furnace to
provide the additional draft required over that supplied
by the stack to draw the flue gas through the
convection section
Mass Velocity The mass flow rate per unit of flow area through the
coil. Typical units are lb/(sec-ft2).
Net Fuel The fuel which would be required in the fired heater if
there were no heat losses. It is usually expressed in
lb/hr.
Shield Section The first two tube rows of the convection section.
These tubes are exposed to direct radiation from the
radiant section and usually receive about half of their
heat in this manner. They are usually made of more
resistant material than the rest of the tubes in the
convection section. They are also called shock tubes
There are many variations in the layout, design, and construction details of
fired heaters. A consequence of this flexibility is that virtually every fired
heater is custom engineered for its particular application.
The main features for several configurations of fired heaters are noted
below:
The tube coil is placed vertically along the walls of the combustion
chamber. Firing is vertical from the floor of the heater, parallel to the
tubes.
Heaters of this type represent a low cost, low efficiency design, which
requires a minimum of plot area. Typical duties are 0.5 to 10 million
Btu/hr.
Although this design is rarely chosen for new installations, because of the
difficulty in cleaning the convection section, the vast number of existing
units of this type warrants its mention.
As with the all radiant type, this design is vertically fired from the floor, with
its tube coil installed in a vertical arrangement along the walls. The
distinguishing feature of this type is the use of added surface area on the
upper section of each tube to promote convection heating. This surface
area is located in the annular space formed between the convection walls
and a central baffle sleeve. Medium efficiency can be achieved with a
minimum of plot area. Typical duties for this design are 10 to 100 million
Btu/hr.
These heaters are fired vertically from the floor and feature both radiant
and convection sections. The radiant section tube coil is arranged
vertically along the walls of the combustion chamber. The convection
section tube coil is arranged in a horizontal bank of tubes positioned above
the combustion chamber.
The radiant section tube coil is arranged horizontally along the sidewalls
and roof of the two combustion chambers. The convection section tube
coil is arranged as a horizontal bank of tubes positioned above and
between the combustion chambers. Vertically fired from the floor, this is
again an economical, high efficiency design. Typical duties range from
100 to 300 million Btu/hr. For increased capacity, the basic concept can
be expanded to include three or four radiant chambers.
The radiant section tube coil is arranged horizontally along the sidewalls of
the combustion chamber, and along the hip. The convection section tube
coil takes the form of a horizontal bank of tubes positioned above the
combustion chamber. A dividing center wall between the cells allows for
individual firing control over each cell in the combustion chamber.
Available options permit horizontal firing with sidewall-mounted burners (as
shown), or vertical firing from the floor along both sides of the center wall.
A typical duty range for this design is 20 to 100 million Btu/hr.
Guidelines for specifying process fired heaters are given in this Process
Standard. As mentioned in Section 1.1, pyrolysis furnaces and fired steam
boilers are not covered in this Standard.
The total furnace heat duty is obtained from the process requirements, and
is the sum of heat transferred to all process streams, including auxiliary
services such as steam superheaters. All operating cases must be
included. The process engineer should also establish any design margin
that may be required from the design case, based on experience with the
particular process.
The selection of the average radiant transfer rate (heat flux) is an essential
step in the design of a fired heater. The higher the design radiant rates,
the less the amount of heat transfers surface, the smaller the heater, and
the lower the cost.
Heat transfer is not uniform throughout the radiant coil. The average heat
flux is about 40 to 50% of the maximum for one-side fired tubes, the actual
maldistribution being determined by the fired heater configuration.
Therefore, the fired heater design and operation must be based on an
average heat flux low enough to obtain a satisfactory maximum heat flux.
The allowable average radiant heat flux rate is a function of several factors
including fired heater type, feedstock, service, and coil outlet temperature.
The allowable average radiant heat flux is, therefore, established by
experience. Table 1 lists typical values of average radiant heat flux for
various services.
The higher the film temperature, the higher the cracking rate. The higher
the mass velocity, the higher the heat transfer coefficient, and the higher
the heat transfer coefficient, the lower the film temperature will be at a
given bulk fluid temperature. However, too high a mass velocity will cause
a high coil pressure drop, resulting in high pumping or compressor costs,
increased design pressure of upstream equipment, and possible erosion of
heater return bends. Therefore, the design mass velocity is usually kept in
the range of 250 to 350 lb (sec-ft2) for most process fired heaters in all-
liquid or vaporizing services where coking or fouling can occur.
This practice usually requires reducing the design mass velocity in the
heater outlet tubes to about 80 to 120 lb/(sec-ft2), and no lower than bout
60 lb/(sec-ft2) under turndown conditions. Even with this reduced mass
velocity, coking is not normally a problem in the outlet tubes because of
the high linear velocity and low residence time. Refer to the FWEC
Vacuum Unit Design Manual for the specifics of vacuum heater and
transfer line design procedures.
Fired heaters with all-vapor flow are generally not susceptible to the same
severe coking problems as those in vaporizing services. Satisfactory film
coefficients usually can be obtained with a mass velocity at design
conditions as low as 15 lb/(sec-ft2). High mass velocities, such as those
used in vaporizing services, would cause very high pressure drops in all-
vapor flow.
Table 1 gives typical design fluid mass velocities for various services.
2.06 Vaporization
When a clean distillate, such as a crude unit sidestream, is fed directly into
a fired heater with no intermediate storage, the risk of fouling associated
with going through the dry point is minimal, since the distillate has just
been completely vaporized and condensed.
Poor flow distribution to the coils in multi-pass fired heaters, which result in
low flow to one or more passes, can cause overheating, coking, and tube
burnout in those passes. Flow controllers are used on each pass to
assure equal flow distribution, but if there is partial vaporization at the
orifices which measure the flow rate through each pass, erroneous
indications of flow rate can occur. Therefore, partial vaporization upstream
of the control valves should be avoided, where reasonable, and the
following alternatives should be considered to prevent any vaporization.
Specify a higher than normal pressure drop for the inlet control valves in
order to prevent vaporization.
Install a flash drum and booster pump in the exchanger train. The
vapor bypasses the heater and the liquid is pumped through the
heater. In this scheme, the furnace coil outlet temperature will increase
because of bypassing vapor.
Split the feed stream before any vaporization occurs. The final preheat
is then accomplished in parallel trains, one for each furnace pass.
The number of passes must be consistent with the furnace type, so that
each pass receives the same amount of heat. While vertical-cylindrical
furnaces can be designed for almost any number of passes, cabin
furnaces usually require an even number of passes so that they can be
symmetrically arranged in the furnace.
Solution
During detailed heater design, the pressure drop through the coil is
determined by the fired heater vendor. The calculation is complex for
vaporizing services where the pressure drop per unit length changes
continuously with changes in the gas-liquid ratio.
In general, after the number of tubes and the tube layout have been
established, the coil is divided into a number of sequential sections for the
pressure drop calculation. Smaller sections are used at the outlet (as few
as two tubes), where the specific volume is changing rapidly. Larger
sections are taken as one proceeds back into the coil. For a typical crude
unit fired heater, approximately 6 sections should be satisfactory.
Calculations are started at the coil outlet where the temperature and
pressure are known. Here the enthalpy and composition can be
calculated. Then a pressure is assumed at the inlet to the first section
back in the coil. The enthalpy added in this section (heat flux in radiant
section is assumed to be uniform) is subtracted from the coil outlet
enthalpy and the temperature and composition calculated with this
enthalpy and the assumed pressure. Using the inlet and outlet conditions,
and the equivalent length of the section (straight run plus fittings), the
pressure drop in the section is calculated, due to friction, changes in
kinetic energy, and changes in static head. In the case of partially
vaporized liquids, no appreciable error is introduced if the change in static
head is neglected, since the change is generally very small.
If the calculated pressure drop does not agree with the assumed inlet
pressure, a new pressure must be assumed and the calculations repeated.
When good agreement is reached, the calculations are continued
upstream until the coil inlet is reached.
2.09 Turndown
The turndown analysis for multi-cell furnaces for two or more services is
even more complex. Consider a furnace with three radiant zones and a
common convection section, as might be used for a catalytic reformer.
The central radiant zone and the convection section would be used for
preheat and the other two radiant zones for reheat. The heat input to any
zone is influenced to some extent by the heat input to the other zones.
Also, since each radiant zone contributes flue gas to the convection
section, any reduction in the reheat radiant zones would require additional
firing to the preheat radiant zone to make up for the reduced convection
section heat input. Variations in relative duties over the run length would
have to be considered. A complete analysis sometimes shows that a
separate furnace is required for steam superheat, usually to meet "oil-side"
process needs. Also, small reheat duties are often put in separate heaters
to solve problems.
The furnace vendor must examine the tube metal temperature at the
convection section cold end at turndown conditions, particularly with
relatively cold coil inlet temperatures, to assure that the acid dewpoint of
the flue gas is not reached. See Section 2.10 - Stack Temperature.
Special attention must be given to the stack temperature when coil inlet
temperatures are low (below 250-300°F). The stack temperature must be
high enough to prevent acid condensation on the convection section inlet
tubes. When fuels containing sulfur are burned, the sulfur is converted to
sulfur dioxide (SO2), and part of the sulfur dioxide is converted to sulfur
trioxide (SO3) which combines with water vapor to form sulfuric acid. This
sulfuric acid remains in the vapor state as long as the temperature is
above the acid dewpoint of the gas, but condenses out on relatively cool
surfaces (below about 250 to 300°F) and causes metal corrosion.
The furnace vendor shall be asked to calculate the flue gas acid dewpoint
temperature. The process engineer can estimate this temperature from
correlations of acid dewpoint vs. the percentage of water vapor and sulfur
trioxide in the flue gas. The volume percent water vapor in the flue gas
can be calculated from the fuel analysis, the percent excess air, the air
humidity, and the fuel atomizing steam, if any. In the case of liquid fuels,
the composition is rarely provided. If only the gravity is given, the carbon
to hydrogen ratio can be estimated from the data in the "Liquid Fuels" table
on page 14.1 (Combustion Section) of the API Technical Data Book. If the
Watson Characterization Factor, K, is also known, Figure 2B6.1 of the API
Technical Data Book can be used. The calculation of the volume percent
sulfur trioxide is much more complex. The amount of sulfur dioxide
converted to sulfur trioxide depends on many factors including fuel
composition, excess air, firing rates, and the presence of vanadium in the
fuel oil. As a rough estimate, it can be assumed that 1-2% of the fuel
sulfur is converted to sulfur trioxide. For design purposes, assume 5% is
converted to sulfur trioxide.
Knowing the percentage of water vapor and sulfur trioxide in the gas, the
acid dewpoint temperature in degrees Kelvin can be calculated from the
following equation:
1,000
= 1.7842 + 0.0269 log10 P H 2O
T DP
In estimating the combustion air requirements, assume 10% excess air for
all process fired heaters designed for forced draft firing (regardless of fuel)
or for natural draft firing of gas fuel. Fired heaters designed for natural
draft fuel oil firing, or combination gas/oil firing, encounter greater mixing
difficulties and should be assumed to require 20% excess air.
The thermal efficiency of a fired heater in percent, based on the LHV of the
fuel, is defined as follows:
Heat Absorbed
E LHV = x 100
Heat Fired (LHV)
The heat absorbed is obtained from the process requirements. The heat
fired must be calculated. First the flue gas temperature leaving the
convection section must be estimated. As mentioned in Section 2.10, this
can be estimated as 150°F above the coil inlet temperature. Then the heat
extracted from the flue gas (in BTU/lb of fuel fired) in reaching the flue gas
outlet temperature is obtained from the fuel characteristics, percent excess
air, and the "Heat Available from Combustion" charts in the API Technical
Data Book (Figures 14B1.1-14B1.7). Use the chart for fuel closest to
characteristics of fuel fired.
To obtain the net fuel fired in lbs/hr, divide the heat absorbed in BTU/hr by
the heat extracted from the fuel gas in BTU/lb of fuel fired. To obtain the
gross fuel fired, the net fuel fired has to be increased to account for
furnace heat losses (excluding stack losses). As an estimate, the net fuel
fired can be increased by the following factors to obtain the gross fuel
fired:
Fired Heater Size
Million BTU/hr Heat Absorbed Factor
Greater than 100 1.01
15 to 100 1.02
Less than 15 1.03
Since the fired heater efficiency is to be calculated on the basis of fuel
LHV, the gross fuel fired is multiplied by the fuel LHV.
c) Heat extracted from flue gas (Figure 14B1.6 API Technical Data
Book) based on 600°F flue gas temperature and 20% excess air =
15,100 BTU/lb of fuel
FOSTER WHEELER ENERGY LIMITED 2002
PROCESS STD 306
FOSTER WHEELER HEAT TRANSFER PAGE 2.0-11
HEATERS/FURNACES REV 10
PROCESS PLANTS DIVISION DATE JULY 2002
The efficiency of a fired heater can be increased by reducing the stack gas
temperature, but the temperature should only be reduced to a point where
it is still certain that acid will not condense from the flue gas. To reduce
the temperature, auxiliary services such as steam generation and boiler
feed water preheat can be added, or combustion air preheat should be
considered. These options are all subject to economic evaluation.
2.13 Burners
Burners are classified according to the type of fuel, which they burn: gas,
liquid, or combination gas and liquid.
Liquid burners of the natural draft type are available. Forced draft liquid
burners are more expensive than natural draft liquid burners, but they
provide more efficient fuel/air mixing, and noise in the system may be
more easily attenuated.
For those rare instances when steam is not available, air atomization or
mechanical atomization can be employed. The operating requirements of
air-atomized oil burners are similar to those of steam-atomized ones. A
slightly higher oil temperature may be needed, however, to compensate for
the cooling effect of the atomizing air. Mechanically atomized units take
advantage of the oil's kinetic energy to atomize the fuel stream in the tip
itself. High fuel pressure, 350 psig and greater, is required.
When volatile fuels such as naphtha are used, care must be taken that
partial vaporization of the fuel does not take place upstream of the fuel
gun. This condition would result in severe burner instabilities and possibly
cause burner flame out. Also, safety interlocks should be specified to
prevent removal of a burner gun without complete shutoff of the fuel and
prior to automatic steam purge of the fuel remaining in the burner gun.
Several high intensity burners are available for fired heater applications. In
general, they feature a large, cylindrical-shaped, refractory-lined
combustion chamber. Combustion is fully established in this chamber, but
not completed. By means of the circulation patterns developed within the
chamber, flames of controlled shape and size can be produced at
relatively low excess air. High intensity combustion expels the flue gas at
high velocity and temperature producing very uniform firebox temperature
profiles.
For very low pressure gases, a special pre-mix burner with steam eductor
can be used. This burner (aspirating type) is often used to burn waste gas
streams as vacuum unit non-condensibles. Specialty burners are also
available for firing mixtures of unsaturated gases, which have a tendency
to polymerize. High pressure or steam injection is used.
Baffles, which subdivide the cylinder, as well as seals between the cylinder
and the casing, limit the amount of leakage from the air side to the flue gas
side. Since the air side is at a higher pressure than the flue gas side,
leakage is always toward the flue gas side. This leakage, which is usually
10 to 20% of the total flow, must be taken into account in the design,
particularly of the fans.
The regenerative type of preheater is often used for very large duty
heaters and with oil or dirty gas fuels where fouling or corrosion of
preheater elements could be a problem. It is the classical type of
preheater with a long history of use, and until relatively recently, was the
only type of design available. Its main advantage as compared to other
newer types of air preheaters is that it is mechanical in nature, with moving
parts, and thus may be subject to breakdown.
In the case of furnace mounted tubular air preheaters, the flue gas passes
directly from the furnace through the preheater and into the stack. In most
cases, the induced draft fan is eliminated. However, ducting is required to
carry the cool air from the forced draft fan up to the preheater and the hot
air back down to the burners. In some cases, the forced draft fan can be
mounted at the top of the furnace to eliminate the long ducts from the fan
to the preheater.
Within the last few years, Q-Dot Corporation, which is partially owned by
Foster Wheeler, has been successfully manufacturing heat pipes as a new
innovation. The heat pipe, which is used for air preheating, is a tube which
has been fabricated with a capillary wick structure, evacuated, filled with a
suitably selected heat transfer liquid, and permanently sealed. Thermal
energy applied to either end of the pipe causes the heat transfer liquid at
that end to vaporize. The vapor then travels to the other end of the pipe
where thermal energy is removed, causing the vapor to condense, thereby
giving up the latent heat of condensation. The condensed liquid then flows
back to the evaporator section to be reused, thus completing the cycle.
A bypass duct should be provided around the air side of the preheater. In
addition to its use in completely bypassing the preheater, this duct is used
to control flue gas exit temperature, thereby minimizing preheater
corrosion caused by condensation on the flue gas side at low firing rates or
low ambient air temperatures. A flue gas bypass duct to the stack should
also be provided to bypass the preheater and the induced draft fan.
The primary considerations for material selection are the required strength,
resistance to corrosion (or erosion), and oxidation (or reduction)
characteristics. Bearing upon these characteristics are the temperature
level, the fired heater atmosphere, and corrosive constituents of the
process fluid and the fuel.
PROCESS REQUIREMENTS
Notes:
1. Vendor to advise maximum tube wall, fluid bulk, and film temperature of the
process and steam superheat coils.
4. Heater shall be designed for continuous operation at 50% turndown for both
Alaskan and Nigerian cases.
5. Vendor to advise heater pressure drop with both clean tubes and with 1/8" coke
laydown.
6. Gulf high intensity type (vortometric) burners shall be used. Controlled steam
pressure at burners will be 50 psig.
7. Vendor shall make provision for the future addition of steam soot blowers of the
multi-jet type for the convection section of this heater.
9. Vendor to confirm that steam superheat coil is capable of withstanding zero steam
flow during normal process coil operating conditions.
4.0 UTILITIES
4.1 Fuel
4.1.2 Pilots
If the gas for the pilots is the same as the gas for the main
burners, no pilot fuel gas has to be estimated, since the pilots also
supply heat to the process. If an independent gas supply is used,
however, the quantity needed can be estimated (for utility
consumption estimates) by assuming that the pilot heat fired will
be 5 percent of the furnace heat fired. Each pilot fires
approximately 100,000 BTU/hr and operates with fuel pressures of
2 to 15 psig.
4.2 Steam
4.2.1 Atomizing
The retractable soot blower has been the most successful method
of onstream convection section cleaning to date and is specified
when firing residual fuels. A high investment cost is required for
the retractable system, but in the usual case, the facilities can be
justified.
Facilities for steam purging the furnace coil in the event of a loss
of flow are sometimes specified. This coil purge is used to prevent
the high temperature residual heat in the furnace refractory from
coking the hydrocarbon remaining in the coil. However, a steam
purge has little or no value in services containing light
hydrocarbons or mixtures of hydrocarbon and hydrogen. Coil
purge steam should never be considered as a substitute for
immediately shutting off the fuel upon loss of flow in the coil.
If induced and/or forced draft fans, which are steam driven, are
used, the steam consumption for the fans may have to be
estimated before the fans are selected by the vendor. The
horsepower of the induced draft fan for flue gas and the forced
draft fan for air can be estimated from the following equation:
FOSTER WHEELER ENERGY LIMITED 2002
PROCESS STD 306
FOSTER WHEELER HEAT TRANSFER PAGE 4.0-4
HEATERS/FURNACES REV 10
PROCESS PLANTS DIVISION DATE JULY 2002
For fired heaters with air preheat, both an induced draft and a
forced draft fan are required. For the forced draft fan, use the
following conditions:
4.4 Electricity
4.4.1 Fans
If induced and/or forced draft fans, which are motor, driven are
used, the KW consumption for the fans must be estimated. Fan
horsepowers can be estimated as described in Section 4.2.7. The
KW consumption for the motor drives can be estimated as
described in Process Standard 400-1.1.
4.4.2 Regenerative Air Preheater
A small motor is required to rotate a regenerative preheater such
as the Ljungstrom. Motor HP ranges from 1• •to 7• •depending
on size. This type of air preheater is generally used on large units,
and if no vendor information is available, the motor HP can be
taken as 5, and the KW consumption as 3.5 for utility estimates.
4.4.3 Soot Blowers
If electric drivers are to be provided for soot blowers, a 1.5 HP
motor is used, and the KW consumption can be estimated as 0.8.
The general guidelines and recommendations for fired heater instrumentation are
contained in the FWEC Process Standard 508. Specific customer requirements
and the Basis of Design for a specific project must also be followed. In addition,
heater instrumentation should be discussed with the instrument engineer and fired
heater vendor.
Steam-air decoking refers to the cleaning of fired heater tubes by the action of
steam and air. The process is usually divided into two parts, known as "spalling"
and "burning".
During spalling, steam only is admitted to the normal coil inlet of the fired heater at
fairly high rates while the furnace is fired. Coke is removed by the cooling action of
the steam on the hot tubes, causing the coke to contract and break away; by the
scouring action of the high velocity steam; and by chemical action, such as the gas
reaction, C + H2O = CO + H2. With proper operation, as much as 90 to 95 percent
of the coke can be removed by spalling.
During the burning period, both air and steam flow through the coil, and the
remaining coke is removed by direct oxidation.
Steam and combustion product effluent is fed to a coke knockout drum. In order to
remove coke dust from the vapor effluent, it has been FWEC practice to condense
steam and cool the gas with quench water. The gas is cooled to about 10°F lower
than the boiling point of water. At sea level, this is 200°F. The water then carries
the coke to the sewer.
The plant sewer and water treatment facilities have to be checked to assure that
200°F water can be sent to the sewer. If it cannot, more quench water will have to
be used. In the case of excessive water requirements, consideration should be
given to quenching only to approximately 5000F and discharging the total vapor to
the atmosphere. In this case, only the solid coke is collected in the drum and the
drum will have to be made big enough to hold all the coke from the spalling
operation. Depending on environmental regulations, it may be necessary to
provide a coke separator (such as made by Peerless Manufacturing Co.) For the
vapor effluent.
The process engineer is responsible for estimating the steam, air, and quench
water requirements for the steam-air decoking operation, as well as for designing
the coke knockout drum in which the steam is condensed with quench water. A
sample calculation is provided below to be used in conjunction with DEP-2241-01.
pass heater
Determine
C) Water rate to condense all steam from spalling operation and cool
condensate to 200°F
Solution
Section V.A.6.h)
18 lb sec
2
x 3,600 x 0.1810 ft 2 = 11,729 lb/hr,
sec- ft hr
1,020,000 BTU/hr
hg out spalling steam = + 1,272.5 BTU/lb
12,000 lb/hr
= 1,357.5 BTU/lb
Quench Duty
28.5 x 106
Required Quench Water = = 518 GPM
(1.0)(200 - 90)500
135 lb/hr
Coke burning rate = = 2.25 lb/min
60 min /hr
= 0.0154 ft3/ft
Since the maximum burning rate is less than the rate obtained
from the oxidation reactions assumed, even with no coke
removed by spalling, the effluent rates calculated are
satisfactory for design. If the maximum burning rate calculated
were higher than the rate obtained from the oxidation
reactions, a higher air rate would have to be assumed, and the
calculations repeated to obtain a conservative effluent rate for
the coke knockout drum design.
Determine
Solution
A- Drum Diameter
11.53
= 33.3 x = 121.1 mols/hr
(14.7 - 11.53)
MW x P 18.9 x 14.7
4) 0v = = = 0.0392 lb/ ft 3
R xT 10.731 x 660
2,917 lb/hr
5) Vapor flow = 3
= 20.7 ft3/sec
0.0392 lb/ ft x 3,600 sec /hr
60.11
7) Va = 0.15 - 1 = 5.87 ft/ sec
0.0392
20.7 ft 3 / sec
= = 3.53 ft 2
5.87 ft/ sec
(4)(3.53)
9) Drum diameter = = 2.12 ft
"
(9,000)(1,612.5) + (12,000)(1,457.4)
h steam =
21,000
= 1,523.9 Btu/lb
0v = 0.0175 lb/ft3
21,000 lb/hr
4) Vapor flow = =
0.0175 lb/ ft 3 x 3,600 sec /hr
= 333.3 ft3/sec
60.11
Va = (0.6) - 1 = 35.16 ft/ sec
0.0175
(333.3)(4)
6) Drum diameter = = 3.47 ft
35.16)( " )
B- Spray Nozzles
The higher the pressure drop across the spray nozzles, the
smaller will be the droplet size. Therefore, the maximum
pressure available should be used for the spray nozzles.
Nozzle data for full cone nozzles, from Spraying Systems Co.,
can be obtained from Tables 2, 3, and 4, and Figure 8.
1,242 CFM
2) Water flow = x 10 GPM = 12.4 GPM
1,000 CFM
12.4 GPM
= = 5 (Table 4)
2.5 GPM/nozzle
C- Drum Height
b Provide a height of 3 feet between the top spray nozzle and the
upper cooling and condensing nozzle.
1.75 ft
3) Spacing = S = = 2.1 ft, say 2'-6"
tan 401
The process engineer does not normally design the furnace stack, but only
provides special requirements, such as a minimum height, in the process
specification. Occasionally, however, the process engineer may have to estimate
a stack size for a cost estimate.
Stacks are usually made of steel or concrete; below a height of 250 feet
they are usually made of steel. Furnace-supported stacks are always
made of steel.
The stack diameter can be estimated using an inlet flue gas velocity of 25
ft/sec. (When relatively high stacks are required because of environmental
requirements, higher stack gas velocities may be used because the extra
draft generated can overcome the higher pressure drop. Higher velocities
may also be required for pollution control considerations.) The gross fuel
fired can be calculated as outlined in Section 2.12, and the flue gas
quantity can be obtained using Chart 14C1.1 of the API Technical Data
Book.
The molecular weight of the flue gas can be assumed to be the same as
that of air, and the flue gas density can be calculated from the following
equation.
39.5
0g=
Tg
To correct density for altitude, the value obtained from the above equation
should be multiplied by a factor obtained from the following table:
FOSTER WHEELER ENERGY LIMITED 2002
PROCESS STD 306
FOSTER WHEELER HEAT TRANSFER PAGE 7.0-2
HEATERS/FURNACES REV 10
PROCESS PLANTS DIVISION DATE JULY 2002
(0.0030)( G g )2
Use 1 velocity head !P =
0g
The flue gas temperature leaving the stack is lower than at the
inlet because of heat loss through the stack. The magnitude of
the differential depends on several factors, including the type of
stack, stack dimensions, and the insulation.
3 Losses in Ducts
2a b
De =
a+b
Where De = equivalent hydraulic diameter, ft
a depth of duct, ft.
b width of duct, ft.
In determining the friction factor, f, for use in the pressure drop
equation, use a surface roughness factor, 2, of 0.0027 ft for
internally insulated steel ducts.
Estimate the pressure drop as 0.5 velocity heads per row of tubes.
The mass velocity should be based on the free flow area at the
tube row centerline. For extended surface tubes, the free flow
area should be based on bare tubes of diameter equal to the
extreme diameter of extended surface. No credit is taken for the
free area between individual studs or fins on a tube.
7 Stack Effect
( 1 1 %
!PSE = (0.52) (L) (P) & - #
' Ta Tg $
Convection Section
1) 4 rows of bare tubes with flue gas mass velocity = 0.35 lb/(sec-
ft2) and average temperature = 1500°F
Determine
Solution
A Stack Diameter
a From fuel fired with 20% excess air and Figure 14C1.1 from
the API Technical Data Book, the flue gas rate is calculated.
39.5 39.5
0g= = = 0.0373 lb/ft3 (Section 7.2)
Tg (600 + 460)
414,360
Volumetric Flow Rate = = 3,086 ft3/sec
(0.0373)(3,600)
3,086
Area per stack = = 61.7 ft2
(25)(2 stacks)
(4)(61.7)
Diameter of each stack = = 8.86 ft, say 9'-0"
"
B) Stack Height
(0.0030)( G g )2
!P =
0g
414,360
Gg = = 0.9046 lb/(sec-ft2)
(" ) 2
(3,600) (9.0 ) (2 stacks)
4
39.5
0g = = 0.0416 lb/ft3
(490 + 460)
(0.0030) (0.9046 )2
!P = = 0.059 inches water
0.0416
(0.0030) (0.9046 )2
1 velocity head = = 0.066 inches water
0.0373
3) Losses in ducts
39.5
0g = = 0.0202 lb/ft3
(1,500 + 460)
(0.0030) (0.35 )2
1 velocity head = = 0.018 inches water
0.0202
39.5
0g = = 0.0231 lb/ft3
(1,250 + 460)
(0.0030) (0.50 )2
1 velocity head = = 0.032 inches water
0.0231
39.5
0g = = 0.032 lb/ft3
(850 + 460)
(0.0030) (1.05 )2
1 velocity head = = 0.110 inches water
0.0302
1,600 + 600
Tg = = 11000F
2
( 1 1 %
!PSE = (0.52) (L) (P) & - #
' Ta Tg $
( 1 1 %
= (0.52) (11) (14.7) & - #
' (90 + 460) 1,100 + 460) $
600 + 490
Tg = = 5450F
2
( 1 1 %
!PSE = (0.52) (1) (14.7) & - #
' (90 + 460) (545 + 460) $
f L 0gV2
!Pf =
2,316 D
Where !PSE = Stack effect, inches of water
!Pf3 = Frictional pressure drop, psi
L3 = Stack height, ft
0g = Average flue gas density, lb/ft3
V3 = Flue gas velocity, ft/sec
D = Stack diameter, ft
FOSTER WHEELER ENERGY LIMITED 2002
PROCESS STD 306
FOSTER WHEELER HEAT TRANSFER PAGE 7.0-10
HEATERS/FURNACES REV 10
PROCESS PLANTS DIVISION DATE JULY 2002
39.5 39.5
0g = = = 0.0393 lb/ft3
Tg (545 + 460)
@ 545°F = 0.0275 cp
" D2
Stack cross-sectional area = A
4
" (9.0 )2
= = 6.36 ft2
4
414,360 lb/hr
V =
(2 stacks)(3,600 sec /hr)(0.0393 lb/ ft 3 )(63.6 ft 2 )
= 23.0 ft/sec
= 440,180
2 0.0027
Using = = 0.0003 (assuming lined stack)
D 9.0
0.568
H= (1.05) = 97
0.00618
APPENDIX
STEAM AIR DECOKING
I SCOPE
This DEP shall define the mechanics, operating procedures, and precautions
II DEFINITION
Steam-air decoking is the art of removal of coke deposited inside heater tubes by
spalling and/or burning, utilizing steam and air as agents.
a) Contraction of the tubes due to cooling will cause the coke deposits within the
tube to crack and spall. Reduction of the number of burners being fired and
the introduction of steam will speed this action. Steam injection in addition to
accelerating spalling will remove loose coke from the tubes.
b) It is of utmost importance that steam be injected into the tubes not being
decoked to prevent damage to these tubes.
3H 2O 5 2C 6 CO2 5 CO 5 3H 2
The oxygen in the air also generates a chemical reaction with the heated
coke- 3O2 5 4C 6 2CO2 5 2CO
IV GENERAL
b) The decoking operation normally requires the services of two men. Their
functions are:
1. One man will be required to check continuously the coke burning rate
by observing the metal temperature of the tubes.
2. The second man will be required to for control of the steam-air rates
FOSTER WHEELER ENERGY LIMITED 2002
PROCESS STD 306
FOSTER WHEELER HEAT TRANSFER PAGE A-2
HEATERS/FURNACES REV 10
PROCESS PLANTS DIVISION DATE JULY 2002
and for the checking of the effluent samples from the tubes.
c) This type of operation lends itself to being conducted at might since the glow
of the tubes can be observed more easily during the coke burning operation.
The use of an optical pyrometer is recommended.
d) The metal content of the tubes governs the controlling temperature at which
the operation shall be conducted. Coke will burn at temperatures between
10500F to 13500F. The tube metal temperatures recommended below are
approximate and the manufacturer must advise the maximum temperature
the tubes supplied can withstand.
e) The time required for completion of the decoking operation can vary from six
hours to three days, dependent upon the thickness of coke deposits and/or
the detailed procedures to be followed.
g) The steam-air decoking should not be used where tube deposits contain a
large proportion of salt or lime. This is apt to occur in topping or other crude
processing unit when the crude has not been desalted.
Water washing of the tubes for ash removal shall be done only after the tube
metal temperatures have cooled to 5000F.
V OPERATING PROCEDURES
4. Steam and effluent should not be vented to the stack of the heater
since carbon may precipitate out and form undesirable deposits on
outer surfaces of tubes in the top of the heater. Since CO, CO2 , and
H2 are formed during decoking, the vapors should be vented through
a portable stack or other equivalent means and discharged to
atmosphere at least 10 feet above grade.
Sequential Operation
a) The piping connections for steam, air and water are connected to the
pass or passes of tubes. See typical Piping Detail for Steam-Air
Decoking page 11, this standard.
b) The feed to the heaters is shut off and the burners extinguished.
c) Steam is introduced to the tubes to purge the lines of residual oil and
oil vapors. The steam purge is a precautionary measure to prevent
the ignition of a flammable mixture of air and oil vapors.
d) When the purge is complete, drains are opened and the heater is
taken out of service. Jump overs are installed where required (See
paragraph IV-1 General). Figure eight blinds are put in place. Swing
elbows are rotated. Steam is introduced to all tubes (even those
tubes not being decoked) to prevent overheating. Quench water to
the sample connections and drain is turned on.
f) Increase flue gas temperatures leaving the radiant section at the rate
of 3000F/hr. until it reaches 13500F. Hold this flue gas temperature
though the spalling period or until air is introduced.
/ Alternately reduce and increase the steam flow rate though the
tubes.
/ Add a small quantity of air to the steam for a few minutes, then
shut off air.
1) The discharge will be milky with a slight gray colour before and
after decoking has started and has been completed.
2) A light gray color will be seen in the effluent to the sewer when
a fine soot is being removed
l) When sampler outlet shows fine coke dust, reduce inlet pressure for
a minimum of 10 minutes to see if any grainy coke will show up. If
fine coke dust continues, reduce pressure further to be sure dust is
not produced by high velocities.
s) Upon completion of the decoking operation air injection into the tubes
is to be stopped and steam flow rate increased for the removal of
residual ash giving the effluent a milky white colour.
2. When the pressure drop increases about 10 per cent, the tubes
require decoking. An alternate method is to schedule decoking at
regular intervals.
8. Sequential Operation
j) The operator must watch carefully to ensure that tubes are not
overheated during the burning operation. Tubes will not be
damaged if they glow cherry red at the point of coke burning.
Tubes shall not be permitted to reach white heat. At the point
where coke is burning, the tube will have a cherry red glow,
approximately one foot long. The rate of burning will be
approximately one and one-half feet per minute.
k) Should tubes reach white heat, cut off air injection to the steam
and reduce the flue gas temperature 2000F, and continue step-
wise temperature reduction until the tube metal temperature
has been lowered.