Cybercrime

Cybercrime, or computer-oriented crime, is a

crime that involves a computer and a
network.[1] The computer may have been used
in the commission of a crime, or it may be the
target.[2] Cybercrimes can be defined as:
"Offences that are committed against
individuals or groups of individuals with a
criminal motive to intentionally harm the
reputation of the victim or cause physical or
mental harm, or loss, to the victim directly or
indirectly, using modern telecommunication
networks such as Internet (networks including
chat rooms, emails, notice boards and groups)
and mobile phones (Bluetooth/SMS/MMS)".[3]
Cybercrime may threaten a person or a
nation's security and financial health.[4]
Issues surrounding these types of crimes have
become high-profile, particularly those
surrounding hacking, copyright infringement,
unwarranted mass-surveillance, sextortion,
child pornography, and child grooming.[3]
There are also problems of privacy when
confidential information is intercepted or
disclosed, lawfully or otherwise. Debarati
Halder and K. Jaishankar further define
cybercrime from the perspective of gender and
defined 'cybercrime against women' as "Crimes
targeted against women with a motive to
intentionally harm the victim psychologically
and physically, using modern
telecommunication networks such as internet
and mobile phones".[3] Internationally, both
governmental and non-state actors engage in
cybercrimes, including espionage, financial
theft, and other cross-border crimes.
Cybercrimes crossing international borders
and involving the actions of at least one nation
state is sometimes referred to as cyberwarfare.

A report (sponsored by McAfee), published in

2014, estimated that the annual damage to the
global economy was $445 billion.[5]
Approximately $1.5 billion was lost in 2012 to
online credit and debit card fraud in the US.[6]
In 2018, a study by Center for Strategic and
International Studies (CSIS), in partnership
with McAfee, concludes that close to $600
billion, nearly one percent of global GDP, is lost
to cybercrime each year.[7]

Classifications
Computer crime encompasses a broad range of
activities.[8]

Financial fraud crimes

Computer fraud is any dishonest
misrepresentation of fact intended to let
another to do or refrain from doing something
which causes loss. In this context, the fraud
will result in obtaining a benefit by:

Altering in an unauthorized way. This

requires little technical expertise and is
common form of theft by employees altering
the data before entry or entering false data,
or by entering unauthorized instructions or
using unauthorized processes;
Altering, destroying, suppressing, or
stealing output, usually to conceal
unauthorized transactions. This is difficult
to detect;
 Altering or deleting stored data;

Other forms of fraud may be facilitated using

computer systems, including bank fraud,
carding, identity theft, extortion, and theft of
classified information. These types of crime
often result in the loss of private information
or monetary information.

Cyberterrorism

Government officials and information

technology security specialists have
documented a significant increase in Internet
problems and server scans since early 2001.
But there is a growing concern among
government agencies such as the Federal
Bureau of Investigations (FBI) and the Central
Intelligence Agency (CIA) that such intrusions
are part of an organized effort by
cyberterrorists, foreign intelligence services,
or other groups to map potential security holes
in critical systems.[9] A cyberterrorist is
someone who intimidates or coerces a
government or an organization to advance his
or her political or social objectives by launching
a computer-based attack against computers,
networks, or the information stored on them.

Cyberterrorism in general can be defined as an

act of terrorism committed through the use of
cyberspace or computer resources (Parker
1983). As such, a simple propaganda piece in
the Internet that there will be bomb attacks
during the holidays can be considered
cyberterrorism. There are also hacking
activities directed towards individuals, families,
organized by groups within networks, tending
to cause fear among people, demonstrate
power, collecting information relevant for
ruining peoples' lives, robberies, blackmailing
etc.[10]

Cyberextortion

Cyberextortion occurs when a website, e-mail

server, or computer system is subjected to or
threatened with repeated denial of service or
other attacks by malicious hackers. These
hackers demand money in return for promising
to stop the attacks and to offer "protection".
According to the Federal Bureau of
Investigation, cybercrime extortionists are
increasingly attacking corporate websites and
networks, crippling their ability to operate and
demanding payments to restore their service.
More than 20 cases are reported each month
to the FBI and many go unreported in order to
keep the victim's name out of the public
domain. Perpetrators typically use a distributed
denial-of-service attack.[11] However, other
cyberextortion techniques exist such as doxing
extortion and bug poaching.
An example of cyberextortion was the attack
on Sony Pictures of 2014.[12]

Cyberwarfare

Sailors analyze, detect and defensively respond to

unauthorized activity within U.S. Navy information systems
and computer networks

The U.S. Department of Defense (DoD) notes

that the cyberspace has emerged as a national-
level concern through several recent events of
geostrategic significance. Among those are
included, the attack on Estonia's infrastructure
in 2007, allegedly by Russian hackers. "In
August 2008, Russia again allegedly conducted
cyberattacks, this time in a coordinated and
synchronized kinetic and non-kinetic campaign
against the country of Georgia. The December
2015 Ukraine power grid cyberattack has also
been attributed to Russia and is considered the
first successful cyberattack on a power grid.
Fearing that such attacks may become the
norm in future warfare among nation-states,
the concept of cyberspace operations impacts
and will be adapted by warfighting military
commanders in the future.[13]
Computer as a target

These crimes are committed by a selected group

of criminals. Unlike crimes using the computer
as a tool, these crimes require the technical
knowledge of the perpetrators. As such, as
technology evolves, so too does the nature of
the crime. These crimes are relatively new,
having been in existence for only as long as
computers have—which explains how
unprepared society and the world in general is
towards combating these crimes. There are
numerous crimes of this nature committed daily
on the internet.

Crimes that primarily target computer networks

or devices include:
 Computer viruses
Denial-of-service attacks
Malware (malicious code)

Computer as a tool

When the individual is the main target of

cybercrime, the computer can be considered as
the tool rather than the target. These crimes
generally involve less technical expertise.
Human weaknesses are generally exploited.
The damage dealt is largely psychological and
intangible, making legal action against the
variants more difficult. These are the crimes
which have existed for centuries in the offline
world. Scams, theft, and the likes have existed
even before the development in high-tech
equipment. The same criminal has simply been
given a tool which increases their potential pool
of victims and makes them all the harder to
trace and apprehend.[14]

Crimes that use computer networks or devices

to advance other ends include:

Fraud and identity theft (although this

increasingly uses malware, hacking or
phishing, making it an example of both
"computer as target" and "computer as tool"
crime)
Information warfare
Phishing scams
Spam
 Propagation of illegal obscene or offensive
content, including harassment and threats

The unsolicited sending of bulk email for

commercial purposes (spam) is unlawful in
some jurisdictions.

Phishing is mostly propagated via email.

Phishing emails may contain links to other
websites that are affected by malware.[15] Or,
they may contain links to fake online banking
or other websites used to steal private account
information.

Obscene or offensive content

The content of websites and other electronic
communications may be distasteful, obscene or
offensive for a variety of reasons. In some
instances these communications may be illegal.

The extent to which these communications are

unlawful varies greatly between countries, and
even within nations. It is a sensitive area in
which the courts can become involved in
arbitrating between groups with strong beliefs.

One area of Internet pornography that has

been the target of the strongest efforts at
curtailment is child pornography, which is
illegal in most jurisdictions in the world.

Online harassment
 The examples and perspective in this section may not
represent a worldwide view of the subject. Learn more

Whereas content may be offensive in a non-

specific way, harassment directs obscenities
and derogatory comments at specific
individuals focusing for example on gender,
race, religion, nationality, sexual orientation.
This often occurs in chat rooms, through
newsgroups, and by sending hate e-mail to
interested parties. Harassment on the internet
also includes revenge porn.

There are instances where committing a crime

using a computer can lead to an enhanced
sentence. For example, in the case of United
States v. Neil Scott Kramer, Kramer was
served an enhanced sentence according to the
U.S. Sentencing Guidelines Manual §2G1.3(b)
(3)[16] for his use of a cell phone to "persuade,
induce, entice, coerce, or facilitate the travel
of, the minor to engage in prohibited sexual
conduct." Kramer argued that this claim was
insufficient because his charge included
persuading through a computer device and his
cellular phone technically is not a computer.
Although Kramer tried to argue this point, U.S.
Sentencing Guidelines Manual states that the
term computer "means an electronic, magnetic,
optical, electrochemically, or other high-speed
data processing device performing logical,
arithmetic, or storage functions, and includes
any data storage facility or communications
facility directly related to or operating in
conjunction with such device."[17]

Connecticut was the U.S. state to pass a

statute making it a criminal offense to harass
someone by computer. Michigan, Arizona, and
Virginia and South Carolina[18] have also
passed laws banning harassment by electronic
means.[19][20]
Harassment as defined in the U.S. computer
statutes is typically distinct from cyberbullying,
in that the former usually relates to a person's
"use a computer or computer network to
communicate obscene, vulgar, profane, lewd,
lascivious, or indecent language, or make any
suggestion or proposal of an obscene nature, or
threaten any illegal or immoral act," while the
latter need not involve anything of a sexual
nature.

Although freedom of speech is protected by law

in most democratic societies (in the US this is
done by the First Amendment), it does not
include all types of speech. In fact spoken or
written "true threat" speech/text is
criminalized because of "intent to harm or
intimidate", that also applies for online or any
type of network related threats in written text
or speech.[21] The US Supreme Court definition
of "true threat" is "statements where the
speaker means to communicate a serious
expression of an intent to commit an act of
unlawful violence to a particular individual or
group".[21]

Drug trafficking
Darknet markets are used to buy and sell
recreational drugs online. Some drug
traffickers use encrypted messaging tools to
communicate with drug mules. The dark web
site Silk Road was a major online marketplace
for drugs before it was shut down by law
enforcement (then reopened under new
management, and then shut down by law
enforcement again). After Silk Road 2.0 went
down, Silk Road 3 Reloaded emerged. However,
it was just an older marketplace named
Diabolus Market, that used the name for more
exposure from the brand's previous
success.Cite error: A <ref> tag is missing
the closing </ref> (see the help page).

Between 1995 and 1998 the Newscorp

satellite pay to view encrypted SKY-TV
service was hacked several times during an
ongoing technological arms race between a
pan-European hacking group and Newscorp.
The original motivation of the hackers was
to watch Star Trek reruns in Germany;
which was something which Newscorp did
not have the copyright to allow.[22]
On 26 March 1999, the Melissa worm
infected a document on a victim's computer,
then automatically sent that document and a
copy of the virus spread via e-mail to other
people.
In February 2000, an individual going by the
alias of MafiaBoy began a series denial-of-
service attacks against high-profile
websites, including Yahoo!, Dell, Inc.,
E*TRADE, eBay, and CNN. About 50
computers at Stanford University, and also
computers at the University of California at
Santa Barbara, were amongst the zombie
computers sending pings in DDoS attacks.
On 3 August 2000, Canadian federal
prosecutors charged MafiaBoy with 54
counts of illegal access to computers, plus a
total of ten counts of mischief to data for his
attacks.
The Stuxnet worm corrupted SCADA
microprocessors, particularly of the types
used in Siemens centrifuge controllers.
The Russian Business Network (RBN) was
registered as an internet site in 2006.
Initially, much of its activity was legitimate.
But apparently, the founders soon
discovered that it was more profitable to
host illegitimate activities and started hiring
its services to criminals. The RBN has been
described by VeriSign as "the baddest of the
bad".[23] It offers web hosting services and
internet access to all kinds of criminal and
objectionable activities, with individual
activities earning up to $150 million in one
year. It specialized in and in some cases
monopolized personal identity theft for
resale. It is the originator of MPack and an
alleged operator of the now defunct Storm
botnet.
On 2 March 2010, Spanish investigators
arrested 3 in infection of over 13 million
computers around the world. The "botnet" of
infected computers included PCs inside more
than half of the Fortune 1000 companies
and more than 40 major banks, according to
investigators.
In August 2010 the international
investigation Operation Delego, operating
under the aegis of the Department of
Homeland Security, shut down the
international pedophile ring Dreamboard.
The website had approximately 600
members and may have distributed up to 123
terabytes of child pornography (roughly
equivalent to 16,000 DVDs). To date this is
the single largest U.S. prosecution of an
international child pornography ring; 52
arrests were made worldwide.[24]
In January 2012 Zappos.com experienced a
security breach after as many as 24 million
customers' credit card numbers, personal
information, billing and shipping addresses
had been compromised.[25]
In June 2012 LinkedIn and eHarmony were
attacked, compromising 65 million password
hashes. 30,000 passwords were cracked
and 1.5 million EHarmony passwords were
posted online.[26]
December 2012 Wells Fargo website
experienced a denial of service attack.
Potentially compromising 70 million
customers and 8.5 million active viewers.
Other banks thought to be compromised:
Bank of America, J. P. Morgan U.S. Bank,
and PNC Financial Services.[27]
April 23, 2013 saw the Associated Press'
Twitter account's hacked - the hacker
posted a hoax tweet about fictitious attacks
in the White House that they claimed left
President Obama injured.[28] This hoax
tweet resulted in a brief plunge of 130 points
from the Dow Jones Industrial Average,
removal of $136 billion from S&P 500
index,[29] and the temporary suspension of
AP's Twitter account. The Dow Jones later
restored its session gains.
In May 2017, 74 countries logged a
ransomware cybercrime, called
"WannaCry"[30]
Illicit access to camera sensors, microphone
sensors, phonebook contacts, all internet-
enabled apps, and metadata of mobile
telephones running Android and IOS were
reportedly made accessible by Israeli
spyware, found to be being in operation in at
least 46 nation-states around the world.
Journalists, Royalty and government
officials were amongst the targets.[31][32][33]
Previous accusations of cases of Israeli-
weapons companies meddling in
international telephony[34] and
 smartphones[35] have been eclipsed in the
2018 reported case.

Combating computer crime

This section needs expansion.
Learn more

Diffusion of cybercrime

The broad diffusion of cybercriminal activities

is an issue in computer crimes detection and
prosecution. According to Jean-Loup Richet
(Research Fellow at ESSEC ISIS), technical
expertise and accessibility no longer act as
barriers to entry into cybercrime.[36] Indeed,
hacking is much less complex than it was a few
years ago, as hacking communities have greatly
diffused their knowledge through the Internet.
Blogs and communities have hugely contributed
to information sharing: beginners could benefit
from older hackers' knowledge and advice.
Furthermore, hacking is cheaper than ever:
before the cloud computing era, in order to
spam or scam one needed a dedicated server,
skills in server management, network
configuration, and maintenance, knowledge of
Internet service provider standards, etc. By
comparison, a mail software-as-a-service is a
scalable, inexpensive, bulk, and transactional
e-mail-sending service for marketing purposes
and could be easily set up for spam.[37] Jean-
Loup Richet explains that cloud computing
could be helpful for a cybercriminal as a way to
leverage his attack – brute-forcing a password,
improve the reach of a botnet, or facilitating a
spamming campaign.[38]

Investigation

A computer can be a source of evidence (see

digital forensics). Even where a computer is
not directly used for criminal purposes, it may
contain records of value to criminal
investigators in the form of a logfile. In most
countries[39] Internet Service Providers are
required, by law, to keep their logfiles for a
predetermined amount of time. For example; a
European wide Data Retention Directive
(applicable to all EU member states) states
that all e-mail traffic should be retained for a
minimum of 12 months.

Methodology of cybercrime investigation

There are many ways for cybercrime to take

place, and investigations tend to start with an
IP Address trace, however that is not
necessarily a factual basis upon which
detectives can solve a case. Different types of
high-tech crime may also include elements of
low-tech crime, and vice versa, making
cybercrime investigators an indispensable part
of modern law-enforcement. Methodology of
cybercrime detective work is dynamic and is
constantly improving, whether in closed police
units, or in international cooperation
framework.[40]

Legislation

Due to easily exploitable laws, cybercriminals

use developing countries in order to evade
detection and prosecution from law
enforcement. In developing countries, such as
the Philippines, laws against cybercrime are
weak or sometimes nonexistent. These weak
laws allow cybercriminals to strike from
international borders and remain undetected.
Even when identified, these criminals avoid
being punished or extradited to a country, such
as the United States, that has developed laws
that allow for prosecution. While this proves
difficult in some cases, agencies, such as the
FBI, have used deception and subterfuge to
catch criminals. For example, two Russian
hackers had been evading the FBI for some
time. The FBI set up a fake computing company
based in Seattle, Washington. They proceeded
to lure the two Russian men into the United
States by offering them work with this
company. Upon completion of the interview, the
suspects were arrested outside of the building.
Clever tricks like this are sometimes a
necessary part of catching cybercriminals
when weak legislation makes it impossible
otherwise.[41]
President Barack Obama released in an
executive order in April 2015 to combat
cybercrime. The executive order allows the
United States to freeze assets of convicted
cybercriminals and block their economic
activity within the United States. This is some
of the first solid legislation that combats
cybercrime in this way.[42]

The European Union adopted directive

2013/40/EU. All offences of the directive, and
other definitions and procedural institutions
are also in the Council of Europe's Convention
on Cybercrime.[43].
It is not only the USA and the European Union
who are introducing new measures against
cybercrime. ON 31 May 2017 China announced
that its new cybersecurity law takes effect on
this date.[44]

Penalties

Penalties for computer-related crimes in New

York State can range from a fine and a short
period of jail time for a Class A misdemeanor
such as unauthorized use of a computer up to
computer tampering in the first degree which is
a Class C felony and can carry 3 to 15 years in
prison.[45]
However, some hackers have been hired as
information security experts by private
companies due to their inside knowledge of
computer crime, a phenomenon which
theoretically could create perverse incentives.
A possible counter to this is for courts to ban
convicted hackers from using the Internet or
computers, even after they have been released
from prison – though as computers and the
Internet become more and more central to
everyday life, this type of punishment may be
viewed as more and more harsh and draconian.
However, nuanced approaches have been
developed that manage cyber offenders'
behavior without resorting to total computer or
Internet bans.[46] These approaches involve
restricting individuals to specific devices which
are subject to computer monitoring or computer
searches by probation or parole officers.[47]

Awareness

As technology advances and more people rely

on the internet to store sensitive information
such as banking or credit card information,
criminals increasingly attempt to steal that
information. Cybercrime is becoming more of a
threat to people across the world. Raising
awareness about how information is being
protected and the tactics criminals use to steal
that information continues to grow in
importance. According to the FBI's Internet
Crime Complaint Center in 2014, there were
269,422 complaints filed. With all the claims
combined there was a reported total loss of
$800,492,073.[48] But cybercrime does yet
seem to be on the average person's radar.
There are 1.5 million cyber-attacks annually,
that means that there are over 4,000 attacks
a day, 170 attacks every hour, or nearly three
attacks every minute, with studies showing us
that only 16% of victims had asked the people
who were carrying out the attacks to stop.[49]
Anybody who uses the internet for any reason
can be a victim, which is why it is important to
be aware of how one is being protected while
online.
Intelligence

As cybercrime has proliferated, a professional

ecosystem has evolved to support individuals
and groups seeking to profit from cybercriminal
activities. The ecosystem has become quite
specialized, including malware developers,
botnet operators, professional cybercrime
groups, groups specializing in the sale of stolen
content, and so forth. A few of the leading
cybersecurity companies have the skills,
resources and visibility to follow the activities
of these individuals and group.[50] A wide
variety of information is available from these
sources which can be used for defensive
purposes, including technical indicators such
as hashes of infected files[51] or malicious
IPs/URLs,[51] as well as strategic information
profiling the goals, techniques and campaigns
of the profiled groups. Some of it is freely
published, but consistent, on-going access
typically requires subscribing to an adversary
intelligence subscription service. At the level of
an individual threat actor, threat intelligence is
often referred to that actor's "TTP", or "tactics,
techniques, and procedures," as the
infrastructure, tools, and other technical
indicators are often trivial for attackers to
change. Corporate sectors are considering
crucial role of artificial intelligence cyber
security.[52][53]
Agencies
ASEAN[54]
Australian High Tech Crime Centre
Cyber Crime Investigation Cell, a wing of
Mumbai Police, India
Cyber Crime Unit (Hellenic Police), formed
in Greece in 1995
National White Collar Crime Center, in the
United States
National Cyber Crime Unit, in the United
Kingdom

See also
Computer Fraud and Abuse Act
Computer security
Computer trespass
Convention on Cybercrime
Cyber defamation law
Cyber-
Cyberheist
Domain hijacking
(Illegal) drop catching
Economic and industrial espionage
FBI
Immigration and Customs Enforcement
(ICE)
Internet homicide
Internet suicide pact
Legal aspects of computing
 List of computer criminals
Metasploit Project
National Crime Agency (NCA)
Penetration test
Police National E-Crime Unit
Protected computer
Techno-thriller
Trespass to chattels
United States Secret Service
White-collar crime
Web shell

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Computer Use - Perspectives" (PDF). December
2011.
47. Bowker, Art (2012). The Cybercrime
Handbook for Community Corrections:
Managing Risk in the 21st Century .
Springfield: Thomas. ISBN 9780398087289.
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Internet Crime Complaint Center (IC3). 2015.
Retrieved 2017-10-31.
49. Feinberg, T (2008). "Whether it happens
at school or off-campus, cyberbullying disrupts
and affects". Cyberbullying: 10.
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dangerous financial Trojan" (PDF).
symantec.com.
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APT33 Targets Aerospace and Energy Sectors
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Aerospace and Energy Sectors and has Ties to
Destructive Malware" . FireEye. Retrieved
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to stop cyberattacks before they start" .
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54. http://asean.org/asean-declaration-
prevent-combat-cybercrime/

Further reading
Balkin, J., Grimmelmann, J., Katz, E.,
Kozlovski, N., Wagman, S. & Zarsky, T.
(2006) (eds) Cybercrime: Digital Cops in a
Networked Environment, New York
University Press, New York.
Bowker, Art (2012) "The Cybercrime
Handbook for Community Corrections:
Managing Risk in the 21st Century" Charles
C. Thomas Publishers, Ltd. Springfield.
Brenner, S. (2007) Law in an Era of Smart
Technology, Oxford: Oxford University
Press
Broadhurst, R., and Chang, Lennon Y.C.
(2013) "Cybercrime in Asia: trends and
challenges ", in B. Hebenton, SY Shou, & J.
Liu (eds), Asian Handbook of Criminology
(pp. 49–64). New York: Springer
(ISBN 978-1-4614-5217-1)
Chang, L.Y. C. (2012) Cybercrime in the
Greater China Region: Regulatory Responses
and Crime Prevention across the Taiwan
Strait . Cheltenham: Edward Elgar.
(ISBN 978-0-85793-667-7)
Chang, Lennon Y.C., & Grabosky, P.
(2014) "Cybercrime and establishing a
secure cyber world ", in M. Gill (ed)
Handbook of Security (pp. 321–339). NY:
Palgrave.
Csonka P. (2000) Internet Crime; the Draft
council of Europe convention on cyber-crime:
A response to the challenge of crime in the
age of the internet? Computer Law &
Security Report Vol.16 no.5.
Easttom C. (2010) Computer Crime
Investigation and the Law
Fafinski, S. (2009) Computer Misuse:
Response, regulation and the law
Cullompton: Willan
Glenny, Misha, DarkMarket : cyberthieves,
cybercops, and you , New York, NY : Alfred
A. Knopf, 2011. ISBN 978-0-307-59293-4
Grabosky, P. (2006) Electronic Crime, New
Jersey: Prentice Hall
Halder, D., & Jaishankar, K. (2016). Cyber
Crimes against Women in India . New Delhi:
SAGE Publishing. ISBN 978-9385985775.
Halder, D., & Jaishankar, K. (2011) Cyber
crime and the Victimization of Women: Laws,
Rights, and Regulations. Hershey, PA, USA:
IGI Global. ISBN 978-1-60960-830-9
Jaishankar, K. (Ed.) (2011). Cyber
Criminology: Exploring Internet Crimes and
Criminal behavior. Boca Raton, FL, USA:
CRC Press, Taylor and Francis Group.
McQuade, S. (2006) Understanding and
Managing Cybercrime, Boston: Allyn &
Bacon.
McQuade, S. (ed) (2009) The Encyclopedia
of Cybercrime, Westport, CT: Greenwood
Press.
Parker D (1983) Fighting Computer Crime,
U.S.: Charles Scribner's Sons.
Pattavina, A. (ed) Information Technology
and the Criminal Justice System, Thousand
Oaks, CA: Sage.
Paul Taylor (1999). Hackers: Crime in the
Digital Sublime (November 3, 1999 ed.).
Routledge; 1 edition. p. 200. ISBN 978-0-
415-18072-6.
Robertson, J. (2010, March 2). Authorities
bust 3 in infection of 13m computers.
Retrieved March 26, 2010, from Boston
News: Boston.com
Walden, I. (2007) Computer Crimes and
Digital Investigations, Oxford: Oxford
University Press.
Rolón, Darío N. Control, vigilancia y
respuesta penal en el ciberespacio , Latin
American's New Security Thinking, Clacso,
2014, pp. 167/182
 Richet, J.L. (2013) From Young Hackers to
Crackers, International Journal of
Technology and Human Interaction (IJTHI),
9(3), 53-62.
Wall, D.S. (2007) Cybercrimes: The
transformation of crime in the information
age, Cambridge: Polity.
Williams, M. (2006) Virtually Criminal:
Crime, Deviance and Regulation Online,
Routledge, London.
Yar, M. (2006) Cybercrime and Society,
London: Sage.

External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to
Cybercrime.

The Wikibook The Computer Revolution

has a page on the topic of: Computer Crime

Centre for Cyber Victim Counselling

(CCVC)
The American Society of Digital Forensics &
eDiscovery – Cybercrime Information
A Guide to Computer Crime from
legal.practitioner.com
Virtual Forum Against Cybercrime
Cyber Crime Law Complete Information
 CyberCrime Asia Research Center –
Information about computer crime, Internet
fraud and CyberTerrorism in Asia
Information and Research Center for
Cybercrime Germany
International Journal of Cyber Criminology

Government resources

Cybercrime.gov from the United States

Department of Justice
National Institute of Justice Electronic
Crime Program from the United States
Department of Justice
FBI Cyber Investigators home page
US Secret Service Computer Fraud
 Australian High Tech Crime Centre
UK National Cyber Crime Unit from the
National Crime Agency

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