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UNIT 2: SYNTAX ANALYSIS

4.1. INTRODUCTION:

o Parser or syntax analysis basically checks for the syntax of the language.
. A parser or syntax analysis is a process which takes the inputs (as tokens) and
produce either parse tree (Syntactic structure) or generates error report.

4.L.L Role of The Parser

In our compiler model, the parser obtains a string of tokens from the lexical analyzer (as
shown in Fig. 4.1,) and verifies that the string of token names can be generated by the grammar
for the source language.

texical Itmt *f in*nn*rli***

An,*i*;r:a*r $rrrrrt, Srt*tr fs$rs#$txti*lr

Fi;prb 4.1: F*+riti*ar cf prr**r in c*nrpih*r lri$*iel

In the process of cornpilation the parser and lexical analyzer works together. That means,
wlren parsel recluires string of tokens t invokes lexical analyzer. In turn, the lexical analyzer
supplies tokens to parser

The parser call the lexical analyzer (by the getNextToken command), causes the lexical
analyzer to read characters fi'om its input until it can identify the next lexeme and produce for it
the next token, which it returns to the parser.

We expect the parser to report any syntax errors in an intelligible fashion and to recover
frorn commonly occurring errors to continlle processing the remeinder of the program.

&re are three general tvnes of parsers fgr gramm+rs:

1. Universal Parser:
Universal parsing rnethods such as the Cocke-Younger-Kasami algorithrn ancl
Earley's algorithm can parse any grammar .These general methods are, however, too
inftficieut to use in production compilers.
 2, Top-Down Parser:
Top-down methods build parse trees from the top (root) to the bottom (leaves).
Ex: LL Parser

3. Bottom-Up Parser:
Bottom-up methods start from the leaves and work their way up to the root. In
either case, the input to the parser is scanned from left to right, one symbol at a time.
Ex: LR Parser

4 .1.3 Svntax Error Handling:

If a compiler had to process only correct programs, its design and implementation
would be simplified greatly.

Planning the error handling right from the start can both simplify the structure of a
compiler and improve its handling of errors.

Common proqramning errors can occur at manv different levels.

. Lexical errors-
It include misspellings of identifiers, keywords, or operators .

e.9., Use of an identifrer arunknmr instead of arunkumar

Missing quotes around text intended as a string.

'Syntactic errors - include misplaced semicolons or extra or missing braces; that is, "{" or "}."
As another example, the appearance of a case statement without an enclosing switch is a
syntactic error.

' Semantic errors: include type mismatches between operators and operands. An example is a
return statement in a Java method with result type void.

' Logical errors : It can be anything from incorrect reasoning on the part of the programmer to
the use in a C program of the assignment operator: instead of the comparison operator__.

The gaols of error handler in a parser:

The error hanCier in a parser has goals that are simple to state but challenging to realize:
1. Report the presence of effors clearly and accurately.
2. Recover from each error quickly enough to detect subsequent errors.
3. Add minimal overhead to the processing of correct programs.
4. 1.4 :
E"rrgr:Recovery,Ftrategies
'l he following activities are performed whenever effors are detected by the parser:

program[ner can correct the program'

compilation.

Panic Mode Recoverv:

o It is the simplest and most popular effor recovery method'

. When .ooi is detected, ift. parser discarded symbols one at a time until
next
synchronizing token (valid token) is found
. The synchroni zing(valid) tokens are Llsually delimiters, such as semicolon
or), whose
role in the source program is clear and unambiguous.

For example consider the effoneous expression:

(x*y'r*z)*k /
. reading (, X, -F, Y,
The parser ,.un, the input from left to right and finds no errors after
and*. *
. and it
After reading the second 1, it knows that no expression has consecutive operators
*
display un erto, "Extra in the input expression"'
. token found (i.e 'z')'
In panic mode recovery, it skips all input-symbols till the next valid
Here z is the sYnchronizingtoken'

Phrlse-Levql Begoverv :

. the remaining inppt;

On cliscovering an error, a parser may perform local conection.on
that allows the parser
that is, it may ieplace a prefix of the remaining input by some string
to continue.

' d tyPical local correction is

o
To rePlace a comma bY a semicolon,
.
Delete an extraneous semicolon, or insert a missing semicolon.
Disadvantages of this Phase are:

: illTit".#Hmf,X.*ru:f#ff?Xlpr*..-enr as they mav reacr to innnite

loops.

Ilrrgr rlroductioni
. The error procluctions specify commonly knoln rnistakes in the grammar'
 when we imprement the parser, when an effor production
is used, it displays the
appropriate error message.
For exampre, consider the expression r0x. Mathematically
it means multiply 10 with x'
* errors can be identified very
But in programming languug. *, should write 10 x. such
easily by error Production.

Global Correction:

. with correct input using

The global correction method replaces an incorrect input
least cost correction method'
grammar G, these algorithms will
. These algorithm take an incorrect input string * .*d
of insertions, deletions, and
find a pirr. tree for a.related string y, such ttiat the nu-b.t
changes of tokens required to transform x into
y is as small as possible'
. These methods are costly to implement in terms of
time and space and hence are only of

theoretical interest.

4 . 2 Context-Free Grammars:

4.2. 1 Th. Follrrul D.firritiglt of u Contttt-Fttt Gru*Tur (C'F'G\t

o I context-free grammar (grammar for short) consists of terminals, non-tertninals, a start

symbol, and Productions.
. G: ( v, T, p, s) where G is grammar, T-terminals, v-non-terminals, S-start symbol, and
P-productions.
. Consider the grammar

E) E+TIT

T) T*FIF
F+ id
l. Terminals:
. Terminals are the basic symbols from which strings are formed'
. ,,token name" i, u synonym for "terminal" and frequently we will use
The term
the word "token" for terminal.
* tidt .
. In above grammar terminals are * , and
o

2. Nonterminals:
. Nonterminals are syntactic variables that denote sets of strings'
. E, T and F are nonterminals in above grammar.
. language generated by
The sets of strings denoted by nonterminals help define the
the grammar.
f*
3. stirrt symbol:
. The first no-terminal of the grammar is the start syrnbol'
 i]

,' E is the start symbol.

The productions of a grammar specify the manner in which the terminals and nonterminals can
be combined to form strings.

Each production consists of:

(a) A nonterminal called the head or left side of the production;
(b) The symbol ) .Sometimes: : =has been used inplace of the arrow.
(c) A body or right side consisting of zero or more terminals and nonterminals.

S ) E+TIT

(head) ; (body)

{.2.2 Notational Qonvent ions:

1. These symbols are terminals:

(a) Lower case letters early in the alphabet, such as a' b, c.
(b) Operator symbols such as *, *, and so on.
(c) Punctuation pymbols such as parentheses, comma, and so on.
(d) The digits 0, 1, . . . , 9.
(e) Boldface strings sych as id or if, each of which represents a single terminal symbol.

2. These symbols are nonterminals:

(a) Uppercase letters early in the alphabet, such as A, B, C.
(b) The letter S, which, when it appears, is usually the start symbol.
(c) Lowercase, italic names such as expr or stmt.
(cl) When discussing programming constructs, uppercase letters may be used t o represent
nonterminals for the constructs. For example, nonterminals for expressions, terms, and
factors are often represented by E, T, and F,respectively.

P "T,A

fc
 't

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$

4, trcwerc**e letterx lats in ths *lphabeto *hiefly ur u, * r !.u, reprffien* {pns-

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