SOCIOLOGY
deals with
- study of human society
Sociology allows people to understand
the history of society by understanding
patterns of interaction between and
among individuals
August Comte (Father of Sociology)
- He coined the term sociology from the
LATIN word “socius” meaning
*companion or associate and the
GREEK word “logos” meaning *study
Sociological Perspective
-heart of sociology, which is a way of
looking at reality
First wisdom of Sociology- “things are
not what they always they seem to be”
HOLISM. an approach of anthropology
encompasses the whole human
condition including its culture, biology,
society, language, and its past, present,
and future.
According to Peter Berger
(1963) sociologist perspective is seeing
the general in the particular. This means
that sociology allows people to
understand the history of society by
understanding patterns of interactions
between and among individuals.
ASSUMPTIONS OD SOCIOLOGY
1. Individuals are by nature social
beings.
2. Individuals are for the most part
socially determined.
3. Individuals create, sustain, modify
and change the social conditions within
which they conduct their lives.
AREAS OF SOCIOLOGY
1. Social Organization. involves social
institutions, social groups, social
inequality, social mobility and the
bureaucracy.
2. Social Psychology.
human nature which focuses on social
processes as they affect the individual.
3. Social Change. studies ecological
changes, population, migration,
technological change, cultural change,
political processes, social
transformation, mass communication,
and impact of natural disaster.
4. Population. This concerns the
characteristics of population, the
processes, demographics, and the
changes as they influence the
economic, political and social systems
and vice versa.
5. Applied Sociology. It involves
resolving social problems though the
findings of pure sociological research.
6. Sociological Theory and Research.
This seeks to explain problems, actions
or behaviors; or to discover, develop,
and replicate research tools that test the
validity, applicability, and usefulness of
the results of the investigation.
7. Human Ecology. It studies the
behavior of a given population and its
relationship to the group’s social
institutions.
ANTHROPOLOGY
- derived from the Greek words:
“Anthropos”, meaning *human beings
or human kind and “logos”, meaning
“science or study”.
- means the study of human beings or
human kind.
- studies humankind, past, and present-
in all its aspects especially human
culture or human development.
FOUR (4) Sub-Disciplines of
Anthropology
1. Cultural Anthropology.
Also known as social anthropology, this
is the study of human society and
culture. It describes, analyzes,
interprets, and explains cultural and
social differences and similarities. The
main focus of cultural anthropology is
culture – the customs, beliefs, traditions,
acquired by human groups through
socialization.
Areas of Cultural Anthropology
1.1 Ethnography. It describes in detail
people’s culture ore an ethnic group
through intensive observation,
interview and participation. It is also
known as the “science of
description.”
1.2 Ethnology. It builds the theories to
explain cultural practices based on
comparative studies throughout the
world.
1.3 Medical Anthropology. It studies
the biological and cultural factors in
health, disease and treatment of
sickness in different cultures and
ethnic groups. It claims the diseases
and sicknesses are culturally
determined.
1.4 Urban Anthropology. It deals with
the study of city life, gangs and drug
abuse, and other characteristics of
urban life.
1.5 Development Anthropology. It
focuses on the causes of under
development and development of
the less developed nations.
2. Physical Anthropology.
This is the study of human biological
foundations, race evolution and
classifications and differentiation over
time and across spaces.
aka biological anthropology,
it unites five special interest:
a) human evolution Is revealed by fossil
records;
b) human genetics;
c) human growth and development;
d) human biological plasticity; and
e) biology, evolution behavior and social
life of monkeys, apes, and other non-
human primates.
Sub-disciplines of Physical
Anthropology are:
2.1 Racial History. This deals with the
study of the nature of races.
2.2 Human Paleontology. This focuses
on the study of fossil records of early
human species and their ancestors.
2.3 Human Genetics. This deals with
the investigation of inheritance that
takes place in man.
2.4 Primatology. This is the study of
fossil and living apes, monkeys and
other non-human primates with
regard to their behavior and social
life.
2.5 Forensic Anthropology. This
analyzes human remains in the
service of criminal justice and
victims’ families.
3. Archeology.
It is concerned with the study of
prehistoric and historic human behavior
and cultural patterns and processes
through the culture’s material remains.
Artifacts are the main evidences used in
evaluating pre-historic societies.
Sub-disciplines of Archeology:
3.1 Historical Archeology. It is the
study of past human culture by
using both written and
archeological excavations.
3.2 Industrial Archeology. It
focuses on the study of industrial
factories and facilities.
3.3 Contract Archeology. It is the
application of archeology that
assesses the potential impacts of
construction in archeological
sites.
4. Linguistic Anthropology.
It studies all the social and cultural
aspects of language over time and
across spaces. It is also concerned with
the complex relations between language
and other aspects. The following are
the sub-disciplines of linguistic
anthropology.
4.1 Historical Linguistic. This focuses
on the reconstruction of the origin of
specific languages over time and
across spaces.
4.2 Descriptive Linguistics. This deals
with the study of grammar and
syntax of languages over time and
across spaces.
4.3 Sociolinguistic. This investigates
the everyday use of language in
communication, as well as, the
relationship between social and
linguistic variations.
PIONEERS ON ANTHROPOLOGY
AND THEIR CONTRIBUTIONS
1. Lewis Henry Morgan (1818-1851).
A lawyer by profession and founder of
professional anthropology in the USA,
Morgan is best known for his study on
kinship system (Your kin is your family,
so it's easy to see that kinship describes
family bonds, Kinship can also describe
a close family-like relationship, like the
kinship of the teachers at your school
who have worked together for many
years and who all care deeply about
students and learning.)
2. Edward B. Tylor (1832-1917).
Considered the founder of anthropology
in Great Britain, his work, “Primitive
Culture” provided the first generally
acceptable definition of culture.
3. Franz Boas (1858-1942).
Considered the Father of Modern
American Anthropology, Boas
introduced the relativistic, culture-
centered principles, and methods of
inquiry in anthropological research.
4. Bronislaw Malinowski (1882-1942).
As the founder of Modern British
Anthropology and a permanent
proponent of the functionalist school of
anthropology, Malinowski did pioneering
fieldworks among the living people.
“Father of Ethnography.”
5. Claude Levi-Strauss (1908-2009)
A French anthropologist who is well-
known as the leading exponent of the
structural theory, Levi-Strauss
structuralism entails a search for deep,
invisible, and innate structures common
to humankind. He is known for his
‘alliance theory’ (alliance is a French
word for marriage).
6. Alfred Reginald Radcliffe-Brown
(1881-1955).
A British Anthropologist, Radcliffe-
Brown is considered as the founder of
the ‘structural functional’ approach, and
along with Bronislaw Malinowski.
7. Leslie A. White (1900-1975)
His notable works are “The Evolution of
Culture” (1959) and “The Concept of
Culture” (1973).
Filipino Anthropologists and Their
Contributions
1. F. Landa Jocano.
A famous Filipino anthropologist Jocano
advanced the “Evolution Theory” where
he offered better explanation of how the
Philippines was initially inhabited by
human beings.
2. Alfredo E. Evangelista. His
discoveries and findings were
considered as one of the most important
archaeological artifacts unearth in
Philippine history. He discovered the
oldest primary burial site, known as the
“Duyong Cave” in Palawan.
3. Melba F. Maggay.
She is a well-known educator, writer and
a social anthropologist, as a writer, she
is a three-time Palanca awardee in
literature. As an anthropologist, she is a
prolific (produces a large number of
works.) author on numerous books on
Filipino religious culture.
4. Michael L. Tan.
He is prominent writer and a medical,
writer and a social anthropologist. He is
best known in his column: “Pinoy Kasi”
in the Philippine Daily Inquirer tackling
Filipino history, culture and traditions.
HUMAN ORIGIN AND VARIATION
Darwin’s Evolution & The Bible’s
Devolution of Human
*Darwin’s evolution of human suggests
that modern human developed from
lower life forms and continues to
improve in form and capacity as time
progressed. The following are supposed
evidences of index fossils showing how
human developed from subhuman
forms.
1. Ancestral Primates. Principally
arboreal (Tree-dwelling), quadropedal
(walked on four limbs), nocturnal (night
creatures), and small brained. Pre-
monkeys or Prosimians – Lemurs,
tarsiers, shrew, monkeys.
2. Ancestral Hominid. Humanlike
primates who were both arboreal and
terrestrial (land-dwelling), walked
bipedal (2 hind limbs) stooping;
braincase larger than pre-monkeys and
monkeys.
 Aegyptopithecus (Egyptian ape)
 Ramapithecus (Indian ape)
 Australopithecus Africanus
(African ape-man)
3. Homo Habilis. “Skillfull human” or
first tool-maker, unearthed in Ethiopia
and Kenya; also bipedal and larger brain
case than the hominids.
4. Homo Erectus. (Pithecanthropus
erectus) “Erect ape-human” who stood
bipedal-erect, enlarged brain case than
the Habilis and 500,000 years old.
 Homo Javanensis (Java man –
Indonesia)
 Homo Pekinensis (Peking man –
Choukoutien, China)
 Homo Rhodosiensis (Rhodesian
man – Rhodesia, Africa)
 Homo Heidelbergensis
(Heidelberg man – Heidelberg
Germany)
5. Homo sapiens. “Thinking human”
with largest brain case among the
developing primates and evolved into
modern human.
 Homo Neanderthalensis
(Neanderthal man- Neander,
Germany.)
 Cro-magnon man (France) – the
direct ancestor of modern man.
HUMAN VARIATION
- Refers to differences in frequency of
physical and biological traits mostly
represented as adaptations to different
environments.
survive long enough to reproduce
an offspring w/ the same gene
trait. (Tay Sach’s Disease,
galactosemiq)

1. Visible or external traits. This

includes skin color, height, body build,
structure, hair characteristics and the
like.

2. Invisible or internal traits. This

includes susceptibility or resistance to
particular types of diseases.

FACTORS OF HUMAN VARIATION

1. Genetic Recombination. This is the

random assortment of chromosomes of
the shuffling of parental genes with its
new offspring. This accounts for
variation and yet resemblance among
siblings as a result of the new
combination of parents’ genetic pool
with each offspring, except in the case
of identical twins.

2. Genetic Mutation. This refers to the SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS

alternation or change in the molecular
structure of the DNA (deoxyribonucleic
acid) code of a gene, resulting in a
mutated gene or gene trait.
Causes of Mutation
 Exposure to drugs and chemicals
 Extreme irradiation by nuclear
and x-rays.
 Mismatching of DNA chemical
bases.
 Inheritance of recessive mutant
genes from parents.
Results of Mutation
 Beneficial Mutation. This real
and occasional, and it become
adaptive characteristics and may
multiply in a given population.
 Harmful Mutation. This accounts
for 99% of mutations, w/c impairs
the organism’s ability to adapt.
This prevents the organism to
The Family Code of the Philippines
(1999) defines marriage as a special
contract of permanent union between a
man and a woman entered into in
accordance with law for the
establishment of conjugal and family life.
• Monogamy. This is the most
common and universal form of
marriage which permits man and
woman to have only one spouse
at a time.
• Polygamy. This is plural
marriage where a man and a
woman are married to several
individuals at the same time.
 IT INCLUDES:
a. Polygyny. This involves the union of
a man to several women.
b. Polyandry. It is a form of plural
marriage which involves the union of a
woman to several men.
c. Group Marriage. This refers to the
union of several men to several women.
3. Adoptive. It is when the bridegroom
is adopted by the family of the bride
prior to marriage to preserve the
surname of the bride. The surname of
the bridegroom is changed to the
surname of the bride.
4. Fictive. It is a union of an older
woman to a younger one for the sake of
companionship. The older woman has
been divorced by her husband because
of being barren(baog). It is difficult to
live alone, she takes a younger woman
who is married with children. The
children will be considered children of
the two women.
5. Sister-exchange. This is when the
sister of the bridegroom has to marry
the brother of the bride. This is
exchange for the much needed labor
contributed by the bride in her family,
especially in agricultural societies.
FORMS OF SECOND MARRIAGES
Sororate. This is the sister-in law
marriage. It is when a man remarries the
sister of his deceased wife.
Levirate. This is the brother-in law
marriage. It occurs when a woman
marries the deceased husband’s
brother.
Ghost marriage. It is practiced in
relation to the levirate marriage where
the children being the children of the
“dead” husband, thus the husband’s
brother becomes a “surrogate” father of
the children.
Marriage Procedures or
Requirements
1. Brideprice or bridewealth. These
are material wealth-money or valuables,
given to the bride’s family by the family
of the bridegroom to compensate for the
loss labor contribution of the bride to her
family as a result of marriage.
2. Dowry. This is a material wealth
given by the bride to the bridegroom’s
family.
3. Fosterage fee. This refers to the
payment made by the bridegroom to the
bride’s mother for taking care of her.
4. Brideservice. This is a practice
where the bridegroom performs
personal services to the bride’s family
prior to marriage.
FAMILY
first, oldest, basic and most fundamental
institution in society. It is the building
block, the institutional fabric, which is
the take-off point for weaving social life.
George Murdock (as cited in Palispis,
2007) defined family as social group
characterized by common residence,
economic cooperation, and
reproduction.
FAMILY STRUCTURES
1. Internal Organization
Nuclear family. This is often referred to
as either primary or an elementary
family. It is composed of the married
couple and their children.
Extended family. It is composed of two
or more nuclear families or several
generations of families living together
under one roof. The conjugal family
considers the spouses and the children
as of prime importance and which has
fringe of comparatively unimportant
relatives. In a consanguineal family, the
nucleus of blood relatives is more
important than the spouses.
2, Descent or Lineage
Patrilineal family. It is a system of
tracing descent through the father’s side
of the family of the male’s lineage.
Matrilineal family. It is a system of
tracing descent through the mother’s
side of the family of the female’s
lineage.
Bilateral family. It is a system of tracing
descent through both the mother’s and
father’s side of the family or both the
male’s or female’s lineage.
3.Residence
Patrilocal family. This is when the
couple lives in the bridegroom’s parents
or husband’s household.
Matrilocal family. This is when the
couple lives in the bride’s parents or
wife’s household.
Bilocal family. This is when the couples
lives with either the groom’s or bride’s
parents or the husband’s or wife’s
household.
Neolocal family. This is when the
couple resides independently from the
parents of either groom or bride or the
household or either the husband or wife.
Avunlocal family. It is when the couple
resides with or near the maternal couple
of the groom.
AUTHORITY
Patriarchal family. It is when authority
is held by the eldest male in the family,
usually the father.
Matriarchal family. It is when authority
is held by the eldest female in the
family, usually the mother.
Egalitarian family. This is when both
partners share power and authority
equally.
Matricentric family. It is when the
mother decides in the absence of the
father.
FUNCTIONS OF THE FAMILY
Families fulfill a number of functions that
no other institutions can perform
effectively. According to William Ogburn
families serve the following key
functions.
1. Reproduction. For a society to
maintain itself, it must replace dying
members. The family contributes to the
continuity of the human race through
reproduction.
2. Protection. Human experience an
extremely long period of dependency. In
all cultures, the family assumes ultimate
responsibility for the protection and
upbringing of children.
3. Socialization. Parents and other
relatives transmit the norms, values, and
language of a culture to the child. They
are also responsible in molding and
monitoring the behavior of the child.
4. Regulation of Sexual Behavior
Over time and across culture, sexual
norms are subject to change. However,
whatever the time period or culture
values in a society, standards of sexual
behaviors are most clearly defined in the
family.
5. Affection and companionship
Ideally, the family provides members
with warm and intimate relationships. It
is expected that family members
understand, care for, and be there when
needed by relatives of the family.
Children in the family inherit the “family
background” and reputation of the
parents. The family unit presents
newborn child with an ascribed status of
race and ethnicity that helps to
determine his/her lace within society’s
stratification system.