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Outline

Degrees of Freedom

Idealisation of SDOF System

Formulation of Equation of motion

Free vibration of undamped/damped systems

Prof. A. Meher Prasad Forced vibration of systems


Department of Civil Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Madras Steady state response to harmonic forces
email: prasadam@iitm.ac.in
Determination of natural frequency

Duhamel’s Integral and other methods of solution

Damping in structures

Basic difference between static and dynamic loading

P P(t)

What is Dynamics ?
Resistance due to internal Accelerations producing inertia
elastic forces of structure forces (inertia forces form a
significant portion of load
equilibrated by the internal
elastic forces of the structure)

Static Dynamic
Characteristics and sources of Typical Dynamic Loadings
Periodic Loading:

(a) Unbalanced rotating


machine in building

(b) Rotating propeller


at stem of ship

Dynamic Degrees of Freedom


Non Periodic Loading:
(c) Bomb blast
pressure on
building

(d) Earthquake on
water tank

(a) Simple harmonic (b) Complex (c) Impulsive (d) Long duration

The number of independent displacement


components that must be considered to Examples
represent the effects of all significant
inertia forces of a structure.
Dynamic Degrees of Freedom Dynamic Degrees of Freedom

3. Flexible and Finite Flexible and Point


Rigid bar with massless mass massless mass
distributed mass

Massless
1. 2. spring
Massless Inextensible
Spring
spring with Spring
θ
mass (a) (b) (c)

Flexible beam
4. Flexible and Flexible beam with distributed
massless with distributed mass
mass
(a) (b) (c)
Point
mass
y(x) = c1φ1(x)+ c2φ2(x)+55

(a) (b) (c)

Dynamic Degrees of Freedom

Rigid deck

5.

Idealisation of Structure as SDOF


Massless
columns
Mathematical model - SDOF System Newton’s second law of motion

x Force = P(t) = Rate of change of momentum of any mass


k

c m P(t)
=
..
x, x
When mass is not varying with time, P(t) ..
Mass element ,m - representing the mass and inertial mx
..
characteristic of the structure P(t) = m x(t) = mass x acceleration
Spring element ,k - representing the elastic restoring force
and potential energy capacity of the Inertia force
structure.
Dashpot, c - representing the frictional characteristics D’Alembert’s Principle: This Principle states that “mass develops
and energy losses of the structure an inertia force proportional to its acceleration and opposing it”.
Excitation force, P(t) - represents the external force acting on
structure.

Equations of motion:
The force P(t) includes , mg fs
Spring force - fs ∝ x k
1) Elastic constraints which opposes displacement . 1
.. Viscous damping force - fd ∝ x
2) Viscous forces which resist velocities kx mx x
..
Inertia Force - fI ∝ x
3) External forces which are independently defined
External Forces - P(t) fD
4) Inertia forces which resist accelerations N
c
1
.
x
FBD for mass
1.
x fs = kx
k ..
f I = m .x P(t)
c m P(t) fd = cx

mx&& + cx& + kx = P(t ) (1)


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Examples
2. ..
. mx
0+ cx
Kx + w

P(t) w
δst = w/k
x(t) = displacement measured from
position of static equilibrium

P(t)
mx&& + cx& + kx = P(t ) (2)

(3a) Rigid ,massless P(t) m P(t) (3b)

..
mx
a
k c x Rigid
b
massless a
a b k x
a k x c   x& d k L
L L
b L b
x – vertical displacement of the mass c   x&
d L
L
measured from the position of c
static equilibrium P(t) P(t)

x ..
mx
m
Stiffness term W=mg
2 2
b a d
&& + c   x& + k   x =
mx P (t ) (3)
L L L b
2
  a 2 W  d
&& + c   x& +  k   +
mx x = P (t ) (4)
L   L  L  L
Note: The stiffness is larger in this case
(3c) (4a) µ (distributed mass)
P(t) m µL P(t)
m .. &&
x
mx (2/3)L 2
x

k c ..
P(t) P(t) x mx
c a  b .
 b . a fs = k   x f d = c   x&
c   x& L L
L L b
d
d a
k x L
Rigid
b L
massless a

2 2
Stiffness term  1  b a d
 m + µ L  &&
x + c   x& + k   x = P (t )
b
2
  a 2 W  d  3  L L L
&& + c   x& +  k   −
mx x = P (t ) (5)
L 
  L  L 
 L
Note: The stiffness is decreased in this case. The stiffness term
goes to zero - Effective stiffness is zero – unstable - Buckling load

(4b) Special cases:


a (4c) (4d) (4e)
µ
a
b fs = k   x (2/3)L
d k L
L
b µL L k
f d = c   x& &&
c L x L
2
P(t)
P(t)
..
mx
x m J
θ

 1  b
2
  a 2  W 1  d x
 m + µ L  &&
x + c   &
x +  k   ±  + µ g  x = P (t )
 3  L   L   L 2   L
g 3 g
x+
&& x=0 x+
&& x=0 Jθ&& + kθ = 0
(Negative sign for the bar L 2 L
supported at bottom)
Internal
m/2 hinge P(t) Rigid with uniform mass µL/2 = m/2
Rigid ,massless
x
ke N N
x(t)
k c
ce me Pe(t)

L/4 L/4 L/8 L/8 L/4

x + ce x& + ke x = Pe (t )
me && (6) m &&

x P(t)  µ L &&

x m
⋅  = &&x
2 2  2 2  4
me - equivalent or effective mass N N

o
Ce - equivalent or effective damping coefficient RL
 x  x& 
k  c 
Ke - equivalent or effective stiffness 2 2

Pe - equivalent or effective force 7 1 1  16 N  3 (5)


x + c x& + k 1 +
m &&  x = P (t )
24 4 4  kL  4

7 1 1  16 N  3
me = m ce = c ke = k 1 + Pe (t ) = P(t ) (7) Free Vibration
24 4 4  kL  4

For N = - (1/16) k L ke = 0 Undamped SDOF System

This value of N corresponds to critical buckling load


Damped SDOF systems
Free Vibration of Undamped System

Amplitude of motion
x + p2 x = 0
&& (9)
v 
2

x x + 0 
2
0
k (10)  p
p = 
2
vo
m
General solution is, x0
x(t) = A cos pt + B sin pt (or) (11)
αt t
x(t) = C sin (pt + α) (12)

where,
(13) 2π
C = A2 + B 2 T=
p
2π m v 
2
T= = 2π = natural period (14) v x(t ) = x02 +  0  sin ( pt + α ) (16)
p k x (t ) = x0 cos pt + 0 sin pt or
p  p
p 1 (15)
f = = = natural frequency X 0 =initial displacement
2π T where, tan α =
x0 (17)
v0 p V0 =initial velocity
p - circular natural frequency of undamped system in Hz.

Natural frequencies of other SDF systems Condition of instability

p– square root of the coefficient of displacement 1


term divided by coefficient of acceleration N =− kL = N cr (22)
16
(18)
For Simple Pendulum, p= g L
N
p = po 1 − (23)
2 N cr
k a g (19)
For system considered in (3b) , p =   +
m L L

6 k  16 N  p2
For system considered in (5) , p = (20)
1 + 
7 m kL 
6 k
For N=0 , p = po = (21)
7m Ncr

and for N = −
1
kL , p = 0 N
16
Natural frequencies of single mass systems Relationship between Simple oscillator and Simple pendulum

p= k /m (10)
L
Letting m = W/g

and noting that W/k = δst (24)


g g
δst is the static deflection of the mass due to a force equal to its p= p=
weight (the force applied in the direction of motion). δst L
g (25)
p=
δ st Hence, δst = L = 0.025 m f ≈ 3.1 cps

1 g (26) δst = L = 0.25 m f ≈ 1.0 cps


f =
2π δ st
δst = L = 2.50 m f ≈ 0.3 cps
(27)
δst is expressed in m, T = 2 δ st

Effective stiffness ke and static deflection δst Determination of Force - Displacement relation, F-∆

ke g
p= = (28)
1. Apply the static force ,F on the mass in the direction of motion
m δ st
2. Compute or measure the resulting deflection of the mass ,∆
ke - the static force which when applied to the mass will
Then , ke = F / ∆ δst = ∆ due to F = W
deflect the mass by a unit amount.

δst - the static deflection of the mass due to its own weight
the force (weight) being applied in the direction of
motion.
Rigid ,massless m
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(a)

k
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a
Therefore,
Examples L

F or
From Equilibrium,
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(29)
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display ed.

F
From Compatibility, This image cannot currently be display ed.

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(b) Rigid bar m (c) m (d) (f) Flexible but mass less
Rigid bar k3 k1 kn

k1 k2 k1 k2 3EI
a ke =
a L ke = k1 +k2 + 55+ kn (32) L3
L
F
F = F1 + F2 (e)
∆ k1
k3
k2 12EI
k1 k2 k1 k2 .. ke =
. L3
kn
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F F
∆ = ∆1 + ∆2 = +
k 3  a 2 ∆e = ∆1 + ∆2 + 55+ ∆n
  k1 + k 2
L 3EI
F F F (34)
∆= + + ...... + ke =
∆ 1 1 1 k1 k 2 kn L3
(30) = = +
F k e  a 2 k 3 (31) ∆ 1 1 1 1
  k1 + k 2 = = + ...... + (33)
L  F k e k1 k 2 kn
(g) Rigid deck; columns mass less (h) (i)
& axially inextensible
EI
EI k2
1 FL3 5 RL3
∆= −
k1 3 EI 48 EI
L1 E1I1 E2I2 L2 k
L

Eliminating R,
F
kL3
768 + 7
L/2 L/2
3
F
∆= EI ⋅ 1 FL
k2 k2
kL3 3 EI
Lateral Stiffness : ∆ 768 + 32
kb k1 kb+k1 EI
R
E1 I1 E I where,
ke = 12 + 3 23 2
L3 L 5 FL3 1 RL3 R kL3
1 1 1 1 1 ∆a = − = 768 + 32
= + = + 48 EI 24 EI k F EI ⋅ 3 EI
ke k2 kb + k1 k2 3 EI 5
ke = =
+ k1 where, R = F ∆ kL3 L3
L3 EI 768 + 7
2 + 48 EI
L3

(j) (l) (n) (p)


L
2R

d
L/2 L/2 L/2 L/2
Gd 4 AE
48 EI 768 EI k = k =
ke = ke = 64nR 3 L
L3 7 L3
n – number of turns A – Cross sectional area
(k) (m)
(0) (q)

L
L/2 L/2 a b GJ
k =
EI k =
192 EI 3EIL L
ke = ke = 2 2 L
L3 ab I - moment of inertia of cross sectional area J – Torsional constant of cross
L - Total length section
Natural frequencies of simple MDF systems treated as SDF

• For pitching or rocking mode


m 1 .. a 2a AE
µy + ya = 0
2 2 3 L AE/L AE/L
a 1 .. AE
µ ay + y=0
A, E, I, L 6 L
1 .. AE
my + y=0
6 L (AE/L)y (AE/L)y
(i) (ii) (iii) (iv)
6 AE
Columns are massless and can move only in the plane of paper ∴ pp = = 3 pv (36)
mL
• For Lateral mode
• Vertical mode of vibration 2
12 EI EI AE  r 
ke = 2 3 = 24 3 = 24  
L L L  L
2 AE 2 AE r is the radius of gyration of cross section of each column
ke = pv = (35)
L mL 2
12 EI EI AE  r 
ke = 2 = 24 3 = 24  
L3 L L  L (37)
plateral < paxial < ppitching

Free Vibration of damped SDOF systems

mx&& + cx& + kx = 0 k

c k m
x + x& + x = 0
&& c
m m
Free Vibration of Damped SDOF x + 2ζpx& + p 2 x = 0
&& (A)
x
k
where, p=
m
c c
ζ= = (Dimensionless parameter) (38)
2mp 2 km
rt rt
Thus e 1 and e 2 are solutions and, provided r1 and r2 are different
Solution of Eq.(A) may be obtained by a function in the form x = ert from one another, the complete solution is
where r is a constant to be determined. Substituting this into (A) we
obtain,
x = c1e r1t + c2 e r2t
( )
e rt r 2 + 2ζpr + p 2 = 0
The constants of integration c1 and c2 must be evaluated from the
In order for this equation to be valid for all values of t, initial conditions of the motion.
Note that for ζ >1, r1 and r2 are real and negative
r + 2ζpr + p = 0
2 2
for ζ <1, r1 and r2 are imaginary and

or (
r1,2 = p −ζ ± ζ 2 − 1 ) for ζ =1, r1= r2= -p

Solution depends on whether ζ is smaller than, greater than, or


equal to one.

For ζ < 1 (Light Damping) :

x ( t ) = e −ζ pt [ A cos pd t + B sin pd t ] (39) 


Td = 2π / pd Extremum point ( x(t ) = 0 )
where, pd = p 1 − ζ
2 Point of tangency ( cos( pd t − α ) = 1 )
(40)

x T = = Damped natural period
‘A’ and ‘B’ are related to the initial conditions as follows pd xn Xn+1

t
A = x0 pd = p 1 − ζ 2 = Damped circular natural frequency
v0 ζ
B= + x0
pd 1−ζ 2

In other words, Eqn. 39 can also be written as, 2π


Td = = Damped natural period
pd
 v ζ  
x ( t ) = e −ζ pt  xo cos pd t +  o + xo  sin pd t  (41) pd = p 1 − ζ 2 = Damped circular natural frequency
  1 − ζ 2 
 pd 
Rate of Decay of Peaks

Motion known as Damped harmonic motion 2π


xn +1 −ζ p  ζ 
= e pd = exp  −2π  (42)
A system behaving in this manner (i.e., a system for which ζ < 1 ) is said
xn  1 − ζ 2 
to be Underdamped or Subcritically damped
0.8
xn +1
0.7
The behaviour of structure is generally of this type, as the practical range xn 0.6
of ζ is normally < 0.2 0.5
0.4
0.3
The equation shows that damping lowers the natural frequency of the 0.2
system, but for values of ζ < 0.2 the reduction is for all practical purpose 0.1

negligible. 0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4

Unless otherwise indicated the term natural frequency will refer to the ζ
frequency of the undamped system

Logarithmic decrement

xn
Defined as δ = ln (43)
xn +1
It is an alternative measure of damping and is related to ζ by
the equation
ζ
δ = 2π  2πζ (44)
1−ζ 2
For small values of damping,
∆x n (45)
δ≈ = 2πζ
xn
When damping is quite small,
1 x (46)
δ= ln n
N xn + N
For ζ > 1 (Heavy Damping) For ζ = 1

Such system is said to be critically damped.


Such system is said to be over damped or super critically damped.

x (t ) = C1e ( − ) t + C2 e ( − ) t x(t ) = C1e − pt + C2te − pt


With initial conditions,
i.e., the response equation will be sum of two exponentially
decaying curve x (t ) =  x0 (1 + pt ) + v0t  e − pt
In this case r1 and r2 are real negative roots.
The value of ‘c’ for which ζ =1 is known as the critical coefficient
of damping
x

xo Ccr = 2mp = 2 km (47)

C
Therefore, ζ = (48)
o
Ccr
t

Response to Impulsive Forces


Response to Impulsive Forces Po
Let the duration of force,t1 be small compared to
P(t)
the natural period of the system
Response to simple Force Pulses
The effect of the force in this case is equivalent to
an instantaneous velocity change without
Response to a Step Pulse corresponding change in displacement
t
t1 << T
Response to a Rectangular Pulse The velocity,V0 ,imparted to the system is
obtained from the impulse-momentum relationship
Response to Half-Sine Pulse mV0 = I = Area under forcing function = α P0 t1 (49)

Response to Half-cycle Force Pulses 1 for a rectangular pulse


where , α 2 / π for a half-sine wave
1 / 2 for a triangular pulse
Response to Step force
Therefore, V0 =
α Pt0 1
(50)
Response to Multi-Cycle Force Pulses m
For an undamped system, the maximum response is determined
from as , • Damping has much less importance in controlling maximum

xmax = V = α P0 t1 = α P0 kt1 = α ( xst )0 pt1


0 response of a structure to impulsive load.
p m p k mp
The maximum will be reached in a very short time, before
Therefore, xmax = 2πα ft1( xst )0 the damping forces can absorb much energy from the
structure.
For this reason only undamped response to Impulsive
loading is considered.
xmax t
or = 2πα ft1 = 2πα 1 (51)
( xst ) 0 T
• Important: in design of Vehicles such as trucks, automobiles
or traveling cranes

Response to simple Force Pulses Response to a Step Pulse

P (t ) For undamped system, x + p2 x = p2 (xst)o


P(t) x + 2ς px& + p 2 x =
&& (52)
m P(t)
Po
or Po where (xst)o =
k
x + 2ς px& + p 2 x = p 2 xst (t )
&& (53) x(t) = A cos pt + B sin pt + (xst)o
P (t )
t where, xst (t ) = 0 t At t = 0 , x = 0 and v = 0
k
A = - (xst)o and B = 0
P (t ) = Static displacement induced by
k exciting force at time, t t
x(t) = (xst)o [1 – cos pt] = [ 1 – cos 2π T ] (55)
General Form of solution:
(54)
x(t) = xhomogeneous + xparticular
Response to a Step Pulse6. Response to a Rectangular Pulse

ζ=0
For t t1, solution is the same as before,
This
imag
e
cann
ot…

x(t ) 2 x(t ) = ( xst ) (1 − cos pt )


0
(55)

( xst )o
1 For t ≥ t1, we have a condition of free vibration,
and the solution can be obtained by application of Eq.17a as follows:
0
(t / T) 2
 Vi 
x(t ) = xi2 +  sin ( p(t −t1)+α )
For damped systems it can be shown that:  p P(t)
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 Po
 ζ 
x(t ) = ( xst )0  1 − e −ζ pt  cos pd t + sin pd t  
  

ζπ
 1− ζ 2  xi = ( xst ) (1 − cos pt ) 0
t1 t

xmax 1−ζ 2
= 1+ e (56)
Vi = p sin pt1
( xst ) 0

Response to a Rectangular Pulse Response to a Rectangular Pulse6

x(t)/(xst)0
2
2
pt t1/T=2 t1/T=1.5
1-cos pt1 2sin 2 1 pt1
tan α = = pt1
2
pt1 = tan 2
sin pt1 2sin cos 0 1 2 0 1 2
2 2 t/T t/T
pt1
α=
x(t)/(xst)0
hence, 1.68 t1/T=1/π
2 2
t1/T=1 1/6
 t 
So, x(t ) = (1−cos pt1) + sin pt1 ( xst )0 sin  p(t −t1 ) + p 1 
2 2 (57(a))
 2 0 1 2 t/T 0 1 t/T

 t  pt  t 
x (t ) = ( xst )0 2(1 − cos pt1 ) sin p  t − 1  = 2 ( xst )0 sin 1 sin p  t − 1  (57(b))
 2 2  2
(Amplitude of motion) In the plots, we have implicitly assumed that T constant and t1 varies;
Results also applicable when t1 = fixed and T varies
(a) Forced response
Free response

(b) Overall maximum

Response to rectangular pulse force: (a) maximum


response during each of forced vibration and free
Dynamic response of undamped SDF system to rectangular vibration phases; (b) shock spectrum
pulse force. Static solution is shown by dotted lines

Response to a Rectangular Pulse6 Response to Half-Sine Pulse


3 P(t) = Po sin ωt, where ω = π / t1
Impulsive solution, 2π f t1 P(t) POsin ωt
xmax 2 x+ p2 x= p2 (x st)o sin ωt for t ≤ t1
( xst )0
1 =0 for t ≥ t1
for t ≤ t1, x(t ) = ( xst )0 [sin ωt − ω sin pt ] t1 t
1−  ω 
p 2

0  p
or
1
f t1 = t 1/T
2 3
x(t ) =
( xst )  πt 
− 1 T sin 2π t  (59)
 sin
0

 
2
 t1 2 t1 T
This diagram Is known as the response spectrum of the 1− 1  T 
4  t1 
system for the particular forcing function considered. for t ≥ t1  ω 
2 
 p 
cos pt ( xst )0 sin  pt − 1 t 
 
Note that with xmax determined, the maximum spring force x(t ) =  1 1

 ω 
2 2  2T 
Fmax = k xmax

 −1
p 


or t cos π t
Fmax kxmax xmax (58) 1 1
(60)
In fact, = = x(t ) = T T ( x ) sin 2π  t − 1 t 
( Fst ) P0 ( xst )
1

t  st 0 T 2 T  2

0.25 −    1

0 0 T 
• Note that in these solutions, t1 and T enter as a ratio and that
similarly, t appears as the ratio t /T. In other words, f t1 = t1 / T may
be interpreted either as a duration or as a frequency parameter

• In the following response histories, t1 will be presumed to be the


same but the results in a given case are applicable to any
combination of t1 and T for which t1/T has the indicated value

• In the derivation of response to a half-sine pulse and in the


response histories, the system is presumed to be initially at rest

Dynamic response of undamped SDF system to half cycle


sine pulse force; static solution is shown by dashed lines

2πft1 4πft1
πft1

t1

t1

t1
ft1

Shock spectra for three force pulses of equal magnitude


Response to half cycle sine pulse force (a) response maxima during
forced vibration phase; (b) maximum responses during each of forced
vibration and free vibration phases; (c) shock spectrum
Response to Half-cycle Force Pulses

• For low values of ft1 (say < 0.2), the maximum value of xmax or AF is
dependent on the area under the force pulse i.e, Impulsive-sensitive. Conditions under which response is static:
Limiting value is governed by Impulse Force Response.
On the basis of the spectrum for the ‘ramp pulse’ presented next, it is
• At high values of ft1, rate of application of load controls the AF. The concluded that the AF may be taken as unity when:
rise time for the rectangular pulse, tr, is zero, whereas for the half-sine
pulse it is finite. For all continuous inputs, the high-frequency limit of
ftr = 2 (61)
AF is unity.
For the pulse of arbitrary shape, tr should be interpreted as the
horizontal projection of a straight line extending from the beginning of
• The absolute maximum value of the spectrum is relatively insensitive
the pulse to its peak ordinate with a slope approximately equal to the
to the detailed shape of the pulse(2 Vs 1.7), but it is generally larger
maximum slope of the pulse. This can normally be done by inspection.
for pulses with small rise times (i.e, when the peak value of the force
is attained rapidly).
For a discontinuous pulse, tr = 0 and the frequency value satisfying ftr
= 2 is, as it should be, infinite. In other words, the high-frequency value
• The frequency value ft1 corresponding to the peak spectral ordinate
of the AF is always greater than one in this case
is also relatively insensitive to the detailed shape of the pulse. For the
particular inputs investigated, it may be considered to range between
ft1 = 0.5 and 0.8. * AF=Amplification factor

Response to Step force


Substituting these quantities into x(t), the peak amplitude is found as:
For t ≤ tr P(t)
 t   sin pt  
x(t ) = ( xst )0  −  Po xmax 1 2 pt
 t r   ptr   = 1+ 2(1 − cos ptr ) = 1 + sin r
( xst ) 0 ptr ptr 2
 t  1 T  2π t  1T πt
= ( xst )0  − sin   tr t = [1 + sin r
 t r  2π tr  T  π tr T
For t ≥ tr =
t
 sin pt 1  P0   2
x (t ) = ( xst )0 1 − + sin p (t − tr )   tr 
 ptr ptr 
 1 T t 1 T (t − tr )  xmax
( xst )0 1 − sin 2π + sin 2π  ( xst ) 0 1

 2π tr T 2π tr T  +
Differentiating and equating to zero, the peak time is (tr − t )
P0
obtained as: tr
1 − cos ptr 0
tan ptr = tr
0 1 2 3 4
f tr 5
sin ptr
Design Spectrum for Half-Cycle Force Pulses

For Rectangular Pulse: 2


A
B
x (t ) = ( xst ) 0 [1 − cos pt ] for t ≤ t1 P(t)
xmax
1
 pt   t  Po (x xt )0
C D
= ( xst ) 0  2 sin 1  sin p  t − 1  for t ≥ t1 This image cannot currently be display ed.

 2   2
t ft1=0.6 ft1= 2
o
ft1
Half-Sine Pulse: x
• Line OA defined by equation.51 (i.e max = 2 π α f t1 = 2 π α t1 )
( xst ) 0 πt 1 T t  ( xst )0 T
x (t ) =  sin −
2
sin 2π  for t ≤ t1
1T   t1 2 t1 T  • Ordinate of point B taken as 1.6 and abscissa as shown
1−   P(t)
4  t1  POsinωt
• The frequency beyond which AF=1 is defined by equation. 61
( xst )0
( ft1 ) cos π ft1 ( f sin ( 2π ft - π ft1 ) )
0.25 − ( ft1 ) 2 • The transition curve BC is tangent at B and has a cusp at C
t1 t
Spectrum applicable to undamped systems.

Response to Multi-Cycle Force Pulses Effect of n Half-Sine Pulses

The absolute maximum value of the spectrum in this case occurs


Effect of Full-Cycle Sine Pulse (62)
at a value of, ft1=0.5

• The high-frequency, right hand limit is defined by the rules given


before Where t1 is the duration of each pulse and the value of the peak is
approximately equal to: xmax = n (π/2) (xst)o (63)
• The peak value of the spectrum in this case is twice as large as
for the half-sine pulse, indicating that this peak is controlled by
the ‘periodicity’ of the forcing function. In this case, the peak
values of the responses induced by the individual half-cycle
pulses are additive
• The peak value of the spectrum occurs, as before, for a value
ft1=0.6
• The characteristics of the spectrum in the left-handed, low-
frequency limit cannot be determined in this case by application
of the impulse-momentum relationship. However, the concepts
may be used, which will be discussed later.
Effect of a sequence of Impulses Effect of a sequence of Impulses

• For n equal impulses, of successively opposite signs, spaced at


I intervals t1 = T / 2 and xmax = n I/(mp) (64)
Suppose that t1 = T/2
t1
I
t
I/mp • For n equal impulses of the same sign, the above equation holds
x(t)
Effect of first pulse when the pulses are spaced at interval t1 = T

x(t) I/mp
• For n unequal impulses spaced at the critical spacings noted
Effect of second pulse above, xmax = Σ Ij /(mp) (65)
x(t) 2I/mp (summation over j for 1 to n). Where Ij is the magnitude of the jth
Combined effect of two pulses impulse
t

• If spacing of impulses are different, the effects are combined


vectorially

Response of Damped systems to Sinusoidal Force

P(t) = P0 sinωt
where ω = π/ t1= Circular frequency P(t)
of the exciting force

t1 t
Solution:
Response of Damped systems to Sinusoidal Force The Particular solution in this case may be taken as
x(t) = M sinωt + N cosωt (a)
Substituting Eq.(a) into Eq.52, and combining all terms involving sinωt
and cos ωt, we obtain

This image cannot currently be display ed.


Steady State Response

This leads to ζ P(t)


(c)
(pζ2-ω2)M - 2 pωN = p2(xst)0
2 pωM+2 (p2-ω2)N = 0
ω ω α t
Where 1-   2ζ  
p p ω
M= (x st )0 N=- (x st )0
 ω  2 2 2
 ω 2 2 2 x(t)
2 ω 2ω
1-    +4ζ      
1- +4ζ  
p p
  p   p    

(x st )0 x(t) 1
= sin(ωt - α ) (69)
ζ
The solution in this case is α (x st ) 0 (1- φ ) 2 + 4ζ 2 φ2
2
(1-φ ) +4ζ φ
2 2 2 2

x(t) = e- pt(A cosωpD t1+B sin pD t) + sin (ωt – ) (66)


φ= = x max 1
p 2ft1 (67) AF = =
where (70)
(x st ) 0 (1- φ 2 ) 2 + 4ζ 2 φ2
2ζφ ω 1 π
tan α = (68) Note that at φ= = 1, AF = = (71)
(1- φ2 ) p 2ζ δ

Effect of damping

• Reduces the response, and the greater the amount of


damping, the greater the reduction.

• The effect is different in different regions of the spectrum.

AF α
• The greatest reduction is obtained where most needed (i.e., at
and near resonance).

• Near resonance, response is very sensitive to variation in ζ


(see Eq.71). Accordingly, the effect of damping must be
considered and the value of ζ must be known accurately in
this case.
Resonant Frequency and Amplitude Transmissibility of system

The dynamic force transmitted to the base of the SDOF system is


ωres = p 1- 2ζ 2 (72)  cx&
F = kx + cx
& = k x + (75)
(AF)max =
1  k 
(73)
2ζ 1- 2ζ 2 Substituting x from Eq.(69), we obtain
1 P0 1 cω
These equations are valid only for ζ < F= k [sin(ωt - α ) + cos(ωt - α )]
2 k (1- φ ) + 4ζ φ
2 2 2 2 k
1 cω cω ω
For values of < ζ<1 Noting that = = 2ζ = 2ζφ and combining the sine and
2 k mp 2 p
cosine terms into a single sine term, we obtain
ωres = 0
(74)
(A.F.)max = 1 F(t) 1 + 4ζ 2 φ2
= sin(ωt - α + γ ) (76)
P0 (1- φ2 ) 2 + 4ζ 2 φ2

where γ is the phase angle defined by tan γ = 2ζ φ (77)

Transmissibility of system Transmissibility of system

The ratio of the amplitudes of the transmitted force and the applied
force is defined as the transmissibility of the system, TR, and is
given by
F0 1 + 4ζ 2 φ 2
TR = = (78)
P0 (1- φ2 ) 2 + 4ζ 2 φ2

The variation of TR with φand ζ is shown in the following figure. For TR


the special case of ζ =0, Eq.78 reduces to
1
TR =
(1- φ 2 )

which is the same expression as for the amplification factor xmax/(xst)0


ω
φ=
p
Transmissibility for harmonic excitation
• Irrespective of the amount of damping involved, TR<1 only for
• In the frequency range where TR<1, damping increases the
values of (ω/p)2 >2. In other words, in order for the transmitted force
transmissibility. In spite of this it is desirable to have some
to be less than the applied force, the support system must be
amount of damping to minimize the undesirable effect of the
flexible.
in cms nearly resonant condition which will develop during starting and
ω f f δ stopping operations as the exciting frequency passes through the
Noting that = e = e st > 2 natural frequency of the system.
p f 4.98
50 (79)
The static deflection of the system, δstmust be δst >
fe 2 • When ζ is negligibly small, the flexibility of the supports needed
0.5
to ensure a prescribed value of TR may be determined from
1
TR =
δst in   ω 2  (80a)
   -1 
cms  p  
 
Proceeding as before, we find that the value of δst corresponding to
0.1 Eq.(80a) is
5 10 40
fe  1  π2  1  25
δst  1 +  2 (in) or δst  1 +  2 (cm) (80b)
fe is the frequency of the exciting force, in cps  TR  f e  TR  f e

Application
Consider a reciprocating or rotating machine which, due to unbalance
of its moving parts, is acted upon by a force P0 sinωt.
• If the support flexibility is such that is less than the value defined
If the machine were attached rigidly to a supporting structure as by Eq.(79), the transmitted force will be greater than applied, and
shown in Fig.(a), the amplitude of the force transmitted to the structure the insertion of the flexible support will have an adverse effect.
would be P0 (i.e., TR=1).
If P0 is large, it may induce undesirable vibrations in the structure, and
• The required flexibility is defined by Eq.(80b), where TR is the
it may be necessary to reduce the magnitude of the transmitted force.
desired transmissibility.
This can be done by the use of an approximately designed spring-
dashpot support system, as shown in Fig (b) and (c).
P0 sinωt • The value of may be increased either by decreasing the spring
P0 sinωt stiffness, k, or increasing the weight of the moving mass, as shown
m in Fig.(c).
P0 sinωt m
mb

m k c k c

(a)
(b) (c)
Application to Ground-Excited systems Rotating Unbalance

k
m Total mass of machine = M
M m
c unbalanced mass =m
e ωt eccentricity =e
y(t) angular velocity =ω
x(t) x
For systems subjected to a sinusoidal base displacement, y(t) =
d2
y0 sinωt it can be shown that the ratio of the steady state
k/2
( M − m) &&
x+m ( x + e sin ωt ) + cx& + kx = 0
displacement amplitude, xmax, to the maximum displacement of
c k/2 dt 2
the base motion, yo, is defined in Eq.(78).
Thus TR has a double meaning, and Eq.(78) can also be used to
proportion the support systems of sensitive instruments or Mx&& + cx& + kx = meω 2 sin ω t
equipment items that may be mounted on a vibrating structure.
For systems for which ζ ,may be considered negligible, the value
of required to limit the transmissibility TR = xmax/y0 to a
specified value may be determined from Eq.(80b).

Reciprocating unbalance Determination of Natural frequency and Damping

Steady State Response Curves

Structure subjected to a sinusoidally varying force of fixed amplitude


m
 e  for a series of frequencies. The exciting force may be generated by
L F = meω sin ω t + sin 2ω t 
2
two masses rotating about the same axis in opposite direction
e
 L 
ωt M
e - radius of crank shaft For each frequency, determine the amplitude of the resulting
L - length of the connectivity rod steady-state displacement ( or a quantity which is proportional to x,
such as strain in a member) and plot a frequency response curve
e/L - is small quantity second term (response spectrum)
can be neglected

For negligibly small damping, the natural frequency is the value of fe


for which the response is maximum. When damping is not
negligible, determine p =2πf from Eq.72. The damping factor , ζ
may be determined as follows:
Determination of Natural frequency and Damping

(a) Resonant Amplification Method

Determination of Natural frequency and Damping


Determine maximum amplification (A.F)max=(x0)max/ (xst)0

Resonant Amplification Method


Evaluate ζ from Eq.73 or its simpler version, Eq.71, when ζ is small
Half-Power or Bandwidth Method
Duhamel’s Integral Limitations: It may not be possible to apply a sufficiently large P0 to
measure (xst)0 reliably, and it may not be possible to evaluate
(xst)0 reliably by analytical means.

(b) Half-Power or Bandwidth Method:


(xo)max
xo
In this method ζ is determined from the part of the spectrum near the
peak steps involved are as follows,

1. Determine Peak of curve, (x0)max 1


(xo)max
( )
2. Draw a horizontal line at a response level of 1/ 2 ( x0 )max, and (xo)st
2

determine the intersection points with the response spectrum.


These points are known as the half-power points of the spectrum ∆f fe
∆f
3. Evaluate the bandwidth, defined as f
f
Determination of Natural frequency and Damping6
Derivation
1
1 1  1  2
4.For small amounts of damping, it can be shown that ζ is related = 2
2 2ζ  (1 − φ ) + (2ζφ ) 
2
to the bandwidth by the equation 1 ∆f
ζ = (81)
2 f 1 1
=
8ζ (1 − φ ) + ( 4ζ
2 2
φ2 )
2
Limitations: 2

Unless the peaked portion of the spectrum is determine accurately,


it would be impossible to evaluate reliably the damping factor. φ 2 = 1 − 2ζ 2 ± 2ζ 1 + ζ 2
φ12 = 1 − 2ζ 2 − 2ζ 1 + ζ 2 ⇒ φ1 = 1 − ζ − ζ 2
As an indication of the frequency control capability required for the
exciter , note that for f = 5cps, and ζ = 0.01, the frequency φ22 = 1 − 2ζ 2 + 2ζ 1 + ζ 2 ⇒ φ2 = 1 + ζ − ζ 2
difference
1 1 ( f1 − f 2 ) ( f1 + f 2 )
∆f = 2(0.01)5 = 0.1cps ζ = (φ1 − φ2 ) = f ≈
2 2 f 2
with the Cal Tech vibrator it is possible to change the frequency to
( f 2 − f1 )
a value that differs by one tenth of a percent from its previous ζ ≈
value. ( f1 + f 2 )

Other Methods for Evaluating response of SDF Systems

I= P (τ )d τ

(c) Duhamel’s Integral The strip of loading shown shaded represents and impulse,

In this approach the forcing function is conceived as being made I = P(τ) dτ


up of a series of vertical strips, as shown in the figure, the effect For an undamped SDF system, this induces a displacement
of each strip is then computed by application of the solution for
P (τ ) dτ
free vibration, and the total effect is determined by superposition ∆x = sin [ p (t - τ ) ] (82)
of the component effects mp

P(t) The displacement at time t induced by integration as


P(τ)
1 τ =t
x (t ) = ∫ P (τ ) sin  p ( t − τ )  dτ (83)
∆x(t) mp τ =0
or
t
dτ x (t ) = p ∫ xst (τ ) sin  p ( t − τ )  dτ (84)
0
o t t
τ τ
Implicit in this derivation is the assumption that the system is initially (at The effect of the initial motion in this case is defined by Eqn. 41
t=0) at rest. For arbitrary initial conditions, Eqn 84 should be augmented Eqns. 84 and 87 are referred to in the literature with different names.
by the free vibration terms as follows They are most commonly known as Duhamel’s Integrals, but are also
t
V0 identified as the superposition integrals, convolution integrals, or
x ( t ) = x0 cos pt + sin pt + p ∫ xst (τ ) sin  p ( t − τ )  dτ Dorel’s integrals.
p 0

For viscously damped system with ζ < 1 ,becomes


Example1: Evaluate response to rectangular pulse, take ζ = 0 and
P (τ ) dτ −ζ p( t −τ ) For t ≤ t1 x0 = v0 = 0
∆x(t ) = e sin  pd ( t − τ )  t
P(t)

mpd x ( t ) = p ( xst )o ∫ sin  p ( t − τ ) dτ = ( xst )o cos p ( t − τ ) τ =t Po

τ =0
0
t1 t
Leading to the following counterpart of Eqn.84
For t ≥ t1 = ( xst )o [1 − cos pt ]
t t1
p −ζ p ( t −τ )
x (t ) = ∫ xst (τ ) e sin  pd ( t − τ ) dτ x ( t ) = p ( xst )0 ∫ sin  p ( t - τ ) dτ + 0 = ( xst )0 cos p ( t - t1 ) - cos pt 
1−ζ 2 0 0

Generalised SDOF System

m*q&&(t ) + c*q& (t ) + k *q(t ) = p* (t )

q( t ) = Single generalised coordinate expressing the


motion of the system
Generalised SDOF System
m* = generalised mass

c* = generalised damping coefficient

k =
*
generalised stiffness

p* = generalised force
y(x, t ) = ψ(x )q(t )
(a)
c1 c2
a1(x)
(c) c(x)

(b) m(x) m1,j1 m2, j2


L

x1

l
m = ∫ m( x )ψ ( x ) 2 dx + Σmiψ i2 + Σjiψ i′′2
*

(d) k1 k2
P(x,t)

k(x) Pi(t)
(e)
N

l
p = ∫ p( x, t )ψ ( x )dx + Σpi (t )ψ i ( x )
*
l l l
0
k * = ∫ k ( x )ψ 2 ( x )dx + ∫ EI ( x )ψ " ( x ) 2 dx + Σkiψ i2 − ∫ N ( x )ψ ' ( x ) 2 dx
0 0 0
Note: Force direction and displacement direction is same (+ve)
Effect of damping

Effect of damping
Energy dissipated into heat or radiated away

Viscous damping • The loss of energy from the oscillatory system results in the
decay of amplitude of free vibration.

Coulomb damping
• In steady-state forced vibration ,the loss of energy is
balanced by the energy which is supplied by the excitation.
Hysteretic damping

Effect of damping

Simplified damping models have been proposed .These models


are found to be adequate in evaluating the system response.
Energy dissipated mechanism may emanate from
Depending on the type of damping present ,the force displacement
(i) Friction at supports & joints relationship when plotted may differ greatly.
(ii) Hysteresis in material ,internal molecular friction, Force - displacement curve enclose an area ,referred to as the
sliding friction hysteresis loop,that is proportional to the energy lost per cycle.
(iii) Propagation of elastic waves into foundation ,radiation
effect ∫ Fd dx
Wd = 
In general W d depends on temperature,frequency,amplitude.
(iv) Air-resistance,fluid resistance
For viscous type
(v) Cracks in concrete-may dependent on past load –
history etc..,
Exact mathematical description is quite complicated &not ∫ Fd dx
Wd = 
suitable for vibration analysis. Fd = cx&

ω

∫ cxdx
Wd = π cω X =  & = ∫ cx& dt = cω X ∫ cos (ωt − Φ)dt = π cω X
2 2 2 2 2 2

0
(b) Equivalent viscous damping:
(a) Viscous damping
π C eqω X 2 = W d
Fd(t) = c x& Wd
Fd+kx ellipse

c - coefficient of damping C eq =
πω X 2
W viscous - work done for one full cycle = cπω X
2
2k 2W s
Cc = where k = , W s = strain energy
ω X2 x
Fd C Wd
ζ = =
C c 4π W s
cωX

X(t)
-X

(b) Coulomb damping: Fd



− 1
Wcoulomb = 4 F X k ( X 12 − X −21 ) − Fd ( X 1 + X −1 ) = 0
F 2
It results from sliding of two dry surfaces 1
-X X(t) k ( X 1 − X −1 ) = Fd
The damping force=product of the normal force 2
& the coefficient of friction (independent of the 4 Fd
velocity once the motion starts. X1 − X 2 = Decay in amplitude per cycle
k

Linear decay
The motion will cease ,however when the amplitude becomes
less than ∆, at which the spring force is insufficient to overcome
4Fd/k
x1 the static friction.
x2 Frequency of oscillation

x-1 k
pµ =
m
(c) Hysteretic damping (material damping or structural damping):
Equivalent viscous Coefficient

- Inelastic deformation of the material composing the device


Fd
 µ − 1 4F
Whysteretic = 4 Fy X  
Fy a) Coulomb Ceq=

 µ  -x
π WX
Fy is the yield force xy x 4 Fy  µ − 1 
b) Hysteretic Ceq=
Kh=elastic
damper
πω X  µ 
Xy Displacement at which material first yields stiffness
2k s
x c) Structural Ceq=
µ= πω
xy
(d) Structural damping
x&
fD = ζ k x
x&
WD = 2ζ kX 2 = α X 2
Energy dissipated is frequency independent.

Reference

Dynamics of Structures: Theory and Application to


Earthquake Engineering – Anil K. Chopra, Prentice Hall
India

Reading Assignment

Course notes & Reading material

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