Você está na página 1de 38

TABLE OF CONTENTS

CERTIFICATE 1
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT 2
ABSTRACT
Error! Bookmark not defined.
LIST OF FIGURES 5
LIST OF TABLES 6
CHAPTER-1 7.
OBJECTIVE OF THE PROJECT 7
CHAPTER-2 8
INTRODUCTION 8
CHAPTER-3 10
LITERATURE REVIEW 10
CHAPTER-4 12
DESCRIPTON OF COMPONENT USED 12
4.1 DIODE 12
4.1.1 FORWARD BIASING CHARACTERISTIC OF DIODE 13
4.1.2 REVERSE BIASING CHARACTERISTIC OF DIODE 13
4.2 ZENER DIODE 14
4.2.1 ZENER DIODE CIRCUIT 15
4.2.2 CHARACTERISTICS OF A ZENER DIODE 16
4.2.3 APPLICATION OF ZENER DIODE 16
4.2.4 ZENER DIODE AS VOLTAGE REGULATOR 16
4.3 RESISTOR 17
4.4 CAPACITOR 18
4.4.1 TYPES OF CAPACITORS 18
4.5 TRANSISTOR 20
4.5.1 DEFINITION OF BJT 20
4.5.2 N-P-N BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTOR 21
4.5.3 P-N-P BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTOR 21
4.5.4 WORKING PRINCIPLE OF BJT 22
4.6 LIGHT DEPENDENT RESISTOR 22
4.6.1 WORKING PRINCIPLE OF LDR 23
4.6.2APPLICATIONS OF LDR 23
4.7 LED 24
4.7.1WORKING PRINCIPLE OF LED 24
4.8 POTENTIOMETER 25
4.9 DRY CELL 26
4.10 FUSE 27
5.1 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM 28
5.2 COMPONENT USED AND THEIR SPECIFICATION 29
5.3 WORKING OF THE CIRCUIT 30
CHAPTER- 6 37
SCOPE OF POWERING THE CUIRCUIT 37
CHAPTER-7 38
ADVANTAGES AND APPLICATION 38
CHAPTER-8 39
REFERENCE 39

LIST OF FIGURES

Page no.
Fig.1 Symbol of diode 12

Fig.2 Biasing of diode 13

Fig.3 Forward biasing of diode 13

Fig.4 Reverse biasing of diode 14

Fig.5 Connection of diode as a zener diode 15

Fig.6 Symbol of zener diode 15

Fig.7 Characteristics of zener diode 15

Fig.8Zener diode as voltage regulator 17

Fig.9 Types of transistor 20

Fig.10 n-p-n transistor 21

Fig.11 p-n-p transistor 21

Fig.12 Symbol of LDR 23

Fig.13 Symbol of LED 24

Fig.14 Symbol of Potentiometer 25

Fig.15 Symbol of cell and battery 26

Fig.16 A typical fuse used in the circuit 27

Fig.17 Circuit diagram 28

Fig.18 Waveform across source 32

Fig.19 Waveform after rectification 33

Fig.20 Waveform across zener diode 34


Fig:-21Waveform across C2 35

Fig.22 Waveform across Emitter and Base 36

LIST OF TABLES
Page no.

Table 1.Different components with their specifications 29


and price
CHAPTER-1

OBJECTIVE OF THE PROJECT

Our objective is to reduce the power consumption and by employing this circuit
Energy consumption can be reduced considerably as the light switches ON or
OFF automatically in appropriate time.
Moreover errors which occurs due to manual operation also can be eliminated
completely.
The systemitself detects whether there is need for light or not. When darkness
rises to a certain value then automaticallystreetlight is switched ON and when
there is other source of light, the street light gets OFF.
The main advantages of this system consist in the reduction of the costs related
to energyconsumption.
CHAPTER-2

INTRODUCTION
Basically, street lighting is one of the important parts of a city’s infrastructure
where the main function is toilluminate the city’s streets during dark hours of the
day. Previously, the number of streets in the town and city is verysmall.
Therefore, the street lamps are relatively simple but with the development of
urbanization, the number of streetsincreases rapidly with high traffic density.
There are several factors need to be considered in order to design a good street
lighting system such as night-time safety for community members and road
users, provide public lighting at costeffective, the reduction of crime and
minimizing it is effect on the environment. At the beginning, street lamps were
controlled by manual control where a control switch is set in each of the street
lamps. It is called first generation of the original street light. After that, another
method that has been used was optical control method. Thismethod operates by
set up an optical control circuit, change the resistance byusing of light sensitive
device to controlstreet lamps light up automatically at dusk and turn off
automatically after dawn in the morning. Due to thetechnological development
nowadays, road lighting can be categorized according to the installation area,
performanceand their used, for an example, lighting for traffic routes, lighting
for subsidiary roads and lighting for urban center and public amenity areas.
Meanwhile, street lighting technology can be classified according to the type of
lamps used suchas incandescent light, mercury vapour light, metal halide light,
high pressure sodium light, low pressure sodium light,fluorescent light, compact
fluorescent light, induction light and LED light.Over the last few years, LED
street lamps have turned into real products that one can see on the road. They
Make sense for many reasons, such as their compact size, high efficacy (lumens
per watt), longevity, and robustness. LEDsources also allow for interesting new
design forms, often with slimmer profiles than traditional metal halide arclamps.
LED is considered a promising solution to modern street lighting system due to
it is behaviour and advantagesas emphasized. Apart from that, the advantages of
LED are likely to replace the traditional street lamps such as theincandescent
lamp, fluorescent lamp and High Pressure Sodium Lamp in future but LED
technology is an extremelydifficult process that requires a combination of
advanced production lines, top quality materials and high-
precisionmanufacturing process. Therefore, this paper highlights the energy
efficient of street lighting design using LEDlamps through intelligent sensor
interface for controlling and managing.The original contribution of this thesis is
to design of a streetlight node based on which the system can be set to run in
automatic mode, which control streetlight according to Sunrise and Sunset
Algorithm and light intensity. Thiscontrol can make a reasonable adjustment
according to the seasonal variation.
CHAPTER-3

LITERATURE REVIEW
Gustavo W. Denardin deals about a control network for a LED street lighting
system. The use of LEDs is being considered promising solution to modern
street lighting systems, dueto their longer lifetime, higher luminous efficiency
and higherCRI.. In order to meet the system requirements, a wireless sensor
network based on IEEE 802.15.4TM standard is employed. Its network layer is
implemented using geographic routing strategy, which provides slow overhead
and high scalability features. However, due to well-known drawbacks of the
existing techniques, a novel routing algorithm is proposed. Simulations show
that this algorithm leads to a significant improvement of routing performance
when applied to sparse large scale scenarios, which is the case of street lighting
system. Field tests have been performed on IEEE 802.15.4-compliant wireless
control units. The obtained experimental results show that the proposed control
network is able to meet the requirements of a LED street lighting system. It
mainly deals about safer roadways with intelligent light system to reduce power
consumption. This system has automatic street light intensity control based on
the vehicular movement and switching ON and OFF of street lights depending
on the light ambiance. A.C. deal about solar energy based street light with auto-
tracking system for maximizing power output from a solar system is desirable to
increase the efficiency. In order to maximize the power output from the solar
panels, one needs to keep panels aligned with the sun. As such a means of
tracking the sun is required. This is a far most cost effective solution than
purchasing additional solar panels. It has been estimated that the yield from
solar panels can be increased by 30 to 60 percent by utilizing a tracking system
instead of a stationary array. This paper describes an automatic tracking system
which will keep the solar panels aligned with the sun in order to maximize
efficiency.
The sun tracking sensor is the sensing device, which sense the position of the
sun at the time to time continuously and it gives the sensing output to the
amplifier based on light density of the sun. Here the sun tracking sensor is LDR
(light dependent resistor). The amplifier unit is used to amplify the LDR signals,
which makes the low level signal into high level signals and this output is given
to the comparator. The LM324 IC is used as an amplifier. Comparator compares
the signals and gives the command to the AT89C51 microcontroller. The system
presented in this paper will be an efficient method to use the solar energy in
remote areas. This system consumes very low power and high efficient
lightning. We employ the auto sun tracking system; this can improve the energy
stored in battery. This system does not affect the environment because it is
pollution free. Our system also consisting of automatic ON, OFF control of the
LED lamp, so there is no manual operation and it is not required operators S.H.
Jeong describes about the Development of Zigbee based Street Light Control
System which control and monitor status of street lights installed alongside load.
Lights are switched to ON/OFF by this system’s control command. Its local
status information is also monitored by control system via communication
channel. Status information which is monitored are on/off status information,
energy saving mode status, control group status information and safety related
information, etc. To transfer control command and status information between
street light control system and remote street light control terminals which
installed at each light pole, various communication media and communication
protocols are using. As communication media, wireless or power lines are used
generally. Various frequency bands from tens of MHz to Rebrands are used for
wireless case. This Street light control system can save maintenance time and
costs and which can improve safety level.
CHAPTER-4

DESCRIPTON OF COMPONENT USED

4.1 DIODE
In electronics, a diode is a two-terminal electronic component that conducts
primarily in one direction ; it has low (ideally zero) resistance to the flow
Of current in one direction, and high (ideally infinite) resistance in the other.

The function of a diode is to allow an electric current to pass in one direction


(called the diode's forward direction), while blocking current in the opposite
direction (the reverse direction). Thus, the diode can be viewed as an electronic
version of a check valve. This unidirectionalbehaviour is called rectification,
and is used to convert alternating current to direct current. A semiconductor
diode, the most common type today, is a crystalline piece of semiconductor
material with a p–n junction connected to two electrical terminals. P-N junction
is formed by bringing a P type material in contact with N type material. When a
P-type material is brought in contact with N- type material electrons and holes
start recombining near the junction. This result in lack of charge carriers at the
junction and thus the junction is called depletion region. Symbol of P-N junction
is given as:

Figure:-1. Symbol of diode

Biased i.e. when voltage is applied across the terminals of P-N junction, it is
called diode. Diode is unidirectional device that allows the flow of current in
one direction only depending on biasing.
Figure:-2. Biasing of diode

4.1.1FORWARD BIASING CHARACTERISTIC OF DIODE


When P terminal is more positive as compared to N terminal i.e. P- terminal
connected to positive terminal of battery and N-terminal connected to negative
terminal of battery , it is said to be forward biased.

Figure:-3. Forward biasing of diode

Positive terminal of thebattery repels majority carriers, holes, in P-region and


negative terminal repels electrons in the N-region and push them towards the
junction. This result in increase in concentration of charge carriers near junction,
recombination takes place and width of depletion region decreases. As forward
bias voltage is raised depletion region continues to reduce in width, and more
and more carriers recombine. This results in exponential rise of current.
4.1.2REVERSE BIASING CHARACTERISTIC OF DIODE

In reverse biasing P- terminal is connected to negative terminal of the battery


and N- terminal to positive terminal of battery . Thus applied voltage makes N-
side more positive than P-side.

Figure:-4. Reverse biasing of diode

Negative terminal of thebattery attracts majority carriers, holes, in P-region and


positive terminal attracts electrons in the N-region and pull them away from the
junction. This result in decrease in concentration of charge carriers near junction
and width of depletion region increases. A small amount of current flow due to
minority carriers, called as reverse bias current or leakage current. As reverse
bias voltage is raised depletion region continues to increase in width and no
current flows. It can be concluded that diode acts only when forward biased.

4.2 ZENER DIODE


Zener diode it is nothing but a simple diode connecting in reverse bias. It is
mainly a special property of the diode rather than any special type of equipment.
Clearance Zener invented this property of the diode that’s why it is named after
him. The main principle of this special property is that there is a breakdown in
the circuit if the voltage applied across a reversely biased it does not allow the
current to flow across it. Now as the voltage across the diode is increased, the
temperature increases and the crystal ions vibrate with greater amplitude and all
these leads to the breakdown of the depletion layer (i.e, the layer at the junction
of p-type and n - type). And when the applied voltage exceeds anspecific
amount zener breakdown takes place.

4.2.1 ZENER DIODE CIRCUIT

Zener Diode is nothing but a single diode connected in a reverse bias, we


have already stated that. A diode connected in reverse bias positive in a circuit
is shown below,

Figure:-5 Connection of a diode as a Zener diode.

The circuit symbol of Zener diode is also shown below. For convenience and
understanding, it is used normally

Fig:-6. Symbol of Zener diode

Now, discussing about the diode circuits we should look through the graphical
representation of the operation of the zener diode. Normally it is called the V-I
characteristics of a general p - n junction diode.
4.2.2 CHARACTERISTICS OF A ZENER DIODE
The above diagram shows the V-I characteristics of the zener diode. When the
diode is connected in forward bias, this diode acts as a normal diode but when
the reverse bias voltage is greater than a predetermined voltage zener
breakdown voltage takes place. To make the breakdown voltage sharp and
distinct, the doping is controlled and the surface imperfections are avoided. In
the V-I characteristics above Vz is the zener voltage, we can say. It is also the
knee voltage because at this point the current is the current is very rapid.

4.2.3 APPLICATION OF ZENER DIODE

Overvoltage protection is done by using Zener diodes because there is current


flowing through the diode after the reverse bias voltage exceeds a certain value.
This circuit provides safety for the equipment connected at the terminals.
Normally the current should not exceed normal valve but if due to any fault in
the circuit the current exceeds the maximum allowable limit, the equipment of
the system can be damaged permanently. A SCR is used, by it the output voltage
is quickly cut down and a fuse blows which disconnects the input source power.
4.2.4 ZENER DIODE AS VOLTAGE REGULATOR
The term regulator meanswhich regulates or controls. Zener diode can work as a
voltage regulator if it is introduced in a circuit. The output across the diode will
be constant. As we know if the voltage across the diode exceeds a certain value
it would draw excessive current from the supply. The basic diagram of zener
diode as voltage regulator is given below,

Figure:- 8. Zener diode as voltage regulator


To limit the current through the Zener diode series resistance R is introduced
whose value can be chosen from the following equation

Resistor value (ohms) = (V1 - V2) / (zener current + load current)


The above diagram is of a shunt regulators because the regulating element is
parallel to the load. The Zener diode produce a stable reference voltage across
the load which fulfils the criteria of regulator.

4.3 RESISTOR
A resistor offers resistance to the flow of current. The resistance is the measure
of opposition to the flow of current in a resistor. More resistance means more
opposition to current. The unit of resistance is ohm and it is represented as Ω.
When one volt potential difference is applied across a resistor and for that one
ampere of current flows through it, the resistance of the resistor is said to be one
Ω Resistor is one of the most essential passive elements in electrical
and electronics engineering. It is some time required to introduce
electrical resistance in different circuit to limit the current through it.
Resistor is an element of circuit which does the same. Such as series
connected resistor limits the current flowing through the light emitting
diode (LED). In addition to that resistors serve many other purposes in
electrical and electronic applications.
The most essential requirement of a resistor is that its value of electrical
resistance should not vary with temperature for a wide range. That means
resistance variation with temperature must be as minimal as possible for a wide
range of temperature. In other word the temperature coefficient of resistance of
must be minimum for the materials by which a resistor is made of.

4.4 CAPACITOR
Capacitor is a passive element that stores electric charge statistically and
temporarily as a static electric field. It is composed of two parallel conducting
plates separated by non-conducting region that is called dielectric, such as
Vacuum, ceramic, air, aluminum, etc.
The capacitance formula of the capacitor is represented by,

C is the capacitance that is proportional to the area of the two conducting plates
(A) And proportional with the permittivity ε of the dielectric medium. The
capacitance decreases with the distance between plates (d). We get the greatest
capacitance with a large area of plates separated by a small distance and located
in a high permittivity material. The standard unit of capacitance is Farad, most
commonly it can be found in micro-farads, pico-farads and nano-farads.
4.4.1TYPES OF CAPACITORS
There are mainly two types of capacitor-

A) CERAMIC CAPACITOR
Construction of ceramic capacitor is quite simple. Here, one thin ceramic disc
is placed between two metal discs and terminals are soldered to the metal discs.
Whole assembly is coated with insulated protection coating.

B) ELECTROLYTE CAPACITOR

Very large value of capacitance can be achieved by this type of capacitor. But
working voltage level of this electrolyte capacitor is low and it also suffers from
high leakage current. The main disadvantage of this capacitor is that, due to the
use of electrolyte, the capacitor is polarized. The polarities are marked against
the terminals with + and – sign and the capacitor must be connected to the
circuit in proper polarity. A few micro meter thick aluminium oxide or tantalum
oxide film is used as dielectric of electrolyte capacitor. As this dielectric is so
thin, the capacitance of this type of capacitor is very high. This is because; the
capacitance is inversely proportional to thickness of the dielectric. Thin
dielectric obviously increases the capacitance value but at the same time, it
reduces working voltage of the device. Tantalum type capacitors are usually
much smaller in size than the aluminium type capacitors of same capacitance
value. That is why, for very high value of capacitance, aluminium type
electrolyte capacitors do not get used generally. In that case, tantalum type
electrolyte capacitors get used. Aluminium electrolyte capacitor is formed by a
paper impregnated with an electrolyte and two sheets of aluminium. These two
sheets of aluminium are separated by the paper impregnated with electrolyte.
The whole assembly is then rolled up in a cylindrical form, just like a simple
paper capacitor. This roll is then placed inside a hermetically sealed aluminium
canister. The oxide layer is formed by passing a charging current through the
device, and it is the polarity of this charging process that determines the
resulting terminal polarity that must be subsequently observed. If the opposite
polarity is applied to the capacitor, the oxide layer is destroyed.
4.5 TRANSISTOR

4.5.1 DEFINITION OF BJT


A bipolar junction transistor is a three terminal semiconductor device consisting
of two p-n junctions which is able to amplify or “magnify” a signal. It is a
current controlled device. The three terminals of the BJT are the base, the
collector and the emitter. A signal of small amplitude if applied to the base is
available in the amplified form at the collector of the transistor. This is the
amplification provided by the BJT. Note that it does require an external source
of DC power supply to carry out the amplification process.

The basic diagrams of the two types of bipolar junction transistors


mentioned above are given below.

Figure:-9. Types of transistor

From the above figure, we can see that every BJT has three parts named emitter,
base and collector. JE and JC represent junction of emitter and junction of
collector respectively. Now initially it is sufficient for us to know that emitter
based junction is forward biased and collector base junctions is reverse biased.
The next topic will describe the two types of this transistor.
4.5.2N-P-N BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTOR

As started before in n - p - n bipolar transistor one p - type semiconductor


resides between two n - type semiconductors the diagram below a n - p - n
transistor is shown

Figure:-10. n-p-n transistor

Now IE, IC is emitter current and collect current respectively and VEB and
VCB are emitter base voltage and collector base voltage respectively. According
to convention if for the emitter, base and collector current IE, IB and ICcurrent
goes into the transistor the sign of the current is taken as positive and if current
goes out from the transistor then the sign is taken as negative.

4.5.3P-N-P BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTOR

Similarly for p - n - p bipolar junction transistor a n-type semiconductors is


sandwiched between two p-type semiconductors. The diagram of a p - n - p
transistor is shown below

Figure:-11. p-n-p transistor


For p - n - p transistors, current enters into the transistor through the emitter
terminal. Like any bipolar junction transistor, the emitter – base junction is
forward biased and the collector – base junction is reverse biased.
4.5.4 WORKING PRINCIPLE OF BJT

Figure shows an n-p-n transistor biased in the active region (See transistor
biasing), the BE junction is forward biased whereas the CB junction is reversed
biased. The width of the depletion region of the BE junction is small as
compared to that of the CB junction. The forward bias at the BE junction
reduces the barrier potential and causes the electrons to flow from the emitter to
base. As the base is thin and lightly doped it consists of very few holes so
someof the electrons from the emitter (about 2%) recombine with the holes
present in the base region and flow out of the base terminal. This constitutes the
base current, it flows due to recombination of electrons and holes (Note that the
direction of conventional current flow is opposite to that of flow of electrons).
The remaining large number of electrons will cross the reverse biased collector
junction to constitute the collector current. Thus by KCL,

The base current is very small as compared to emitter and collector current.

Here, the majority charge carriers are electrons. The operation of a p-n-p
transistor is same as of the n-p-n, the only difference is that the majority charge
carriers are holes instead of electrons. Only a small part current flows due to
majority carriers and most of the current flows due to minority charge carriers in
a BJT. Hence, they are called as minority carrier devices.

4.6 LIGHT DEPENDENT RESISTOR


A Light Dependent Resistor (LDR) or a photo resistor is a device whose
resistivity is a function of the incident electromagnetic radiation. Hence, they
are light sensitive devices. They are also called as photo conductors, photo
conductive cells or simply photocells. They are made up of semiconductor
materials having high resistance.
There are many different symbols used to indicate a LDR, one of the most
commonly used symbol is shown in the figure below. The arrow indicates
light falling on it.

Figure:-12. Symbol of LDR

4.6.1WORKING PRINCIPLE OF LDR


A light dependent resistor works on the principle of photo conductivity. Photo
conductivity is an optical phenomenon in which the materials conductivity
(Hence resistivity) reduces when light is absorbed by the material. When light
falls i.e. when the photons fall on the device, the electrons in the valence band
of the semiconductor material are excited to the conduction band. These
photons in the incident light should have energy greater than the band gap of
the semiconductor material to make the electrons jump from the valence band
to the conduction band. Hence when light having enough energy is incident
on the device more & more electrons are excited to the conduction band
which results in large number of charge carriers. The result of this process is
more and more current starts flowing and hence it is said that the resistance of
the device has decreased.This is the most common working principle of LDR

4.6.2Applications of LDR

LDR’s have low cost and simple structure. They are often used as light sensors.
They are used when there is a need to detect absences or presences of light like
in a camera light meter. Used in street lamps, alarm clock, burglar alarm
circuits, light intensity meters, for counting the packages moving on a conveyor
belt, etc.
4.7 LED
A light-emitting diode (LED) is a two-lead semiconductor light source. It is a
p–n junction diode, which emits light when activated.When a suitable voltage
is applied to the leads, electrons are able to recombine with electron holes
within the device, releasing energy in the form of photons. This effect is
called electroluminescence, and the color of the light (corresponding to the
energy of the photon) is determined by the energy band gap of the
semiconductor. An LED is often small in area (less than 1 mm2) .

Fig:-13.Symbol of LED

4.7.1 WORKING PRINCIPLE OF LED


A P-N junction can convert absorbed light energy into a proportional
electric current. The same process is reversed here (i.e. the P-N junction
emits light when electrical energy is applied to it). This phenomenon is
generally called electro luminescence, which can be defined as the emission
of light from a semi-conductor under the influence of anelectric field. The
charge carriers recombine in a forward-biased P-N junction as the electrons
cross from the N-region and recombine with the holes existing in the P-
region. Free electrons are in the conduction band of energy levels, while
holes are in the valence energy band. Thus the energy level of the holes will
be lesser than the energy levels of the electrons. Some portion of the energy
must be dissipated in order to recombine the electrons and the holes. This
energy is emitted in the form of heat and light. The electrons dissipate
energy in the form of heat for silicon and germanium diodes but in gallium
arsenide phosphide (GaAsP) and gallium phosphide (GaP)
semiconductors, the electrons dissipate energy by emitting photons. If the
semiconductor is translucent, the junction becomes the source of light as it is
emitted, thus becoming a light-emitting diode, but when the junction is reverse
biased no light will be produced by the LED and, on the contrary, the device
may also be damaged.

4.8POTENTIOMETER

A potentiometer, informally a pot, is a three-terminal resistor with a sliding or

rotating contact that forms an adjustable voltage divider. If only two terminals

are used, one end and the wiper, it acts as a variable resistor or rheostat.

The measuring instrument called a potentiometer is essentially a voltage divider

used for measuring electric potential (voltage); the component is an


implementation of the same principle, hence its name.

Potentiometers are commonly used to control electrical devices such as volume

controls on audio equipment. Potentiometers operated by a mechanism can be


used as position transducers, for example, in a joystick. Potentiometers are

rarely used to directly control significant power (more than a watt), since the

power dissipated in the potentiometer would be comparable to the power in the

controlled load.

Fig:-14. Symbol of potentiometer


4.9 DRY CELL

A Dry cell is a type of electricity-producing chemical cell, commonly used


today for many home and portable devices, often in the form of batteries.
A dry cell uses a paste electrolyte, with only enough moisture to allow
current to flow. Unlike a wet cell, a dry cell can operate in any orientation
without spilling, as it contains no free liquid, making it suitable for
portable equipment. A standard dry cell comprises a zinc anode, usually in
the form of a cylindrical pot, with a carbon cathode in the form of a central
rod. The electrolyte is ammonium chloride in the form of a paste next to
the zinc anode. The remaining space between the electrolyte and carbon
cathode is taken up by a second paste consisting of ammonium chloride
and manganese dioxide, the latter acting as a depolariser. In some designs,
the ammonium chloride is replaced by zinc chloride.

Fig:-15.Symbol of cell and battery


4.10 FUSE

In normal working condition of electrical network, the current flows through the
network is within the rated limit. If fault occurs in the network mainly phase to
phase short circuit fault or phase to ground fault, the network current crosses the
rated limits. This high current may have very high thermal effect which will
cause a permanent damage to the valuable equipments connected in the
electrical network. So this high fault current should be interrupted as fast as
possible. This is what an electrical fuse does. A fuse is a part of the circuit which
consists of conductor which melts easily and breaks the connection when
current exceeds the predetermined value. An electrical fuse is a weakest part of
an electrical circuit which breaks when more than predetermined current flows
through it.

Fig:-16 A typical fuse used in the circuit


CHAPTER-5

5.1 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

Figure:-17. Circuit diagram


5.2COMPONENT USED AND THEIR SPECIFICATION

Serial No. Components Specifications Price (Rs)

1. A Capacitor 2.2uF,250v, 7
Non electrolytic
B 47uF,25v 1
Electrolytic
C 22uF,25v 1
Electrolytic
2.A Resistor 330k ohm 0.20
B 10 ohm 0.20
C 47k ohm 0.20
D 10k ohm 0.20
E 2.2k ohm 0.20

F 390 ohm 0.20

G 100 ohm 0.20

3 Variable Resistor 20k ohm 2

4 Diode(4 pcs.) In4007 0.50*4= 2

5 Zener Diode A010 0.50

6 LDR Roboindia 3

7 White LED 5

8 Transistor Bt3904 3

9 Breadboard 80
10 Wires 10
11 Plug 10

Table:-1 Different components and their specification and price


5.3 WORKING OF THE CIRCUIT

This circuits operates with voltage from120 -220 volts .Therefore the
capacitor(C1) of the current input (225) is at least 250 volts and the
rectification condenser (C2) (22 uF) is 350 volt, because if this circuit fed
with 220v AC , when to be ground becomes approximately 330v DC . The
bulb can be up to 100 watt. We can use one for more power as long as change
the triac BT136 for one that supports more amps as BTA08600 , supporting
up to 8 amps . One of the great virtue of this circuit is that no need of
transformer .in this case we use a very simple circuit low voltage and
rectifies , saving money and space. The capacitor (C1) 2.2 uF polyster in
series with the input voltage public network, restricting the flow of current.
The capacitor allows the passage of only approximately 16mA providing
voltage reduction will be done later. 330 k resistor (R1) which is parallel with
capacitor (C1) , is responsible for discharging the capacitor when the circuit
off , preventing the condenser is charged and can send an electric shock ,
when handling the circuit . At the other input cable is a public network 10
ohm resistor (R2) functioning as fuse and helps to limit the current. After the
current passes through the capacitor and resistor, reaches a diode bridge
formed by four rectifying diodes, which are responsible for separating the
positive half cycle of negative, delivering separately and then be rectified by a
capacitor (C2) converting alternating current (AC) into direct current (DC)
recall that to rectify a current the voltage rises , multiplying by root of 2 is
1.414 . And for a 230 AC power, we will have an output voltage of about 325
volts DC approx. For this reason the rectifier capacitor source must be 350
volts, otherwise it will explore when connecting the circuit.
Now that the rectifier and a small current voltage, we must lower the voltage to
10 volts DC. For this we use a Zenor Diode. It is important to note that a Zener
Diode do not connect without there respective wire resistor that limits the
current that feeds the Zener , otherwise the Zener will burn. 39k 5w resistor
(R3) is the polarization resistance of the Zener. It needs to be a 5w, as the effort
we have to do lower the current generates a relatively high heat. The formula
for calculating the resistance is:

Rz = (Vt-Vz)/Iz.

= total polarization resistance voltage minus the zener voltage


divided by the Zener Amps.
We must:
(305Vdc – 10Vdc)/0.02 Amps = 14750 ohms.
It could be a 50k resistor, but when testing is too hot, so we wanted to find the
highest resistance before the voltage drops power failure. The maximum
resistance is 47k and the minimum without excess heat is 33k.
The 10 k resistor (R4) it helps the zener to handle the load, it runs parallel to
earth with the zener diode. The 47 uF capacitor (C3) and . 1 uF ceramic
capacitor (C4) again rectified current removing possible curls.
Now coming to the automation part,
When it’s light, the photo resist is receiving light, the LDR has low impedance
(0 ohm), negatively biasing the base of the transistor. Therefore transistor
remains turned off as it is npn transistor. when the environment is dark, the
photo resist impedance rises to over 100 k , restricting the flow of current. This
makes the voltage at the base of the transistor higher. High enough to turn the
transistor ON. Because the transistor is turned on, current flows through the
transistor. It flows from the positive battery terminal, through R5, the LED, and
the transistor down to the negative battery terminal. This makes the LED light
up.
Fig:-18.Waveform across source
Fig:-19.Waveform after rectification
Fig:-20.Waveform across zener diode
Fig:-21.Waveform across c2
Fig:-22.Waveform across Emitter and Base
CHAPTER- 6

SCOPE OF POWERING THE CUIRCUIT

1. The above circuit can be powered from a battery, which can be


charged during day time by harvesting the solar energy through a
solar cell.

2. The AC voltage from electric grid can be stepped down, rectified and
used for powering the circuit.
CHAPTER-7

ADVANTAGES AND APPLICATION

By employing this circuit, energy consumption can be reduced considerably as


the light switches ON or OFF automatically in appropriate time.Moreover,
errors which occur due to manual operation can be eliminated completely.The
automatic street light controller unit fabrication is cost effective with good
sensitivity .Also the construction of the circuit is simple that it can be done
easily as it involves locally available components. The circuit is designed in
such a way that the extent of darkness which the light has to switch ON or OFF
also can be tailored whenever it is needed. It can be used for other purposes
like garden lighting, balcony lighting etc.
CHAPTER-8

REFERENCE

1. International Journal of Innovative Research in Science,


Engineering and Technology (AN ISO 3297: 2007 Certified
Organization) Vol. 3, Issue 2, February 2014 (ISSN: 2319-8753)

www.ijirset.com

2. “A New Streetlight Monitoring System Based On Wireless Sensor Networks”


IEEE 2010

3. “Automatic Street Light Intensity Control and Road Safety


Module Using Embedded System” International Conference on
Computing and Control Engineering (ICCCE 2012), 12 & 13 April,
2012.

4. www.electrical4u.com

Você também pode gostar