Bechtel

Telecommunications
Technical Journal
January 2007
 Bechtel Telecommunications
Technical Journal
Volume 5, Number 1 Contents
Foreword v
ADVISORY BOARD
Jake MacLeod, Principal Vice President and Editorial vii
Chief Technology Officer
S. Rasoul Safavian, PhD, Vice President of Technology, WiMAX™ IEEE 802.16e Plugfest and 1
Americas Regional Business Unit
Network Interoperability Testing: Overview and Path Forward
Brian Coombe, Program Manager,
Strategic Infrastructure Group
Esmael Dinan, PhD (Bechtel), and
Ed Agis, Asha R. Keddy, and Jeremy Rover (Intel)
EDITORIAL BOARD
GIS for Telecommunications 11
S. Rasoul Safavian, PhD, Editor-in-Chief Paul A. Lukas
Richard Peters, Senior Technical Editor
Teresa Baines, Senior Technical Editor
Barbara Oldroyd, Technical Editor
Broadband over Power Lines (BPL) 19
Ruthanne Evans, Technical Editor Lee Lushbaugh and S. Rasoul Safavian, PhD

GRAPHICS/DESIGN Service-Oriented Architecture 39

Brian Coombe
Keith Schools, Art Director
David Williams, Graphic Designer
Luke Williams, Graphic Designer Technical Aspects of Localization in 47
Susan Gann, Graphic Designer Indoor Wireless Networks (Invited Paper)
Diane Cole, Desktop Publishing Muzaffer Kanaan1,2, Mohammad Heidari2,
Ferit Ozan Akgül2, and Prof. Kaveh Pahlavan, PhD2
TRADEMARK ACKNOWLEDGMENTS (1 Verizon Laboratories;
2 CWINS, Worcester Polytechnic Institute)
All product or service names mentioned in this Bechtel
Telecommunications Technical Journal are trademarks of their
respective companies. Specifically: Fieldable Digital Coherent Interferometric Communication 59
AirTegrity Wireless and WiMAX-in-a-Box are trademarks of and Sensing Application Domains (Invited Paper)
AirTegrity Wireless, Inc. Isaac Shpantzer, PhD (CeLight, Inc.)
Alcatel-Lucent is a trademark of Alcatel-Lucent.
Amperion is a trademark of Amperion, Inc.
cdma2000 is a registered trademark and certification mark of Solar Energy in Telecommunications 65
the Telecommunications Industry Association (TIA-USA).
Centrino, Intel, and Xircom are registered trademarks of Intel Corporation
Glenn A. Torshizi and Mansour Niknam
or its subsidiaries in the United States and other countries.
CORBA is a registered trademark of Object Management Group, Inc.,
in the United States and/or other countries.
cdma2000® Wireless Local Loop Evolution and Performance 75
CURRENT Technologies is a registered trademark of CURRENT Nathan Youell
Communications Group, LLC.
EarthLink is a registered trademark of EarthLink, Inc.
Ericsson is the trademark or registered trademark of
Telefonaktiebolaget LM Ericsson.
Google Earth is a trademark of Google Inc.
HomePlug is a registered trademark of the HomePlug
Powerline Alliance.
Huawei is a trademark of Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd.
Java is a trademark of Sun Microsystems, Inc.,
in the United States and other countries.
Microsoft and PowerPoint are registered trademarks and The BTTJ is also available on the Web at
Virtual Earth is a trademark of Microsoft Corporation
in the United States and other countries. www.bechteltelecoms.com/jsp/labs/pubs.jsp
Motorola is registered in the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office
by Motorola, Inc.
Nortel is a trademark of Nortel Networks Limited.
P1675 is a trademark of the IEEE. © 2007 Bechtel Corporation. All rights reserved.
Power Vision is a service mark and Sprint is a trademark of Sprint Nextel.
Bechtel Telecommunications is a business unit of the Bechtel group of companies, including Bechtel Corporation in
QChat is a trademark of QUALCOMM Incorporated. the United States.
QUALCOMM is a registered trademark of QUALCOMM Incorporated.
Samsung is a trademark of Samsung in the United States or other Bechtel welcomes inquiries concerning the BTTJ. For further information or for permission to reproduce any paper
countries. included in this publication in whole or in part, please contact Bechtel Telecommunications, 5275 Westview Drive,
Stratellite is a trademark of Sanswire Networks. Frederick, MD 21703, telephone 301-228-7500 or toll-free 800-946-3232, and ask for the Chief Technology Officer.
Tellabs is a registered trademark of Tellabs Operations, Inc..
T-Mobile is a federally registered trademark of Deutsche Telekom AG. Although reasonable efforts have been made to check the papers included in the BTTJ, this publication should not
The Verizon name and Verizon Wireless are registered trademarks of be interpreted as a representation or warranty by Bechtel Corporation of the accuracy of the information contained
Verizon Trademark Services LLC or its affiliates in the United States in any paper, and readers should not rely on any paper for any particular application of any technology without
and/or other countries.
professional consultation as to the circumstances of that application. Similarly, the authors and Bechtel Corporation
W3C is a registered trademark (registered in numerous countries) of the disclaim any intent to endorse or disparage any particular vendors of any technology.
World Wide Web Consortium; marks of W3C are registered and held by
its host institutions MIT, ERCIM, and Keio.
Wi-Fi and Wi-Fi Alliance are registered trademarks and
Wi-Fi CERTIFIED is a trademark of the Wi-Fi Alliance.
WiMAX, WiMAX Forum, and WiMAX Forum Certified are trademarks
of the WiMAX Forum.
Yahoo! is a registered trademark of Yahoo! Inc.
T ELECOMMUNICATIONS
ZTE is a registered trademark of ZTE Corporation.

January 2007 • Volume 5, Number 1 iii

 Foreword

I
t is with great pleasure that I announce that this will be the last edition of the Bechtel Telecommunications
Technical Journal (BTTJ). No, we are not terminating the journal, but simply renaming it to coincide with the
renaming of Bechtel Telecommunications (a subsidiary of Bechtel Group, Inc.) to Bechtel Communications, Inc.
The new name reflects Bechtel's much broader scope of involvement in the communications arena. Beginning
with the next issue, the BTTJ will be renamed the Bechtel Communications Technology Journal (BCTJ ) to more
appropriately reflect its mission and objectives. Bechtel's technology activities continue to encompass the design
and implementation of traditional telecommunications; however, our current activities also include the design and
implementation of networks ranging from voice telecommunications to video broadcast to satellite to data to
broadband over power lines, and more.
The BCTJ will continue to provide a forum in which to address current technology issues of concern to the global
communications community; particularly, operational and network performance issues. The BCTJ will likewise
continue to provide a platform on which to introduce future technologies before deployment and to attempt to
identify functional and operational benefits and deficiencies. Bechtel Communications is vendor neutral and
technology agnostic, which positions us to provide an unbiased perspective of the technologies under evaluation, such
as broadband over power lines, service-oriented architecture, and coherent interferometric communications systems,
all addressed in this current issue.
This issue begins with a summary of the 5th WiMAX™ 802.16e Global Interoperability Plugfest, which the Bechtel
Communications Laboratories (BCL) hosted in our facilities in Frederick, Maryland, in September 2006.
This represents the first and only time the WiMAX IOT will be conducted in North America. Previous Plugfests were
held in Beijing, China; Málaga, Spain; and Sophia Antipolis, France. The Plugfest provided equipment vendors
an opportunity to test their latest 802.16e equipment for interoperability with other vendors’ equipment in a secure,
neutral environment.
Again, it is with great pleasure that we bring you the latest issue of the BTTJ. We encourage and welcome
your feedback regarding the journal. You can submit comments and suggestions for improvement by accessing the
Bechtel Telecoms Web page at www.bechteltelecoms.com and click on the “Contact Us” section. Past issues of the
BTTJ can be downloaded from our Technology Web page at www.bechteltelecoms.com/jsp/labs/pubs.jsp.
May your efforts be safe, productive, and prosperous.

Sincerely,

Jake MacLeod
Principal Vice President and Chief Technology Officer
Bechtel Communications

January 2007 • Volume 5, Number 1 v

 Editorial

C
hange—in technology and otherwise—is inevitable. In fact, it has been aptly said that the one thing constant
in life is change! Perhaps nowhere is change more rapid and profound today than in the technology arena.
Particularly in communications and information technology, extraordinary changes are occurring at a
record-breaking pace and scale. The prevalent example is mobile communications. From its analog introduction in
the early 1980s to its initial penetration rate of 10 million subscribers by the mid-1990s to its milestone penetration rate
of 1 billion subscribers by 2002 to its explosive growth to over 2 billion subscribers by 2006, its direct impact on
almost every aspect of daily life is truly astonishing! With all these rapid changes, it has become essential to
continuously ask: Where are we and where do we go from here? What technologies will prevail, and who will be
serving the next 2 billion subscribers?
At the BTTJ, one of our main missions is to provide insight into new trends and directions in communications and
information technology by examining the technical, operational, and regulatory issues surrounding existing and new
developments. The current issue opens with WiMAX™ IEEE 802.16e Plugfest and Network Interoperability Testing:
Overview and Path Forward. In this paper, Dinan, Agis, Keddy, and Rover highlight WiMAX interoperability
activities, including Plugfest and NWIOT, and look into a new open platform for NWIOT that can help
equipment manufacturers and service operators perform tests efficiently and cost-effectively. In the second paper,
GIS for Telecommunications, Lukas describes how GIS can be used effectively in communications network planning
and design as well as in outside plant operations and workflow optimization.
Next, Lushbaugh and Safavian examine the state of the emerging Broadband over Power Lines (BPL) technology. As a
third broadband avenue into homes and businesses (the other two being DSL and cable), electric power lines could
potentially provide broadband service to the 4 billion people on our planet who currently have access to them!
In the paper that follows, Coombe looks into Service-Oriented Architecture and its benefits to carriers in managing
networks and customers and deploying new services and applications.
We are also pleased to present two exciting invited papers. In Technical Aspects of Localization in Indoor
Wireless Networks, Kanaan, Heidari, Akgül, and Pahlavan examine challenges facing accurate indoor localization and
look into several estimation techniques and their associated qualities of estimators. In Fieldable Digital Coherent
Interferometric Communication and Sensing Application Domains, Shpantzer proposes a new paradigm based on a layered
architecture that unifies optical coherent communications and interferometric sensing. The proposed approach is
based on a digitally stabilized quadrature modulator and a homodyne receiver, augmented by digital noise
reduction and channel compensation algorithms.
In Solar Energy in Telecommunications, Torshizi and Niknam show how solar-energy-based systems can
provide robust, cost-effective alternative energy solutions to meet communications needs. Rounding out
this issue is cdma2000® Wireless Local Loop Evolution and Performance, in which Youell highlights how modern
WLL network performance could match that of DSL networks and how WLL can provide new means of
high-quality fixed and mobile broadband wireless access.
In closing, I hope you find this new edition of the BTTJ informative and useful. As always, I look forward to your
comments and contributions. I would also like to take this opportunity to wish you—our readers—a very happy,
prosperous, and safe new year!

Happy Reading!

Dr. S. Rasoul Safavian

Vice President and Editor-in-Chief
Bechtel Communications

January 2007 • Volume 5, Number 1 vii

WiMAX™ IEEE 802.16e PLUGFEST AND
NETWORK INTEROPERABILITY TESTING:
OVERVIEW AND PATH FORWARD

Issue Date: January 2007

Abstract—A primary benefit of WiMAX™ technology is the interoperability of WiMAX-capable equipment,

resulting in lower equipment cost and the ability of service providers to purchase equipment from multiple
vendors. A WiMAX Plugfest brings together leading equipment vendors from all continents to drive the
development of a common platform for the WiMAX physical and medium access layers. The WiMAX Forum™
is also launching a network interoperability testing (NWIOT) program. The goal of NWIOT is to accomplish
end-to-end network-level interoperability across WiMAX-capable network components. The architecture is
defined in the WiMAX Forum Network Working Group’s specification. This paper presents an overview of
WiMAX interoperability activities, including Plugfest and NWIOT. The path forward to an interoperable
WiMAX-capable mobile technology is described. An open platform is proposed for NWIOT that helps
equipment manufacturers and service operators perform tests efficiently and cost-effectively.
Key Words—architecture, conformance testing, interoperability, network performance, network testing,
WiMAX

INTRODUCTION One of the main characteristics of WiMAX

W orldwide Interoperability for Microwave technology is the interoperability of equipment

Esmael Dinan, PhD
ehdinan@bechtel.com
Ed Agis (Intel)
ed.agis@intel.com
Asha R. Keddy (Intel)
asha.r.keddy@intel.com
Jeremy Rover (Intel)
jeremy.rover@intel.com
Access (WiMAX™) enables the delivery of
“last-mile” wireless broadband access as an
alternative to cable and digital subscriber line
(DSL). The technology behind WiMAX is based
on the Institute of Electrical and Electronics
Engineers (IEEE) standards. Mobile WiMAX
technology enables mobility features and
attributes for the end user. WiMAX technology
can provide fixed, nomadic, portable, and mobile
wireless broadband connectivity without the
need for a direct line of sight with a base station
(BS). In a typical cell radius deployment of 3 to
10 km, WiMAX Forum Certified™ systems can
be expected to deliver capacity of up to 40 Mbps
per channel for fixed and portable access
applications. This is enough bandwidth to
simultaneously support hundreds of businesses
with T-1-speed connectivity and thousands of
residences with DSL-speed connectivity. Mobile
network deployments are expected to provide
up to 15 Mbps of capacity within a typical cell
radius deployment of up to 3 km [1, 2]. WiMAX-
capable chipsets incorporated into notebook
computers, ultra mobile personal computers
(PCs), personal digital assistants (PDAs), and
handsets will enable portable outdoor broadband
wireless access for the private and public sectors.
certified by the WiMAX Forum™. Certification
helps boost equipment sales volumes and gives
service providers the flexibility to buy equipment
from more than one company with the
knowledge that everything will interoperate. The
WiMAX Forum has brought together leaders in
the communications and computing industries to
drive the development of a common platform
for the global deployment of Internet Protocol
(IP)-based broadband wireless services.
IEEE Standard 802.16e-2005 [3], which pertains to
the air interface for fixed broadband wireless
access systems, contains options for a number of
physical (PHY) layers for different frequency
bands and region-by-region frequency regulatory
rules. To achieve interoperability, the WiMAX
Forum has undertaken the development of
system profiles specifying which options to use,
testing specifications to verify these specific
profiles, and certification laboratories where
vendors can prove that their equipment meets
these profiles and interoperates.
The WiMAX Forum Certification Working Group
(CWG) handles the operational aspects of the
WiMAX Forum certification program. The CWG
also plans Plugfests (and prepares their test

© 2007 Bechtel Corporation. All rights reserved. 1

 ABBREVIATIONS, ACRONYMS, AND TERMS
AAA authentication, authorization, NWG Network Working Group
and accounting (WiMAX Forum)
ASN access service network NWIOT network interoperability
testing
ASP application service provider
PC personal computer
BE best effort
PDA personal digital assistant
BRAN broadband radio access
network PHY physical
BS base station PTCC Protocol and Testing
Competence Centre (ETSI)
CSN core service network
A plugfest QoS quality of service
CWG Certification Working Group
is one means of (WiMAX Forum) RF radio frequency
providing vendors DSL digital subscriber line SPWG Service Provider Working
an opportunity Group (WiMAX Forum)
ETSI European Telecommunications
to address Standards Institute SS subscriber station
potential GW gateway SUT system under test
ambiguities and IEEE Institute of Electrical and TDD time division duplex
to improve Electronics Engineers
TG Task Group (WiMAX Forum)
testing scenarios IMS IP multimedia subsystem
TWG Technical Working Group
and capabilities IP Internet Protocol (WiMAX Forum)
for a technology MAC medium access control VSA vector signal analyzer
standard. MS mobile station WiMAX™ Worldwide Interoperability
for Microwave Access
NAP network access point
(Although synonymous with
NCT network conformance testing the IEEE 802.16 standards suite
NRM Network Reference Model and standardized by IEEE,
(WiMAX Forum) WiMAX is a certification mark
promoted by the WiMAX
NSP network service point Forum.)

plans) at various test laboratories around the
world about every 4 months.
The WiMAX Forum’s network interoperability
testing (NWIOT) Task Group (TG) is made up of
representatives from the WiMAX Forum’s service
provider, network, marketing, and certification
working groups. The goal of the Network
Working Group (NWG) is to create the network
layer specifications for mobile WiMAX systems,
beyond what is defined in the scope of IEEE
802.16 (medium access control [MAC] and PHY).
The NWIOT TG is responsible for developing test
specifications for end-to-end network level
interoperability across all normative reference
points as applied across the network profiles
defined in the NWG’s specifications. The CWG is
responsible for the execution aspects, similar to
the role it plays in certification.
This paper presents an overview of WiMAX
Forum Plugfest and NWIOT initiatives and
proposes an open platform on which to perform
tests.
WiMAX FORUM PLUGFEST
A group test—commonly called a plugfest—is
one of several venues used by numerous
technology consortiums. A plugfest is one
means of providing vendors an opportunity
to address potential ambiguities and to
improve testing scenarios and capabilities for a
technology standard.
WiMAX Forum Plugfests are typically week-long
events carried out at WiMAX Forum-contracted
testing sites primarily to validate and verify the
interoperability of equipment among vendors [4].
A vendor is considered to be interoperable once it

2 Bechtel Telecommunications Technical Journal

has demonstrated that its hardware can send and
receive packets of data with two other vendors
involving BSs and subscriber stations (SSs) for a
selected certification profile. Before a Plugfest
venue occurs, participating vendors agree on a
set of radio frequency (RF)/PHY characteristics
within a given certification profile. In all
instances, a minimum of three vendors must be
available to conduct a suite of selected
interoperability testing scenarios within a
given certification profile. The WiMAX Forum
requires a minimum of five or six vendors for
any Plugfest.
The key objectives of a WiMAX Forum Plugfest
are to:
• Identify where there may be differing
standards interpretations that must be
resolved
• Identify interoperability problems that may
be firmware or software related
• Encourage open and unambiguous technical
discussions of the test scenarios and the
standard, with a means to refine them
• Prepare a vendor to submit its products for
formal certification testing
• Continuously improve the quality of
interoperability testing to ensure a viable
WiMAX certification process
• Make improvements for implementing
future group testing venues
The WiMAX Forum Plugfest held from
September 24 to October 1, 2006, was hosted
by Bechtel Telecommunications (Frederick,
Maryland, USA) in collaboration with Centro de
Tecnología de las Comunicaciones (Málaga,
Spain)—newly renamed AT4 wireless—and the
WiMAX Forum. This was the fifth Plugfest
that the CWG conducted where service flows
for quality of service (QoS) traffic, network
entry procedures, and implementation on the
classification of data packets for mobile WiMAX
were all achieved, as part of preparing WiMAX
Forum certification testing for Wave 1 of mobile
WiMAX. While the focus of this venue was
predominantly mobile WiMAX, several vendors
also demonstrated interoperability testing for
nomadicity and portability.
The event was organized as a cooperative
agreement between Bechtel Telecommunications
and the WiMAX Forum. Bechtel provided
logistical and engineering services as the primary
host for this first WiMAX Forum Mobile Plugfest.
January 2007 • Volume 5, Number 1
This event was also important as the first WiMAX
Forum Plugfest in North America and the first
public WiMAX Forum Mobile Plugfest
worldwide. Interoperability scenarios and
profiles for this venue were developed jointly by
the CWG and the WiMAX Forum Technical
Working Group (TWG) for mobile WiMAX
devices. The interoperability testing scenarios
incorporated the IEEE 802.16 and European
Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI)
HiperMAN standards in the joint development of
protocol conformance test specifications that are
one of the essential elements of the WiMAX
certification program. The broadband radio An SUT
access network (BRAN) Technical Committee is is defined as
the home to these activities at ETSI, where
a network
HiperAccess and HiperMAN standards and
WiMAX/HiperMAN test specifications are consisting of
developed with the extensive support of ETSI’s one BS and
Protocol and Testing Competence Centre (PTCC). one to three MSs.
Most of the work lends itself to improving
interoperability among vendors. This First
Mobile Plugfest event greatly contributed to
bringing equipment vendors closer to achieving
WiMAX certification, which is important to
manufacturers, telecommunications carriers, and
service providers alike.
PLUGFEST CONFIGURATIONS AND TEST PLANS
F ive system test configurations were defined
and used at the Mobile Plugfest. A system
under test (SUT) is defined as a network
consisting of one BS and one to three mobile
stations (MSs). The system includes, when
necessary, monitoring devices such as a WiMAX
protocol analyzer and/or a vector signal analyzer
(VSA). The following specific configurations were
used at the Plugfest:
• SUT1: Single BS + Single MS—one vendor
• SUT2: Single BS + Single MS—two vendors
• SUT3: Single BS + Two MSs (same vendor)
• SUT4: Single BS + Two MSs (different
vendors)
• SUT5: Single BS + Three MSs (three
different vendors)
Devices in each SUT were interconnected by
wired means. QoS testing was conducted in terms
of interoperability to emulate the real final user
experience (i.e., transmitting data according to
the QoS parameters defined and checking that the
QoS of a service flow was not affected by other
best-effort [BE] data transmissions).
3
 Test scenarios were developed to test each
functionality. To consider all important
functionalities needed to achieve interoperability
among different vendor devices, five test
BS
MS1 scenarios were defined for the Plugfest. Because
they are not designed as conformance tests, the
scenarios do not determine if a product conforms
to the standard. Rather, they provide a method of
MS2 isolating and resolving problems within WiMAX-
capable devices that may affect their ability
MS3 to interoperate [5].

A total of Path Forward

19 vendors and A total of 19 vendors and 3 test equipment
3 test equipment vendors participated in the WiMAX Mobile
Figure 1. SUT5 Configuration Plugfest held at Bechtel Telecommunications in
vendors (Equipment Made by Different Manufacturers)
Frederick. This turnout represents the largest
participated in As an example, Figure 1 shows SUT5. In this test Plugfest in the history of the WiMAX Forum
the WiMAX configuration, a single BS is connected to three and reaffirms one of the key elements of
MSs. Each MS could be from a different vendor, the WiMAX Forum’s charter: To develop a
Mobile Plugfest
or two MSs could be from the same vendor, or framework for high performance end-to-end
held at Bechtel one MS could be from the BS vendor, depending IP network architecture supporting stationary,
Telecommunications on the testing schedule at the Plugfest. portable, and mobile usage models.
in Frederick. Certification profiles tested at the Mobile Plugfest This Plugfest continued the evolution of WiMAX
consisted of: testing methodology and tools, such as WiMAX
• 2.3–2.4 GHz, 5/8.75/10 MHz, device protocols and MAC and PHY uplink and
time division duplex (TDD) downlink monitoring. Ensuring optimal testing
has resolved connectivity problems among
• 2.496–2.69 GHz, 5/10 MHz, TDD different vendors. There are many opportunities
to improve the test processes and scenarios.
• 3.4–3.6 GHz, 5/7 MHz, TDD
The test scopes at the Mobile Plugfest covered a
• 4.935–4.990 GHz, 5 MHz, TDD select number of IEEE 802.16e PHY and MAC
layer features. In upcoming Plugfests, BS
Test Plan handoff scenarios and mobility could be verified,
Test scenarios for the Mobile Plugfest were as well as other QoS features. The test
organized into the following three groups, configuration shown in Figure 2 is proposed for
according to the expected flow described below, future Plugfests to verify more BS features and
to achieve data packet exchange among vendor test scenarios.
hardware:

1. Network Entry Procedure

2. Traffic Connections Establishment MS1

R1
BS1
3. User Data Transfer
R1
The scenarios were sequenced as shown in MS2
Table 1, according to complexity and feasibility.
Handoff
Mechanism R8
Table 1. Test Scenario Structure for WiMAX Mobile Plugfest
R1 MS3
1. Network Entry Procedure 1.1 MS(s) Synchronize to BS
1.2 Ranging
1.3 Capabilities Negotiation BS2
1.4 Authentication (Not Used)
R1 MS4
1.5 Registration

2. Traffic Connections 2.1 Service Flow Provisioning

Establishment 2.2 Service Flow Activation

3. User Data Transfer 3.1 Downlink Ping

3.2 Uplink Ping Figure 2. Proposed Test Configuration Covering
Handoff Scenarios

4 Bechtel Telecommunications Technical Journal

 Multiple Usage BS + ASN GW
Functions Standalone CSN1 or
Scenarios Incumbent IP Core
(phased)
Multiple AAA Gateway
Interfaces (Radius/Diameter) Private IMS
Multi-sector Network
Cell Site ASN 1
MSS1
ASN GW IP
Functions Network
BS
Functions Ingress Router/ Egress Router/
Gateway Firewall

Multiple
Operators
Multi-sector Carriers want
ASN 2 Cell Site
Standalone CSN2 or to explore the
Incumbent IP Core
Some BS + AAA Gateway technical feasibility
All ASN GW (Radius/Diameter) Private IMS
Some BS Functions Network of network-level
Functions
SS2 interoperability,
Multiple ASN IP including
Vendor Network
Implementations
Single/Multi-sector
Ingress Router/ Egress Router/ end-to-end network
Gateway Firewall
Cell Site
ASN 3 testing scenarios.

Figure 3. Infrastructure Interoperability

WiMAX NETWORK INTEROPERABILITY WiMAX-capable device can connect to any

network. (See Figure 4.)
P lugfests and the certification process provide
interoperability testing and certification
testing for the PHY and MAC layers. Current
NWIOT benefits include:

WiMAX certification is not enough for many • For operators—A means to help with
wireless operators. economy of scale while reducing capital and
operational expenses. NWIOT also helps
To achieve full end-to-end interoperability, facilitate roaming.
the higher layers in the stack and network
interoperability need to be considered. • For vendors—More market opportunities
and economies of scale with WiMAX. (On a
Carriers seek to provide high-performance, high- cautionary note, the WiMAX Forum has to
reliability products and need assurance that all be careful to provide room for innovation
system nodes are operating as designed. They and differentiation.)
want to explore the technical feasibility of
network-level interoperability, including end-to- • For customers—Improved global roaming
end network testing scenarios. To achieve capabilities and reduced cost of service.
NWIOT, two things need to happen: As previously stated, the NWIOT program
1. There must be interoperability between crosses WiMAX Forum working groups,
different network elements across vendor involving the NWG, the Service Provider
implementations, also known as infra-
structure interoperability. This means that
the infrastructure elements in the network WiMAX
WiMAX
can interoperate. An example of infra- Network A User Device Network B
structure interoperability is an access service Testing
network from one vendor being able to hand
off to an access service network from another
vendor, as illustrated in Figure 3.

2. There must be interoperability of user

devices across WiMAX network implemen-
tations, also known as network conform-
ance testing (NCT). This means that any Figure 4. Interoperability of User Devices

January 2007 • Volume 5, Number 1 5

 Working Group (SPWG), and the CWG. From a
technical standpoint, test specifications are
developed by a NWIOT technical specification
TG under the NWG. The technical coordinator of
the NWIOT program coordination committee
performs the necessary NWG/SPWG/CWG
technical coordination, and the CWG handles the
execution aspects of NWIOT.
The NWIOT TG’s charter is twofold (reflecting
the two aspects of NWIOT):
1. Developing test specifications for end-to-
Equipment quality end, network-level interoperability across
can affect network all normative reference points as applied
across network profiles defined in the
performance
NWG’s specifications. This ensures the
and customer successful interworking of WiMAX network
satisfaction and, elements while meeting applicable Stage 1
therefore, produce requirements.
customer churn. 2. Developing test requirements for MSs/SSs
based on WiMAX Forum NWG releases.
The test requirements are used by the TWG
and other relevant entities to facilitate con-
formance testing of the specified features.
NWIOT provides the necessary guidance
and clarifications among the external and
internal working groups that are responsible
for test development and execution.
The NWIOT TG establishes strong liaisons with
other working groups to establish a successful
program. It works with the SPWG to clarify
existing requirements that are targeted by the
NWG and to provide usage scenarios. The TG
works with the CWG to provide necessary
technical support throughout NWIOT detailed
test plan development and execution (for
example, selection of a test house and a test script
developer). The NWIOT TG works within the
NWG to align the NWIOT test specifications
with the Stage 2/Stage 3 specifications and with
the NWG’s feature list and to review the
NWG specifications.
ROLE OF PERFORMANCE
C arriers need to provide high-performance,
high-reliability products and need assurance
that all system nodes are operating as designed.
Fierce QoS competition with other service
providers is the main concern. Currently,
network interoperability alone does not test for
this in the WiMAX Forum.
Equipment quality can affect network
performance and customer satisfaction and,
therefore, produce customer churn. Carriers
6 Bechtel Telecommunications Technical Journal
want to test network performance for three
primary reasons:
1. Customer Care—Carriers/service providers
own the relationship with the end user.
Customer care expenses can increase the
subsidy of new devices, calls into customer
care, and foot traffic into retail stores.
Ultimately, reduced customer satisfaction
can affect customer churn. When scaled
up to support carriers with millions of
customers, customer care expenses can be an
enormous burden.
2. Network Maintenance—Network mainte-
nance costs increase with the use of faulty
equipment and the resulting increased
number of alarms.
3. Network Resources Protection—Ultimately,
network resource protection typically
translates into air interface capacity
(in licensed bands, spectrum capacity is
a precious resource). Poor transmitter
performance can induce unwanted
interference on the target or adjacent
channels and reduce air interface
throughput and capacity. Poor MS receiver
performance can cause BSs to allocate more
energy per bit to that user to compensate
and cause an increase in retransmitted data.
Ironically, some poor receiver designs
can unintentionally emit interference onto
the channel.
NWIOT TEST SETUP
G iven that the goal of NWIOT is pioneering
in nature, there are technical, logistical,
business, and operational questions regarding
its achievement. Test case examples include
authentication, accounting, and end-to-end call
set-up. From the WiMAX Forum’s perspective,
the focus is on the technical specifications,
with the logistics and operational aspects still
to be determined.
Ongoing high-level questions to be agreed on for
NWIOT scope include:
• How much network interoperability
granularity is required?
• What is the availability timeline?
Figure 5 illustrates the NWG’s Normative
Reference Model (NRM), consisting of the
following logical entities: MS, access service
network (ASN), and core service network (CSN)
and clearly identified reference points for
interconnecting these logical entities. The figure
depicts key normative reference points R1–R5.
Each logical entity—MS, ASN, and CSN—
represents a group of functions. Each function Visited NSP Home NSP
R2
may be realized in a single physical device
or may be distributed over multiple physical
devices. The grouping and distribution of R2
functions into physical devices within a logical
entity (such as an ASN) is an implementation
R1 R3 R5
SS/
choice; a manufacturer may choose any MS ASN CSN CSN
physical implementation of functions, either
individually or in combination, as long as
R4
the implementation meets functional and
interoperability requirements. Another ASP Network ASP Network
ASN or Internet or Internet
The intent of the NRM is to allow multiple
implementation options for a given logical entity NAP
while achieving interoperability among different
realizations of these entities. Interoperability is
based on the definition of communication Figure 5. NWG Normative Reference Model [6]
protocols and data plane treatment between
logical entities to achieve an overall end-to-end An ASN has three implementation options,
function, for example, security or mobility called profiles by the NWG. In Profiles A and C,
management. Thus, the logical entities on either the BS-ASN GW interface is exposed, whereas in
side of a reference point represent a collection of Profile B, implementation is a “black box.” To
control and bearer plane end-points. accommodate these different implementations
and to phase the NWIOT, there are two levels of
The ASN defines a logical boundary and infrastructure interoperability:
represents a convenient way to describe an
aggregation of functions and the corresponding • Level 1: ASN-profile-independent operability
message flows associated with access services.
• Level 2: ASN-profile-dependent operability
The ASN represents a boundary for functional
interoperability with WiMAX clients; the Figure 6 shows a sample end-to-end profile for
WiMAX connectivity service functions as an profile-independent interoperability tests. This level:
aggregation of functions embodied by different
• Assumes that the ASN is a logical entity
vendors. CSN is defined as a set of network
(i.e., a “black box”)
functions that provide IP connectivity services
to the WiMAX subscriber(s). A CSN may • Concentrates on tests with multiple usages
comprise network elements such as routers; models, multiple operators, and multiple
authentication, authorization, and accounting ASN implementations
(AAA) proxy/servers; user databases; and
• Affects the R1, R2 (not shown), R3, and R4
interworking gateway (GW) devices.
interfaces

Base Station and ASN Gateway Functions

ASN
R1 Gateway R3

Base Station

R4

Figure 6. End-to-End Profile-Independent Network Interoperability

January 2007 • Volume 5, Number 1 7

 Figure 7 shows a sample end-to-end profile for an actual cell site photo for an over-the-air
profile-dependent interoperability tests. This level: NWIOT laboratory. Performance and NWIOT
test cases can be executed in this environment,
• Tests interoperability between different
including end-to-end call setup, handoff,
vendors within an ASN
mobility, authentication, accounting, and end-to-
• Requires vendors from the same profile end system performance measurements. While a
(hence the term profile dependent) field environment does not provide the same
level of control as a laboratory environment, an
• Affects the R1, R2 (not shown), R3, R4, and
advantage of the field environment is that it
R6 (internal ASN) interfaces
provides a user-experience aspect to the end-to-
The NWG needs to consider all options and their end flow.
feasibility and timeline issues. Both ASN-profile-
Testing that would take considerable time during
Test plans independent and -dependent tests can be
a maintenance window in a commercial traffic-
can be developed developed simultaneously and be available.
bearing network can be carried out over a much
with complete Although these tests address all operator
shorter time period in such an environment.
requirements, the level of complexity may be too
mobility in mind Further, testing can be accomplished without
high to implement the test setup in one step. Test
impact on market network operations or on
(the most plans can be defined for mobility, and subsets can
subscribers. Manufacturers and service providers
complex situation) be established for stationary profiles. Test setups
have practically unlimited possibilities to test
so that there are target full mobility, and tests for other
network performance, interoperability, and
deployment models are subsets of the full
no forward conformance in such an environment.
mobility tests. Test plans can be developed with
compatibility complete mobility in mind (the most complex
issues. situation) so that there are no forward
compatibility issues. This will reduce operational CONCLUSIONS
and process overhead because there is only one
complete test release. Advantages of the
laboratory setup are the controlled, repeatable
T ogether, WiMAX certification, Plugfests, and
NWIOT constitute a means of providing
interoperable end-to-end WiMAX equipment.
environment and the full automation of tests. The certification process is divided into
developing conformance testing and inter-
In addition to laboratory testing in a controlled
operability testing. The Plugfest is a preview of
conductance environment, testing can be
full interoperability testing that allows vendors to
performed in a real network environment with
get an early look at how well their equipment
over-the-air transmission. Over-the-air testing
interoperates. NWIOT ensures multivendor
reflects the real field environment. Figure 8
interoperability of an end-to-end WiMAX
shows an example of WiMAX coverage plots and
network based on NWG specifications. In

R1
R6
Base Station
ASN
Gateway
R3
R8

R1 R6
R4

Base Station

Figure 7. End-to-End Profile-Dependent Network Interoperability

8 Bechtel Telecommunications Technical Journal

 –100 to –90 dBm
–90 to –80 dBm
–80 to –70 dBm
–70 to –60 dBm
–60 to –50 dBm
–50 to 0 dBm
Figure 8. Example of WiMAX Coverage Plots and Actual Cell Site Photo for Over-the-Air NWIOT Activity
addition to tests performed in the laboratory,
over-the-air NWIOT is important because it
reflects the real field environment. An over-the-
air environment that includes actual WiMAX cell
sites provides a common platform for equipment
manufacturers and service operators to perform
the tests efficiently and cost-effectively.
Furthermore, the tests can be accomplished
without impact on market network operations or
on subscribers. „
TRADEMARKS
WiMAX, WiMAX Forum, and WiMAX Forum
Certified are trademarks of the WiMAX Forum.
REFERENCES
[1] “Mobile WiMAX—Part I: A Technical Overview
and Performance Evaluation,” WiMAX Forum
white paper, August 2006.
[2] “Mobile WiMAX—Part II: A Comparative
Analysis,” WiMAX Forum white paper,
May 2006.
[3] IEEE Standard 802.16e-2005 — “Amendment to
IEEE Standard for Local and Metropolitan Area
Networks—Part 16: Air Interface for Fixed
Broadband Wireless Access Systems—
Physical and Medium Access Control Layers
for Combined Fixed and Mobile Operation
in Licensed Bands,” February 2006.
[4] “WiMAX Mobile Plugfest White Paper,”
WiMAX Forum, October 2006.
[5] “Guidelines for Scenarios and Profiles for Vendor
Interoperability Between Mobile WiMAX Devices
in WiMAX Forum™ Mobile Plugfest,” WiMAX
Forum, September 2006.
[6] “WiMAX End-to-End Network System
Architecture,” WiMAX Forum public document,
November 17, 2006, revision.
January 2007 • Volume 5, Number 1
BIOGRAPHIES
Esmael Dinan is principal
engineer/technologist – Bechtel
Telecommunications. A key
specialist for Bechtel’s Global
Technology Team, he has
been leading the effort to
support customers with plans
for WiMAX equipment inter-
operability and conformance
testing. Dr. Dinan has per-
formed numerous key wireless technology assignments
and has been instrumental in many aspects of the
business unit’s research activities, as well as on the
Cingular RF engineering project. He designed and
engineered an RF engineering data management
system, developed Cingular project RF engineering
processes and procedures, designed and optimized
UMTS networks, and verified and tested Dupont
cryogenic TMA performance.
Before joining Bechtel in 2002, Dr. Dinan was product
manager for the GMPLS control plane of the RAYStar
DWDM optical switch at Movaz Networks, and lead
network architect at Worldcom. He has conducted
research and development on access methods and
performance modeling of 3G wireless communications
and high-speed optical networks.
Dr. Dinan received his PhD in Electrical Engineering
from George Mason University, Virginia, and is a
registered Professional Engineer in Maryland. He
has authored or co-authored more than 25 conference
papers and journal articles, including nine papers
in previous issues of the Bechtel Telecommunications
Technical Journal, and has two patents on novel
signaling mechanisms developed for 3G cellular
networks. He is a member of the Institute of Electrical
and Electronics Engineers.
9
 Ed Agis, a market development
manager for Intel® Corpo-
ration’s Mobility Wireless
Standards and Technology
Group, is also the co-chair of the
WiMAX Forum’s Certification
Working Group and a member
of the forum’s Technical and
Marketing Working Groups.
He is also actively involved in
the IEEE 802.16 standards body and responsible
for the development of the certification testing
infrastructure of the WiMAX Forum. Prior to his
current position, Ed was in Intel’s Wireless Product
Division, where he was responsible for marketing
programs strategy and development for their wireless
networking planning strategy.
Before joining Intel in January 2001, Ed was director of
marketing and business unit manager for Access
Products at Xircom®, where he led the launch of
numerous mobile access products. Earlier, as the
WW product marketing manager for Advance Systems
Solutions and PCI Bus Products at Texas Instruments,
Ed led the launch and market development of TI’s PC
Card Controller, PCI bridge chips, and Low Voltage
Logic chips.
Jeremy Rover is a senior
network engineer on the Mobile
Systems Research Team at Intel
Corporation. His expertise
includes network performance
characterization, interoperability,
and interference analysis for
WiMAX technologies. Within
the WiMAX Forum, Jeremy
chairs the Specialized Test
Equipment Sub-group under the Certification Working
Group. He has also been actively involved in defining
Network Interoperability Testing.
As part of Intel Centrino Mobile Technology team,
Jeremy worked extensively with wireless fidelity
technologies and networking. He was the Wi-Fi™
Alliance editor for the Managed and Public Access Test
Plan. Jeremy has also driven plugfests within the Wi-Fi
Alliance and at ETSI. He has filed multiple international
patents on innovative testing technologies and design.
Jeremy received his BA degree in Computer Science
from Linfield College, Oregon.

Ed holds a BS degree from the Air Force Academy,

Colorado; an MBA in Management from the
University of Southern California (Los Angeles)/
Amber University (Texas); and an MBA in
Operations/Product Marketing from Amber University.

Asha R. Keddy is a senior

engineering manager on the
Mobile Systems Research
team for Intel Corporation’s
Corporate Technology Labs.
She has more than 10 years
of experience in wireless and
mobile broadband technology.
She drove the effort at the
WiMAX Forum to form the
Network Interoperability Task Group and currently
serves as a vice chair. She is responsible for driving
Intel’s strategic efforts around WiMAX performance
analysis and characterization, network interoperability,
and cross-layer research. Asha has also led Intel’s efforts
in the wireless fidelity area, including end-to-end
interoperability of the international roaming access
protocols; end-to-end performance characterization of
wireless networks; and innovative test technology
methods for Intel Centrino® Mobile Technology. She
holds multiple patent filings and papers in these areas.

Asha received her BE degree in Computer Engineering

from Bombay University, India, and her MS degree
in Computer Science from Clemson University,
South Carolina.

10 Bechtel Telecommunications Technical Journal

GIS FOR TELECOMMUNICATIONS

Issue Date: January 2007

Abstract—The telecommunications industry is on the verge of a GIS revolution. Using a central corporate
database, a GIS can now serve customized data to sales, operations, engineering, customer service, and even the
customers themselves. What makes this possible is the ability of a GIS to reach into a database and extract spatial
information targeted to meet a user’s specific needs. This paper focuses on the use of GISs in the network
planning and design aspect of the telecommunications industry. In particular, the paper highlights the potential
applications of GIS in outside plant operations and the use of spatialized databases to improve workflow.
Key Words—geographic information systems, GIS, outside plant, spatial database, telecommunications

INTRODUCTION characteristics before a network was launched.

O ver the past 30 years, geographic
information systems (GISs) have evolved
from vector-based, computer-aided mapping
tools to fully integrated spatial solutions
platforms. The GIS has become a jack-of-all-
trades with capabilities ranging from interactive
Web-based mapping services to three-
dimensional desktop modeling and analysis. The
mapping service buzz words these days are
Google Earth™, Yahoo! ® maps, and Microsoft ®
Virtual Earth™ [1]. These online mapping
applications have changed the way we live and
work with maps by providing new sources for
research and data gathering through access to
high-resolution aerial imagery and point-of-
interest data, combined with old-fashioned
These tools have also enabled engineers to plan
and optimize changes to existing deployments,
letting them view in real time the theoretical
results of potential changes. Most of the early
network propagation tools were designed around
a GIS platform, linking GIS and network
planning, sometimes without the user’s knowing
that a GIS was involved or what it was. [3]
However, adoption of GISs by the
telecommunications industry as a whole is still
incomplete. We are realizing the benefits of
geospatial data analysis, but integration could be
progressing faster.
WHAT IS A GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEM?

Paul A. Lukas
palukas@bechtel.com
address locators. The fascination with these
flashy applications has left us with a
reinvigorated interest in discovering what else
a GIS can do for us.
The GIS has long been embraced by sciences and
industries as diverse as demographics, medicine,
utilities, agriculture, urban planning, biology,
advertising, and transportation. The utilities
industry, in particular, was an early adopter of
GISs in the form of automated mapping/facilities
management (AM/FM) applications [2]. But
where does telecommunications fit into all
of this?
The wireless industry quickly embraced GISs as
radio propagation modeling tools, allowing
network engineers to rapidly estimate coverage
A
GIS is commonly perceived as a single
technology, usually a software application,
used to create and display cartographic
information. In practice, however, a GIS consists
of five components: software, data, procedures,
hardware, and people. These five components
work together to capture, store, retrieve, analyze,
and display geographically referenced
information. While computer-aided design
(CAD) and mapping applications can display
spatial information, a GIS has the added
capability to analyze spatial data through
attribute and location analysis or spatial
modeling. Adding a relational database further
enhances the capability of a GIS to solve
complicated spatial problems. [4]

© 2007 Bechtel Corporation. All rights reserved. 11

 design-phase errors on cost and schedule during
ABBREVIATIONS, ACRONYMS, AND TERMS the network deployment phase. Rule-based
AM automatic mapping features found in a GIS can also offer network
designers the ability to produce better
CAD computer-aided design products, optimized for cost, shortest routing
DEM digital elevation model distances, or other user-defined metrics. The
skill level and design time involved in hand-
FDA fiber distribution area
producing comparable designs would be
FDH fiber distribution hub significantly higher.
FM facilities management
GIS geographic information system
GIS FOR WIRELESS
GPS global positioning system
A GIS is ideally
suited for network
LC
LU
land clutter
land use
T he GIS is already an essential tool in the
wireless industry. Most wireless network
engineers are familiar with the GIS as the
planning and backbone of many wireless design tools already
NID network interface drop
development. in use. By incorporating digital elevation models
SDSFIE Spatial Data Standard for (DEMs), land clutter (LC) data, and building
Facilities, Infrastructure, elevation models, wireless engineers are able to
and the Environment
assess radio coverage before the network is built,
SQL structured query language identify areas that require enhanced capacity or
coverage, and plan for trends in network and
application performance. However, a GIS can be
used even before engineers set pen to paper. For
In the telecommunications world, a GIS is ideally
marketing efforts, population data can be added
suited for network planning and development.
to enable network traffic and resource utilization
The ability to layer information onto the earth’s
calculations. Aggregating block-level population
surface, complete with attribute data, allows
data into rough coverage rings yields statistics
engineers the unique ability to model and assess
on expected network complexity and required
a network from the office. This saves valuable
capital expenditures before network design even
time and reduces the number of trips, if any, that
begins. Such numbers can be extremely effective
the engineer must make to the field. Furthermore,
when used in business development proposals
the powerful automation capabilities offered by
because they originate from real-world models
a GIS increase the speed and accuracy of the
such as the example shown in Figure 1.
network design process and can help reduce,
and even eliminate, the downstream impacts of A GIS can further be used in business
development efforts at both the strategic and
operational scales to determine where coverage
expansion should be directed and how the
ensuing network should be deployed.
Demographic data can be leveraged to identify
population centers (as, for example, shown
in Figure 2) and areas of high income. A
demographic approach removes the need for
strategic planners to “throw darts at the map.”
Income estimates further allow engineers to
target geographic areas with high disposable
income that will be most likely to subscribe to
new services. The benefits of this approach are
obvious and are further validated by its
increasing use in diverse business lines. Simply
by picking up a business atlas or doing Internet
research, planners can identify underserved
markets and provide opportunities for revenue
generation. Using a GIS allows the engineer to
Figure 1. LU/LC Data Created with the Assistance of add existing and competitive coverage to the map
Infrared Satellite Imagery to improve the context of the data provided.

12 Bechtel Telecommunications Technical Journal

For example, high speed wireless Internet access
can be targeted to neighborhoods with a
population that is inclined to adopt new
technology. Deploying such services in areas
less likely to subscribe wastes resources and
slows deployment to areas more likely to desire
the service. Overlaying population, income,
educational level, and age datasets enables areas
to be identified where residents have greater
disposable income and are culturally predisposed
to purchase wireless services. Adding propensity
indexes further allows the engineer to zero in on
specific target communities.
Post-deployment operation can benefit from a
GIS as well. After the network is designed and
built, the design can be viewed in the GIS for
operational tuning. By creating a detailed map of
a service area, including antenna locations and
azimuths, and overlaying the propagation
models created in the design phase, engineers
have a powerful tool for understanding baseline
operations. Drive test data can be loaded into
the map to identify areas of real-world service
Figure 2. Population Density Map
January 2007 • Volume 5, Number 1
degradation. By linking base station information
extracted from the drive test data to actual
antenna configurations, engineers can easily
identify and correct poor antenna tuning.
“What if” scenarios can be run repeatedly until a
design flaw has been corrected satisfactorily.
Adding base station metrics to the drive test map
further helps to identify tuning irregularities.
Beyond allowing location information to be
viewed on a map, a GIS is capable of running
structured query language (SQL) queries on
data attributes—both geographic and tabular.
Augmenting antenna data with base station A detailed map
identification information enables the engineer of a service area
to identify drive test results that lie outside
is a powerful tool
minimum performance requirements. The
resulting subset of drive test results may then be that allows
queried against the tower database to identify the engineer
specific antennas responsible for the poor signal to focus on solving
performance. This information, viewed on a map,
the actual problem,
allows the engineer to assess if the antenna is
poorly tuned or if a neighboring antenna is not rather than
performing as intended. Thus, the engineer can spending time on
trial-and-error
solutions that
may not address
the core issue.
13
 focus on solving the actual problem, rather than
spending time on trial-and-error solutions that
may not address the core issue. [5]
GIS FOR OUTSIDE PLANT
T he role for the GIS in infrastructure
management was pioneered by the gas,
electricity, and water utility industries. A GIS is
ideally suited for outside plant design and
management for telecommunications as well.
While outside plant was once relegated to a
The renewed small, specialized community within the
attention to telecommunications world, recent industry
outside plant changes have brought a renewed focus to
this area. The growth of the Internet, high-
in the
definition television, video-on-demand, and
telecommunications other interactive multimedia services has caused
industry end-user demands for bandwidth to skyrocket.
coincides well Carriers have addressed this requirement by
deploying new outside plant networks,
with the recent
primarily using high-capacity, fiber-optic cable.
GIS developments. Deploying new networks often requires
revisiting infrastructures placed decades ago;
portions of the network could even be more
than a century old. [6]
Engineering designs for this infrastructure are
labor intensive due to the physical field survey,
Figure 3. Example of Attribute Data that May Be Stored for a
Fiber-Optics Terminal
14
address reconciliation, network dimensioning,
and quantity takeoff tasks. Furthermore,
incorporating the volume of legacy data to
produce an effective network design may
introduce a high occurrence of defects. Manually
implementing the network design and review
process makes it more difficult to discover
defects. Correcting these defects often results in a
complete design rework, resulting in cost and
design cycle time overruns. Because the network
design represents an initial stage in the design
cycle, it exerts a considerable impact on
downstream items.
Network designers previously relied on CAD
systems to support the design efforts; however,
GIS advances have positioned them to
provide significantly enhanced functionality for
designing and engineering outside plant systems.
The renewed attention to outside plant in the
telecommunications industry coincides well with
the recent GIS developments.
A GIS offers a unique capability over standard
CAD applications by allowing disparate data
layers to be assessed independently of their
physical data attributes. Information such as
length, depth underground, number of cables, or
terminal size can be stored as part of the feature
information (see example in Figure 3). Land-base
information such as plat maps can be viewed as
individual raster (pixel) files or vector datasets.
Engineers can design network routes directly in
the GIS, registering the data directly over the plat
maps, and then export the information to a CAD
drawing if necessary. Existing utilities, right-of-
way data, and customer information may also be
viewed directly in the GIS during the design
process. The ability to view multiple sources of
information at once while designing the network
minimizes the number of field redlines and
revisions necessary before final approval. [7]
Ideally, the GIS becomes a central data
management application that combines
information from multiple sources. Client
information from proprietary legacy databases
can be imported along with land-base
information from government sources and then
be viewed within a single application. The result
is a map that can be printed and taken to the field
as a single reference source. Equipping field
crews with tablet or laptop computers connected
to global positioning system (GPS) receivers
makes the process even more efficient. Field
crews are able to view pertinent information on
site, make corrections to attribute data, identify
data irregularities, and relocate incorrectly
Bechtel Telecommunications Technical Journal

Figure 4. Example of Error-Checking for a
Fiber-Optics Terminal Dataset
Figure 5. Raster Plot Map Overlaid with Digital Design Data
positioned infrastructure or add previously
unknown infrastructure with consistent precision
that may be relied upon in the office with
confidence. Figure 4 provides an illustration of
this error-checking capability.
Data from field crews can be downloaded to the
infrastructure database in the office and made
available to the design engineers. Incorrect data
can be updated and new features added without
passing information back and forth multiple
times, thereby reducing the number of trips to the
field to verify or re-verify data. From this starting
point, design engineers may begin their work
with confidence that what they see on their
screens (see example in Figure 5) is an accurate
model of the real world. The point that accurate
data is used at the outset of the design process
cannot be emphasized enough. The time saved by
not having to revise redlines, often multiple
times, results in a more efficient design process.
Automating the design process reduces design
turnaround time even further. In a recent project
where a GIS was used only as the design tool,
the initial network design time was reduced by
January 2007 • Volume 5, Number 1
two-thirds (not including field checking and
redlines resulting from errors beyond the scope of
the GIS application). For this particular project, a
custom GIS application was developed that
allowed the engineer to create customer records,
service areas, wiring groups, and cable runs;
place terminals; and locate network interface
drops (NIDs). The benefits of automating the
process included creating a tabular geospatial
database that stored not only the individual
geographic features, but relevant attribute data
as well. Included in the attribute data was
feature identification information that was used In a recent project
to create a network topology. [8] The information where a GIS
in the database could then be incorporated
was used only as
directly into automated design summaries (see
example in Figure 6) that were used for error the design tool,
checking, creating a bill of materials, and the initial network
generating a variety of other reports. design time
After the physical cable design was completed, was reduced
the underlying network topology was used to by two-thirds.
determine the network’s service dimensioning.
From the fiber distribution hub (FDH) to the NID,
and based on regional requirements, every strand
of cable was routed at the click of a button. Aside
from providing the ability to leverage network
topology, the attribute data from each feature was
used to automatically create material quantity
takeoffs. These two examples show how a GIS
can be used to cut design time and allow the
engineer to focus on the actual network design,
rather than spend time creating reports. The
speed with which reports can be generated also
Figure 6. Automated Design Summary
15
 contributes to the ability of the engineer to
experiment with “what if” scenarios and compare
several different designs quickly and without
major rework.
GIS software packages require experienced users.
Employing a GIS out of the box may require
adding a cadre of GIS professionals to the project
team to train users, provide support, and
administer the software package. Many GIS
applications, however, allow for in-house
customization. Customized applications based on
The ability macros or basic programming can significantly
reduce the learning curve required by engineers
to visually assess
to use the software, as well as decrease
the locations dependence on a large staff of GIS analysts. A
of objects on the single GIS professional can create customized
Earth’s surface, menu bars, tool buttons, and databases packaged
within a clean and simple-to-use GIS add-on
rather then
application. Well-thought-out training sessions
trying to interpret can further ease the transition to a new toolset.
numbers on
The cost of creating a customized application
spreadsheets,
should not be a major stumbling block to
is a key element implementing a GIS-based infrastructure
leading to the use management and design system. Currently,
several commercial off-the-shelf GIS-based
of a GIS.
design tools are available for wireless and outside
plant designs.
As demand for new outside plant networks
coincides with a shortage of trained and available
skilled personnel in this area, the GIS can be
leveraged by network operators and engineering
firms to fill that talent gap. Automated
specialized GISs can allow users with lower skill
sets and associated costs to assist the experienced
engineers already proficient in outside plant
design. At the same time, the computer-savvy
engineer often finds that using a GIS as an aid
significantly reduces the learning curve for
outside plant design.
THE SPATIAL DATABASE
B eyond the many uses of a GIS in
telecommunications applications, the greatest
power of a GIS lies in its ability to spatialize and
integrate databases. The basic data element of a
GIS is a data table. Geographic features and
attribute data alike are stored in flat tables similar
to most existing database formats. It is widely
accepted that 80 percent of all data has a
geographic component. The ability to visually
assess the locations of objects on the Earth’s
surface, rather then trying to interpret numbers
on spreadsheets, is a key element leading to the
use of a GIS in the first place.
16
Latitude and longitude coordinates can be stored
in a central enterprise database side by side
with infrastructure information, materials lists,
previous designs, and imported client data. All
of this content can then be layered together
within the GIS to create a model of the
telecommunications infrastructure in question.
The capabilities for SQL queries, compounded
with geospatial functions, allow users to
generate complex relational database solutions
to geospatial questions. [9]
A shared corporate database releases engineers
from the hunt for data (“Where is that list of
towers we built last year? Can we co-locate on
them?”). More often than not, the information is
forgotten in someone’s desk drawer. Working,
instead, in a database environment, engineers can
access past projects and overlay that information
with current project information. Network
topology, infrastructure, land base records, and
other data are stored together on a single
database available to all users and all systems.
Database structures such as the Spatial Data
Standard for Facilities, Infrastructure, and the
Environment (SDSFIE) are geared to the lowest
common denominator. Drawings created in map-
enabled CAD applications can be stored in the
database to be accessed by the GIS. Aerial site
photos stored in the database can be overlaid
with existing utilities, past projects, and current
construction to create a complete picture of the
current situation. In this age of instant data
gratification, the ability to gain immediate access
to all necessary information from one source
to be used in one application simplifies the
implementation process.
CONCLUSIONS
W hile GISs have been used to great
success in the wireless industry, their
full potential has not yet been reached in
the telecommunications industry as a whole.
The major GIS vendors are touting
telecommunications applications and plug-ins for
wireless and outside plant design and
maintenance. At the same time, major
telecommunications service providers with
custom-built legacy databases are being locked
into dealing with specific contractors that are
familiar with the software. The contractors
dealing with these legacy databases, which lack
the flexibility to integrate and analyze multiple
data sources, are forced to jump through hoops to
work with these systems and to reinvent the
wheel project after project. In the process, they
Bechtel Telecommunications Technical Journal
stand the risk of stagnating on the integration of
GISs into their work and becoming increasingly
less competitive. Instead, they need to push not
only themselves to look to the future, but their
clients as well. „
TRADEMARKS
Google Earth is a trademark of Google Inc.
Yahoo! is a registered trademark of Yahoo! Inc.
Microsoft is a registered trademark and Virtual
Earth is a trademark of Microsoft Corporation in
the United States and other countries.
REFERENCES
[1] R. Paul, “Microsoft Launches Virtual Earth 3D
to try to take on Google”
(http://www.earthtimes.org/articles/show/
10224.html).
[2] S. Smith, “AM/FM + GIS + Web,”
GISVision magazine, December 1999.
[3] S. DuPlessis, “Geoinformation:
A Singular Advantage in a Cellular Age”
(http://www.geoplace.com/ge/
2000/0500/0500gf.asp).
[4] K.C. Clarke, Analytical and Computer Cartography,
Prentice Hall, 1995.
[5] B. Schweber, “With the Right Tools, You
Can Score Big in the RF Field of Dreams,”
EDN magazine, July 6, 2000.
[6] D. McCullough, “Four Options to Extend Your
Broadband Service Revenues,” OSP magazine,
October 2005.
[7] L. Godin, GIS in Telecommunications,
ESRI Press, 2001.
[8] Personal interview with Bechtel network
engineer, October 2006.
[9] S. Rich, A. Das, and C. Kroot, “Spatial Data
Management in an Enterprise GIS”
(http://gis.esri.com/library/userconf/proc01/
professional/papers/pap742/p742.htm).
January 2007 • Volume 5, Number 1
BIOGRAPHY
Paul Lukas joined Bechtel
Telecommunications in 2004
and during his first year
created a customized fiber-optic
network design tool that fused
outside plant design principles
with the geospatial data
management capabilities of a
GIS. He has been the GIS
manager for Bechtel Federal
Telecoms since 2005, where he evaluates, implements,
and manages geospatial solutions. Paul also supports
the Strategic Infrastructure Group and manages its
geospatial data; he is currently developing a geospatial
infrastructure database and customized GIS application
to expand the group's access to geospatial information
and solutions. Additional responsibilities have included
general cartographic support, geospatial analysis for
infrastructure and telecommunications networks, and
proposal support.
Before joining Bechtel, Paul worked for Wireless
Facilities, Inc., where he provided dedicated
geospatial support services for AT&T Wireless and
assisted in creating a GIS-based wireless network
optimization tool.
Paul began his studies in GIS at the Virginia Polytechnic
University and earned a BS in Technical Management
from DeVry University. He is a member of the
Armed Forces Communications and Electronics
Association (AFCEA).
17
18 Bechtel Telecommunications Technical Journal
BROADBAND OVER POWER LINES (BPL)

Issue Date: January 2007

Abstract—The Internet’s proliferation has focused attention on the importance of providing widespread
access to broadband services. Many studies show that such access can have profound positive socioeconomic
impacts. Currently, however, broadband access is available to relatively few people worldwide. Broadband
access has traditionally been provided via either DSL or cable. More recently, wireless and satellite broadband
access has also gained significant momentum. Now, a third—wired—option is emerging: broadband over
power lines (BPL).
Power lines, however, were designed to deliver power, not communications, which poses three main hurdles for
BPL. First, the variation in power line channel characteristics and performance over time and location must be
appropriately considered. Second, measures must be put into place to ensure that BPL does not cause
interference for the existing rightful owners of the spectrum. Third, the regulatory issues accompanying any
new technology must be addressed.
As these hurdles are overcome, as standards mature, and as inexpensive standards-based equipment becomes
more widely available, the concerns about the risks of BPL investment and deployment will gradually diminish.
Then, the right business and deployment models will enable BPL to capture a significant portion of the thriving
broadband market.
Key Words—access BPL, BPL, broadband over power lines, capacity, channel characteristics, coupler,
extractor, FCC, injector, in-house BPL, interference, low voltage (LV) line, medium voltage (MV) line, noise,
NTIA, Part 15, PLC, power line communications, repeater, Subpart G, transformer bypass

INTRODUCTION or even billions of dollars annually. These factors

T here are two basic means of providing make widespread usage of wireless broadband
communications services: wireless or wireline. relatively difficult and expensive!

On the wireless side, the main hurdle is
scarceness of radio frequency (RF) spectrum and
the associated huge cost. In the US, spectrum is
viewed as a scarce national resource, closely
guarded by the Federal Communications
Commission (FCC). Based on the FCC’s personal
communications services (PCS) auctions, the
median value of 1 MHz of spectrum per pop was
around US$1.68 [1]. Simple math shows that
a bare minimum of 10 MHz of spectrum
Lee Lushbaugh
(a pair of 5 MHz, enough for only one channel
llushbau@bechtel.com
of current frequency division duplex [FDD]
technologies such as universal mobile
S. Rasoul telecommunications system [UMTS]) that
Safavian, PhD covers 300 million US pops could cost close to
US$5 billion! And there is the cost of deploying
srsafavi@bechtel.com
the network. On top of this, there are the ongoing
site rental or lease fees, which, on a nationwide
basis, could translate to hundreds of millions
On the wireline side, there are currently two
means of providing broadband services: digital
subscriber line (DSL) through telephone company
telephone lines, and cable modem through cable
company coaxial cable lines. Now, with the
advent of broadband over power lines (BPL or
BoPL), a third wired option is emerging that uses
electric utility power lines. Power lines are
attractive for communications purposes because
they have an omnipresence that reaches most
homes and businesses, even in the most rural
areas. This ubiquity implies a possible reduction
in both time and cost for broadband deployment.
In this sense, power lines, like RF spectrum, can
be considered a very valuable national resource,
or even a national treasure. And, of course, there
is the inside-home power line wiring that can
literally turn every outlet plug into a broadband
communications access port.

© 2007 Bechtel Corporation. All rights reserved. 19

 ABBREVIATIONS, ACRONYMS, AND TERMS
AC alternating current MTL multiconductor transmission
line
AMR automated meter reading
MV medium voltage (1 to 36 kV)
AP access point
NEC numerical EM code
ARRL American Radio Relay League
NMS network management system
AWGN additive white gaussian noise
NOI Notice of Inquiry
BoPL broadband over power lines
NPRM Notice of Proposed Rule
BPL broadband over power lines
Making (FCC)
CALEA Communications Assistance
NTIA National Telecommunications
for Law Enforcement Act
and Information Administration
CENELEC European Committee for
OFDM orthogonal frequency division
Electrotechnical Standardization
multiplexing
CFR Code of Federal Regulations
OPERA Open PLC European Research
(47 CFR addresses
Alliance
telecommunications)
OSS operations support system
CPE consumer premises equipment
PC personal computer
CSMA/CA carrier sensing multiple
access/collision avoidance PCS personal communications
services
DAS distributed antenna system
PL power line
dBm power in decibels with
reference to 1 milliwatt PLC power line communications
DSL digital subscriber line POP point of presence
EHV extremely high voltage PSTN public switched telephone
(> 300 kV) network
EM electromagnetic QoS quality of service
EMC EM compatibility R&D research and development
EMI EM interference R&O Report & Order (FCC)
ETSI European Telecommunications RF radio frequency
Standards Institute
RMS root mean square
FCC Federal Communications
ROI return on investment
Commission
SCADA supervisory control and data
FDD frequency division duplex
acquisition
FTTH fiber to the home
SW shortwave (5.9 to 26.1 MHz)
GDP gross domestic product
UHF ultra high frequency
HDTV high definition television
UMTS universal mobile
HF high frequency (3 to 30 MHz) telecommunications system
HV high voltage (36 to 300 kV) UPA Universal Powerline
Association
IEEE Institute of Electrical and
Electronics Engineers USAC Universal Service
Administrative Company
ISP Internet service provider
USF Universal Service Fund
LAN local area network
UTC United Telecom Council
LF low frequency
VHF very high frequency
LV low voltage (< 1 kV)
(30 to 300 MHz)
MAC medium access control
VoIP voice over Internet Protocol
MO&O Memorandum of
Opinion & Order (FCC)

20 Bechtel Telecommunications Technical Journal

Considering that broadband penetration is
currently less than 4 percent globally, the huge
growth potential for the broadband market is
obvious. BPL could provide a quick and attractive
solution. Of course, successful BPL deployment
requires not only a solid technical performance
and field trial records, but also realistic and viable
business and deployment plans.
This paper first examines the current state of
broadband access and the importance of having
this access. Then, a quick overview of the electric
power grid and how it can be altered to allow
BPL sets the stage for a review of the current BPL
players, field trials, commercial deployments,
and standards bodies. This is followed by a brief
examination of the potential benefits of BPL to
the electric utility companies, service providers,
and end-users and a look at the main
challenges for BPL, namely harsh power line
channel characteristics and performance issues,
interference concerns, and the regulatory
activities surrounding BPL. The paper continues
with a review of the BPL business models and
economic issues before presenting conclusions
and closing remarks.
BROADBAND ACCESS
Current State of Access
Despite the widespread and spectacular growth
of broadband technologies in the last few years,
significant regions of the world, including rural
and low income areas in the US, still do not have
access to broadband services. In fact, out of the
6.7 billion people who currently inhabit our
planet, roughly 3.7 billion (60 percent) have
access to electrical power services, whereas only
about 2 billion (30 percent) have access to some
type of telephony services (wireline and/or
wireless), and only roughly 250 million
(3.7 percent) have access to broadband
services [2, 3]. In the US, out of a population of
300 million—and using a relaxed definition
of broadband as only 200 kbps in at least one
direction (Internet to user [receiving or downlink]
or user to Internet [transmitting or uplink])—only
roughly 50 million people currently have access
to broadband services.
A major hurdle to deploying broadband services
is the high cost of deploying the so-called last-mile
access. The last mile (also sometimes referred
to as the first mile, local loop, or access network)
is defined as the part of the network that
links users with broadband services. From a
communications perspective, power lines, due to
January 2007 • Volume 5, Number 1
their omnipresence and the fact that they have
already reached electrical power users in homes
and offices, would seem to solve this access issue.
In this sense, they may be considered as a
possible third set of broadband wires reaching
homes or businesses (the other two being
DSL and cable modem). Of course, last-mile
broadband access could also be provided
wirelessly via fixed wireless, cellular, or
satellite systems.
The wiring inside a home or office can also be
used to provide a local area network (LAN)
connecting computers, printers, and smart Considering that
appliances and basically turning every outlet into broadband
an Internet connection. This is sometimes referred
penetration is
to as last-inch access or connectivity.
currently less than
It is worth noting that while industrialized
4 percent globally,
countries typically have several—albeit
the huge growth
sometimes prohibitively pricey—telephony and
broadband options, less developed countries may potential for the
have access only to power line services and broadband market
frequently lack well-established conventional
is obvious.
telecommunications infrastructure. It is here that
BPL could provide
power line communications can be particularly
useful and effective. Households connected to a quick and
power lines may be quickly provided with attractive solution.
telephony via voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP)
and broadband Internet services, with minimal
need for a new major infrastructure and its
associated huge financial investment. For many
of those underserved communities, this would be
their first access to telephony, Internet, and
related services.
Importance of Access
Numerous studies have shown a direct
relationship between the availability and
penetration rate of broadband and an
improvement in productivity, quality of
education, quality of health care, generation of
new high-paying jobs, and facilitation of new
channels for commerce. These, in turn, can all
lead directly to national economic growth (with a
direct impact on gross domestic product [GDP])
and even enhanced national security. According
to Thomas L. Friedman, the frequently quoted
op-ed commentator on globalization:
Jobs, knowledge use and economic growth
will gravitate to those societies that are the
most connected, with the most networks and
the broadest amount of bandwidth—because
these countries find it easiest to amass,
deploy and share knowledge in order to
design, invent, manufacture, sell, provide
services, communicate, educate and enter-
tain. Connectivity is now productivity. [4]
21
 Unfortunately, both nationally and globally, a providing both telephony (via VoIP) and
large digital divide, or gap, separates those broadband services to all 3.7 billion people on
with regular and effective access to digital our planet who have access to power lines!
technologies and those without. More
It is also worth mentioning that power line
specifically, a gap exists between people who
communications (PLC) is not a new subject, but
have effective high-speed Internet access (the
one that has been around for decades. Several
information haves) and those who do not (the
power companies around the globe have been
information have-nots). Realizing the importance
using power lines for low-speed applications
of broadband, US President George W. Bush, on
(a few kbps in the low frequency [LF] portion of
April 26, 2004, called for providing universal and
the spectrum), such as power line metering
affordable broadband access in every part of
and control. The recent renewed interest in
America by 2007 as part of his initiative to create
US President using power lines for communications revolves
“A New Generation of American Innovation” [5].
George W. Bush, specifically around providing BPL applications.
With respect to the president’s broadband The main idea is to use specialized equipment
in April 2004, initiative, BPL could play an important role to slightly modify the existing power grid to
called for providing by offering: allow it to also carry high speed data over a
universal and broad spectrum range (high frequency [HF], the
• Affordability: With no need for new wiring
affordable lower portion of very high frequency [VHF],
or major infrastructure deployment, BPL
and potentially beyond) without causing
broadband access creates an alternative broadband solution
unreasonable interference to the rightful
in every part of that could lead to lower prices for broadband
incumbent users of those RF bands. Furthermore,
consumers.
America by 2007 this has to be done in an economically and
as part of his • Universality: BPL could facilitate and speed financially viable manner.
up connecting the rural and low income
initiative to create
parts of America to broadband services,
“A New Generation thereby helping to bridge the digital divide. ELECTRIC POWER GRID
of American
Thus, power lines could perform double duty by
Innovation.” Overview of Grid Structure and Topology
delivering electrical power services and
While the details of electric power grid structures
providing broadband information services. BPL
and topologies differ from country to country,
deployment, in turn, holds the promise of

Medium Voltage
Power Transmission Lines
Substation
Power Plant

High Voltage Low Voltage

Transmission Lines Transmission Lines

Low Voltage
Power Transmission Lines
Substation

Medium Voltage
Transmission Lines

High Voltage Transmission Primary Distribution Medium Voltage Secondary Distribution Low Voltage
(69 kV and Above) (2.4 to 35 kV) (Up to 600 V)

Figure 1. Typical Electric Power Grid

22 Bechtel Telecommunications Technical Journal

 MV
HV
EHV HV
Generation Transformer Transformer
HV
MV
Transmission
Figure 2. From Generation to Consumption: Power Grid Hierarchies
a power grid basically consists of power
plants or generators, transmission substations,
transmission lines, power substations with
transformers to change voltage levels, and
distribution lines that collectively generate
and carry the electricity from power plants all
the way to wall plugs. See Figure 1.
Power plants are basically spinning electricity
generators. Spinning can be performed by a
steam turbine, and steam can be created by
burning fossil fuel or from a nuclear reactor.
A generator’s output is three-phase alternating
current (AC) power at voltage levels in the
thousands. The three single phases are
synchronized and offset by 120 degrees.
Three-phase current is chosen because single-
phase AC goes through a full cycle (from zero
to peak to zero to other peak and back to
zero) at the line rate, which is 60 times
per second in the US and 50 in the other parts
of the world. With three synchronized phases, on
the other hand, one of the three phases is nearing
a peak at any given instant. More phases could be
used, but this implies more wires and higher cost;
three seems to be a good compromise between
cost and performance.
Power P, transferred over lines and delivered to
customers, is equal to the product of voltage V
and current I (P = IV ). Power loss in the line
grows with the square of the current, that is,
Ploss = Rline • I2, where Rline is the line resistance
and depends on the line material and increases
with the length of the line. For a given generated
P and a given Rline , to reduce Ploss , current I must
be made as small as possible. This means that
the line voltage must be made as large as possible,
especially for long-distance transmissions.
Transmission substations located next to power
plants use large transformers to step up generator
output from thousands of volts to hundreds of
January 2007 • Volume 5, Number 1
LV LV
LV
MV
LV
MV LV
LV
MV Consumption
LV
LV
LV
Distribution A power grid
basically consists
of power plants
or generators,
thousands of volts (typically between 155,000 and
765,000 volts), thus allowing megawatts of power transmission
transmission over distances of 300 miles or more. substations,
transmission lines,
At power substations, voltages are stepped down
and lines are branched out to cover larger areas. power substations
This is performed successively, transforming and with transformers
branching out from extremely high voltage (EHV,
to change
typically 155 to 765 kV) to high voltage (HV,
typically 45 to 155 kV), and then from HV to voltage levels, and
medium voltage (MV, typically 2 to 45 kV), and distribution lines
finally from MV to low voltage (LV, typically that collectively
100 to 600 V) for delivery to homes or businesses.
generate and
The result is a tree-structured power distribution
hierarchy. Basically, EHV and HV are used to carry the electricity
transmit AC electric power, and MV and LV are from power plants
used to distribute it. See Figure 2. all the way
The structures needed to support EHV and HV to wall plugs.
lines are typically tall, massive towers. MV and
LV lines, on the other hand, are typically
mounted on street poles. In the US, street poles
are typically 10 meters high, located 50 meters
apart, and support three wires that carry the
three separate phases, plus a neutral (possibly
grounded) wire. A network of MV lines is usually
referred to as the primary distribution; a network
of LV lines is the secondary distribution.
In the US, at the primary distribution level, most
power lines are aerial or overhead. At the
secondary distribution level, particularly in
newer urban areas, most lines run underground.
Overhead lines are more susceptible than
underground lines to producing radiation
interference and to picking up interference. But
underground lines are used less due to the
prohibitive cost of burying cables. In the US,
MV lines typically run between 15 and 50 km.
As mentioned, levels and structures of branching,
network architectures, and voltage levels vary
from country to country. For instance, in the US,
23

Couplers should be
easy-to-install
passive devices
with low failure
rates that
can be used
outdoors and
installed on
energized lines.
typically fewer than a dozen homes are served
by a single MV/LV transformer, whereas in
Japan this number is about 30 and in Europe it
is several hundred. This affects not only the
communications characteristics, but also the
economic viability of a BPL system. (BPL business
models are examined later in this paper.)
Altering the Power Grid To Allow BPL
EHV and HV lines are usually too noisy to
transmit broadband communications signals;
only MV and LV lines are used for BPL. MV
lines are usually less branched than LV lines,
making point-to-point connections possible.
MV networks allow communication over
longer distances because of their weaker signal
attenuation and lower noise level.
To use power lines for broadband communi-
cations, the broadband signal must be injected
into and extracted from the lines through
couplers. LV couplers may be capacitive or
inductive, depending on distribution system
topology, performance requirements, and cost. In
capacitive coupling, a capacitor is responsible for
the actual coupling, and the signal is modulated
onto the network’s voltage waveform. In
inductive coupling, an inductor is used to couple
the signal onto the network’s current waveform.
Inductive couplers are known to be rather lossy,
but since they require no physical connection to
the network, they are safer to install on energized
lines than capacitive couplers. MV couplers are
typically inductive. It is important that couplers
be easy-to-install passive devices with low failure
rates that can be used outdoors and installed on
energized lines.
Line noise, limitations on the amount of signal
power that can be injected into power lines
without causing unacceptable interference for
other spectrum users, and signal attenuation as
the signal traverses the line make it necessary to
regenerate or repeat the signal periodically. This
can be done by using MV couplers to couple the
broadband signal off of the MV line so that it can
be regenerated if necessary and amplified before
being fed back onto the MV line through another
coupler. Repeaters, on the other hand, could add
latency (especially if the signal is regenerated)

Access BPL In-House BPL

Internet
Mobile
Network PSTN

LV Lines
Backhaul Network Backhaul MV
Box MV Lines
Lines
LV Coupler
MV Coupler MV
MV
Coupler Coupler
Repeater Transfer
MV Box Bypass PC
Power Substation Lines Box VoIP
Phone
HV
Transmission Lines

Power Generator
MV
Coupler
LV
MV Line
Line LV Lines to
Transformer Homes/Businesses
LV
Coupler

Coax LV Line to
Home/Business

Transfer
Bypass
Box

Figure 3. Typical BPL Architecture

24 Bechtel Telecommunications Technical Journal

 Substation
with Modem
Option 1
Transformer
Bypass System
Coupler
Router
Extractor
Figure 4. BPL Deployment Options
and could also create single points of failure,
because a single bad repeater can bring down an
entire communications line.
The distribution transformers that change
voltage levels between MV and LV lines are
particularly harsh on the weak broadband signal.
Transformers, which are intended to pass low
frequencies near 50 or 60 Hz, appear as open
circuits for the passage of higher frequency
signals and typically attenuate and distort the
weak broadband signal beyond reconstruction
and usability. This implies that BPL signals
going between MV and LV lines need to bypass
the transformers. Typically, the bypass box can
also have built-in repeating functionality at a
small incremental cost. The recent capability to
effectively and safely bypass transformers has
been instrumental to the success and deployment
of BPL.
A point-of-presence (POP) is needed to connect
the BPL network to a backhaul network such
as the Internet, a public switched telephone
network (PSTN), or a mobile network. The
connection is made through a backhaul network
box coupled to an MV distribution line, typically
next to a power substation where multiple
MV lines are connected. The backhaul network
box is typically a bidirectional device that
converts data formats, aggregates and
concentrates uplink data streams, provides
routing functionality, helps allocate bandwidth
and resources, generates billing and charging
data, and provides various backhaul Ethernet
interfaces to fiber optic or wireless connections.
Figure 3 illustrates a typical BPL architecture.
A BPL network, like any other communications
network, also requires a network management
January 2007 • Volume 5, Number 1
Injector
Repeater
Option 3
Wireless Connection
Option 2
Through
Transformer
The MV and LV line
Wireless portions of the BPL
Wireless Receiver Transmitter
Coupler with Antenna with Antenna are usually
referred to as
the access BPL,
system (NMS) or operations support system
while the portion
(OSS) to observe and manage network resources inside a home or
and perform billing and other back-end tasks. office using the
inside wiring
BPL Deployment Options is called the
The MV and LV line portions of the BPL are
usually referred to as the access BPL, while the
in-house BPL.
portion inside a home or office using the inside BPL can be
wiring is called the in-house BPL. BPL can be deployed either
deployed either as end-to-end BPL or as hybrid as end-to-end BPL
BPL, using one of the three options illustrated
in Figure 4.
or as hybrid BPL.
An end-to-end BPL system uses both access
BPL and in-house BPL, i.e., power lines are used
all the way from the power substation to
the end user. Two of the three BPL deployment
options involve the access BPL portion of an
end-to-end system: the BPL signal can either
(1) bypass the MV/LV transformer (as does
CURRENT Technologies® equipment) or (2) go
through the transformer (as does MainNet
Communications equipment).
The third BPL deployment option is hybrid BPL.
In this option, typically only the MV lines are
used, and a fixed wireless network replaces the
LV lines and in-house BPL (Amperion™ takes
this approach). In hybrid BPL, the bypass box
does not couple the broadband signal to/from
the LV line but converts it to/from a wireless
format and delivers it to the wireless access point
(AP) also located on the pole.
These different deployment options have their
associated performance and cost tradeoffs. For
end-to-end BPL, bypass boxes and LV couplers
must be installed on all LV lines, and in-house
BPL modems are required. For hybrid BPL,
bypass boxes with wireless conversion boards,
25
 wireless APs, and existing standard wireless
user modems are required, but LV transformer
bypasses and LV couplers are not. Also
associated with hybrid BPL are the usual
existing issues regarding wireless performance
in unlicensed spectrum and the current state
of wireless quality of service (QoS), security,
and so forth.
INDUSTRY PLAYERS, FIELD TRIALS,
COMMERCIAL DEPLOYMENTS, AND
Globally, STANDARDS BODIES
the number of
Industry Players, Field Trials, and
BPL players (electric
Commercial Deployments
utility companies,
Globally, the number of BPL players (electric
equipment utility companies, equipment manufacturers,
manufacturers, investors, etc.), field trials, and commercial
deployments has been growing steadily in the
investors, etc.),
last few years. In the US alone, there have been
field trials, and
more than 39 trial deployments [6]. CURRENT
commercial Technologies is currently offering commercial
deployments BPL services with Duke Energy in Cincinnati,
Ohio, with plans to expand elsewhere within
has been growing
Duke’s 1.5-million-customer service territory in
steadily in
Ohio, Indiana, and Kentucky. CURRENT
the last few years. Technologies is also planning to deploy BPL
services to potentially 2 million residents of
Dallas, Texas, using TXU Electric delivery. The
City of Manassas, Virginia, has been offering
citywide BPL services using MainNet equipment
since 2005. Progress Energy and EarthLink® plan
to provide BPL services in North Carolina using
Amperion equipment.
There are also commercial deployments in Spain,
Germany, Korea, Chile, Brazil, and the UK.
In Spain, Endesa began service in 2003
in Saragossa and Barcelona; Iberdrola initiated
service in Madrid and Valencia in the same year.
Power Plus Communications has started offering
services in Germany, as has Scottish Southern
Electric in the UK.
Standards Bodies
Standardization is of paramount importance
to the success of any new technology
such as BPL. To this end, the Open PLC
European Research Alliance (OPERA), European
Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI),
Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
(IEEE), Universal Powerline Association (UPA),
European Committee for Electrotechnical
Standardization (CENELEC), and HomePlug®
Powerline Alliance have been leading the
activities and creating their own standards.
26
OPERA—a consortium of currently 37
organizations, including electric utility
companies, PLC equipment manufacturers, and
universities—is a research and development
(R&D) project with funding from the European
Commission to create and promote open global
specifications for low-cost, high-performance,
high-speed power line communications. Its
first specification documents were released on
February 21, 2006. These specifications will be
promoted through international standardization
organizations, including IEEE and ETSI [7].
The IEEE BPL study group drove the creation
of the BPL-related Pxxxx working groups.
The IEEE P1675™ “Standard for Broadband
over Power Line Hardware” Working Group
is chartered to develop standards for
power line hardware installation and safety.
The IEEE P1775 “Powerline Communication
Equipment – Electromagnetic Compatibility
(EMC) Requirements – Testing and Measurement
Methods” Working Group is focused on
PLC equipment, electromagnetic compatibility
requirements, and testing and measurement
methods. The IEEE P1901 “Draft Standard
for Broadband over Power Line Networks:
Medium Access Control and Physical Layer
Specifications” Working Group is responsible for
defining the medium access control (MAC) and
physical layers for high speed (greater than
100 Mbps at the physical layer) for both
in-house and access BPL. The standard will focus
on transmission frequencies below 100 MHz.
The specifications of these working groups are
scheduled for release in 2007 [8].
The UPA has also released a number of
specifications related to different aspects of
power line technology. Three main specifications
are the UPA coexistence specification, released in
June 2005; the UPA access BPL specification,
endorsed by OPERA and released in
February 2006; and the UPA in-house BPL
specification, called Digital Home Standard v1.0
and also released in February 2006. The UPA
also works with and through international
standardization bodies such as IEEE and ETSI to
promote its standards [9].
The HomePlug Powerline Alliance was founded
in 2000 and currently has over 65 member
companies. The alliance’s standards (HomePlug
1.0 and AV) are for home networking over
power lines (in-house BPL). The HomePlug 1.0
specification allows for speeds up to 14 Mbps.
The current HomePlug AV specification allows
for speeds greater than 100 Mbps (suitable for
Bechtel Telecommunications Technical Journal
high definition television [HDTV] and VoIP) and
is compatible with HomePlug 1.0. In 2004, to
provide a harmonized end-to-end BPL standard,
the HomePlug Powerline Alliance started looking
into creating an access BPL standard planned for
completion by early 2007 [10].
POTENTIAL BENEFITS
Benefits to Service Providers
From a service provider’s point of view, BPL
could provide large cost savings. The first, and by
far the most important, factor is that the
transmission medium, i.e., the power lines, is
already in place. There is no need to purchase
spectrum or to hang, dig, or lay new wires,
because most of the required infrastructure
already exists. There is also no need for the
difficult, expensive, and time-consuming site
acquisition, permitting, and licensing tasks
needed for a typical deployment. Given the
omnipresence of power lines, BPL also holds the
promise of being able to provide genuinely
ubiquitous coverage. These factors imply
potential cost and time savings that could level
the BPL deployment playing field a bit more
compared with DSL and cable, both of which
have significant deployment head starts.
Benefits to Electric Utilities
For the electric utility companies, BPL’s benefits
are twofold: (1) It can create new sources of
revenue from an existing investment, and
(2) it can help create a smart grid for the utility
companies that would enable enhanced utility
applications [11, 12] such as:
• System monitoring from any point on the
electric grid
• Load shifting and balancing
• Optimized asset utilization and management
• Performance of preventive maintenance and
improvement of service reliability and
customer satisfaction by avoiding power
outages and emergencies
• Advanced supervisory control and data
acquisition (SCADA)
• Fault detection, fault analysis, and adaptive
self-healing
• Automatic outage detection, restoration
detection, and verification
• BPL-enabled electricity meters that enable
time-of-day and real-time pricing through
January 2007 • Volume 5, Number 1
automated meter reading (AMR) with
remote disconnect (and reconnect) and
theft detection
• Real-time video surveillance of the sensitive
national power infrastructure (e.g., grid
and substations)
Benefits to End Users
End users can benefit from BPL deployment
because:
• BPL could create competition and thus help
reduce end-user service prices.
The explosive
growth of the
• BPL could provide high user throughputs,
Internet and
as discussed later in this paper.
the recent
• In some places, BPL may be the only viable
deregulation of
choice (e.g., in rural areas), although satellite-
based service may also be of interest in telecommunications
these areas. in the US and
• BPL could be used for smart appliances, Europe have led to
connected and controlled through a PC and the renewed
remotely. While these devices could possibly interest in BPL.
be controlled through a DSL or a cable
modem connection, BPL may provide a more
integrated (neater) solution.
• BPL may provide a more ubiquitous and
reliable service coverage area.
The explosive growth of the Internet and the
recent deregulation of telecommunications in the
US and Europe have led to the renewed interest
in BPL. Extensive research on BPL channel
modeling [13–20] and a considerable amount of
interference analysis [21–25] have taken place.
Concurrently, there have been a large number
of field trials and measurements to validate
various models [21–31], along with advances in
signal processing such as the newer adaptive
modulation and coding techniques [28] and
faster, cheaper processors and electronics.
Nonetheless, despite its renewed attractiveness,
BPL must overcome implementation challenges
as well as regulatory concerns before it can
become a viable avenue of broadband access. The
next sections of this paper examine in more
detail the key implementation challenges and
regulatory concerns facing BPL.
IMPLEMENTATION CHALLENGES
The Nature of the Power Grid
The most obvious challenges to implementing
BPL arise from the fact that power line grids were
originally developed to transmit electrical power
27
 (high voltage AC at low frequencies of 50 or 60 Hz)
from a small number of sources (the generators)
to a large number of sinks (the end customers).
Power grids were neither designed nor devised
for communications purposes. Even though the
interest in using power lines for communications
is not new, their early use for data transmission
was mainly for simple, low-data-rate (a few
kilobits per second) remote monitoring and meter
reading applications at a low frequency (typically
only up to a few hundred kilohertz).
The main challenges to BPL arising from the
The main challenges
nature of the power grid have been the extremely
to BPL arising from harsh, unpredictable, time-and-location-variable
the nature of characteristics of the power line channel,
the power grid and potential interference concerns (in both
directions) [13–25]. Because power lines are not
have been
twisted and have no shielding, they can produce
the extremely harsh, electromagnetic radiation that is easily detected
unpredictable, by radio receivers. For the same reasons, power
time-and- lines can also easily pick up nearby radio
frequency signals. Thus, addressing mutual
location-variable
interference is not only a challenge, but becomes
characteristics of a valid regulatory concern.
the power line
A related challenge facing BPL centers around
channel,
data sensitivity. To prevent interception of
and potential sensitive data by unintended and unauthorized
interference receivers, data encryption is a must.
concerns (in both The fact that the power line grid is a shared
directions). medium and BPL is a contention-based system
creates additional challenges. Because all users
share the available channel capacity or
bandwidth, as the number of users goes up,
per-user throughput goes down. In the US, there
are typically 50 homes per substation. An average
available throughput of 50 Mbps implies roughly
an average of 1 Mbps per user, a speed on par
with the current average speeds delivered by DSL
or cable modem. However, BPL is thought to be
distance limited, similar to DSL. Thus, the
distance between the customer’s home and the
supplying substation is a factor in the
bit rate available to the user.
Channel Characteristics and Capacity
Power Line Noise
In general, a power line channel is a very
harsh and noisy transmission medium. The noise
on the line is typically time, location, and
frequency dependent.
Time-variable behavior is due mainly to the
dynamically changing nature of the load
connected to the power lines. Line branching, the
number and types of branches, the lengths of line
28
segments, the types of power line equipment
connected (such as capacitor banks and
transformers), and the kinds of loads connected
all affect channel characteristics. Furthermore,
impedance mismatches caused by unterminated
stubs and line branches cause signal reflections
and create a frequency-dependent fading
channel, much like the multipaths typically seen
in mobile wireless communication channels.
MV and LV lines have very different noise
characteristics. The MV grid is usually less
branched than the LV grid, and LV lines are
typically terminated at time-varying consumer
electrical appliances. Noise on the LV grid is
typically the sum of background noise, impulsive
noise, and synchronous/nonsynchronous (with
the power line frequency) colored noise,
generated primarily by electrical appliances; this
noise is certainly not an additive white gaussian
noise (AWGN). On the MV grid, the on/off
switching of the capacitor banks used to correct
the power factor typically causes high noise
peaks [14]. At the same time, background noise
and narrow-band noise are dominant on MV
lines. The background noise is environmental
noise that is highly dependent on weather,
location, and elevation. The narrow-band noise
is caused by RF interferers such as amateur or
shortwave (SW) radios and varies randomly
across location and time. Noise levels on
MV lines are typically as much as 20 to 30 dB
higher than on LV lines in the frequency range
of 1 to 20 MHz [21].
Channel Attenuation
Power lines have been modeled in the literature
by using either statistical approaches based
on extensive measurements or deterministic
approaches based on multiconductor trans-
mission line (MTL) theory and numerical
analysis. Carson’s earlier MTL model [17]
allowed for ground impedance but did not
include ground admittance, which cannot be
ignored in higher frequencies and/or under
poor conductive ground plane conditions.
The subsequent MTL models in [18, 19] include
ground admittance.
A simple matched uniform MV line segment with
no connected device or junctions could have as
little as 1 dB/km ohmic absorption or attenuation
loss. For a complex overhead MV network, on the
other hand, the amplitude of the channel
frequency response (or, equivalently, the channel
attenuation) in the frequency range of 10 kHz to
100 MHz shows highly frequency-dependent
attenuations of as high as 40 dB/km caused by
reflections from abrupt discontinuities and
Bechtel Telecommunications Technical Journal
mismatched impedances [23]. LV network losses
are typically higher than MV network losses and
could be as high as 100 dB/km [14].
Performance Improvements
Conditioning the grid can improve power
line performance by minimizing impedance
mismatches, terminating stubs, filtering noise,
etc. These options, however, may deteriorate or
diminish the advantages of power line grids. A
better approach is to use modulation and coding
schemes robust enough to work in the hostile
power line channel environment. Currently, most
BPL products use orthogonal frequency division
multiplexing (OFDM), well known for its
excellent robustness against channel distortions
such as multipath and impulsive noise and for its
good spectral efficiency, reasonable cost, and
ability to avoid certain bands.
In BPL systems, multiple user modems are
connected in a bus or star topology. Some type
of MAC must be implemented to provide
communications through shared bandwidth on
power lines. To provide the necessary QoS
for applications that require bandwidth
and performance guarantees, such as video
streaming, the carrier sensing multiple
access/collision avoidance (CSMA/CA) protocol
may be used. This widely used scalable
protocol, also used in the wireless fidelity
(IEEE 802.11) MAC layer, is suitable for power
line channel characteristics.
Capacity and Spectral Efficiency
Depending on the bandwidth used on the power
lines (typically a frequency range between 2 and
100 MHz), on the BPL injection power level
(typically 1 to 30 dBm), and on load and channel
conditions, throughputs in the range of tens, or
even hundreds, of megabits per second and
spectral efficiencies in the range of 1 to 20 bps/Hz
can be achieved [20]. Theoretical and field trials
have also claimed throughputs of the same order
of magnitude, and even in the gigabit-per-second
range if larger frequency bandwidths in
the upper VHF/ultra high frequency (UHF)
spectrum and higher input signal powers are
used. In the US, however, this may not be a viable
option, considering that licensed spectrum in the
VHF and UHF bands is heavily occupied.
A system developed by Corridor Systems, Inc., in
the US uses MV power lines in frequency ranges
from VHF through microwave as distributed
antenna systems (DASs) to extend existing
cellular network coverage [29]. The cellular
network RF signal is picked up by the Corridor
January 2007 • Volume 5, Number 1
equipment, converted into a proprietary BPL
format, and injected into and transported down
the MV lines. At cellular dead zones, the Corridor
equipment converts the signal back to its original
format for re-radiation by local antennas. Thus,
MV lines are used to carry cellular signals to areas
too difficult or expensive to reach by cellular
networks, conventional repeaters, or DASs.
Interference Concerns and Regulatory Issues
Unlike the twisted wires of telephone companies
and the shielded cables of cable companies, long
unshielded, untwisted, overhead power lines can Unlike the
act as large antennas and be natural sources and twisted wires of
targets of electromagnetic interference (EMI). In telephone
addition, BPL signals tend to radiate from the
companies and
injectors and repeaters spaced along the power
lines. This raises concerns about interfering the shielded cables
with the rightful owners of the radio spectrum in of cable companies,
the BPL range of operation [30]. The most long unshielded,
concerned and vocal opponents of BPL in the
untwisted, overhead
US are amateur radio operators, through the
American Radio Relay League (ARRL), and power lines can act
government agencies. as large antennas
The US FCC started examining the use of power and be
lines for broadband communications services by natural sources
issuing a Notice of Inquiry (NOI) on April 23, and targets of EMI.
2003. The NOI sought information on potential
interference from BPL systems and associated
changes that may be needed to accommodate BPL
systems in Part 15 of the FCC’s rules published
in the Telecommunications Code of Federal
Regulations (47 CFR).
Part 15 addresses RF devices. Part 15, Subpart A,
addresses general issues. Section 15.3 defines
terms used in the FCC’s rules. Subpart B
addresses unintentional radiators, with Section
15.109 defining the radiated emission limits.
Subpart C deals with intentional radiators, with
Section 15.209 defining the corresponding general
requirements and radiated emission limits.
Section 15.3 (f) defines a carrier current system as
a system, or part of a system, that transmits RF
energy by conduction over electric power lines.
A carrier current system can be designed so that
the RF signals are received by conduction directly
from the connection to the electric power lines
(unintentional radiator) or so that the signals are
received as over-the-air radiation from the
electric power lines (intentional radiator). Carrier
current systems operate on an unlicensed basis
under Part 15. As a general condition of
operation, Part 15 devices may not cause harmful
interference to authorized radio services and
must accept any interference they receive.
29
 The FCC amended the existing Section 15.3 to
include Sections 15.3 (ff) for access BPL and
15.3 (gg) for in-house BPL, as follows:
Section 15.3 (ff) – Access BPL: A carrier
current system installed and operated on an
electric utility service as an unintentional
radiator that sends radio frequency energy
on frequencies between 1.705 MHz and
80 MHz over medium voltage lines or over
low voltage lines to provide broadband
communications and is located on the
supply side of the utility service’s points of
interconnection with customer premises.
The FCC amended
Section 15.3 (gg) – In-House BPL: A carrier
the existing current system, operating as an unintentional
Section 15.3 radiator, that sends radio frequency energy
by conduction over electric power lines that
to include
are not owned, operated or controlled by an
Sections 15.3 (ff) electric service provider. The electric power
for access BPL lines may be aerial (overhead), underground,
or inside the walls, floors or ceilings of
and 15.3 (gg) user premises. In-House BPL devices may
for in-house BPL. establish closed networks within a user’s
premises or provide connections to Access
BPL networks, or both.
In its response to the FCC’s NOI, the
National Telecommunications and Information
Administration (NTIA) of the US Department
of Commerce described the federal government’s
usage of the 1.7 to 80 MHz spectrum, identified
associated interference concerns, and outlined the
studies it planned to conduct to address those
concerns. In April 2004, the NTIA published
its Phase 1 Study technical report, NTIA
Report 04-413, “Potential Interference from
Broadband over Power Line (BPL) Systems to
Federal Government Radiocommunications at
1.7 – 80 MHz” [31]. In this report, the NTIA
defined interference risks to radio reception in the
immediate vicinity of overhead power lines
used by an access BPL system. The radio systems
to be considered in interference analyses included
a land vehicular receiver, a ship-borne receiver,
a receiver using a rooftop antenna (e.g., a base
or fixed-service station), and an aircraft receiver
in flight. The study included various
measurement campaigns and the use of
numerical electromagnetic code (NEC) software
to characterize BPL signal radiation and
propagation and to evaluate interference risks.
The report also suggested means for reducing
interference risks and identified techniques for
mitigating local interference should it occur.
The Phase 1 Study focused on simple BPL
deployment models. The Phase 2 Study is
focusing on evaluating the effectiveness of the
NTIA’s Phase 1 recommendations and on the
results of a study of potential interference via
30
ionospheric propagation of BPL emissions
resulting from the mature large-scale deployment
of BPL networks. As of the date of this paper, the
Phase 2 Study report had not yet been released.
Some of the NTIA’s Phase 1 Study highlights
include:
• In the 1.7 to 80 MHz spectrum, the dominant
propagation modes are ground waves, space
waves, and sky waves. Ground waves consist
of direct waves, ground-reflected waves, and
surface waves. Direct waves decay at a rate
proportional to the square of their distance
from their source. Ground-reflected waves
(along with direct waves) decay at the rate of
distance raised to the power of four. Ground-
reflected waves may be of no major concern if
the radiator is relatively far from ground.
Surface waves propagate close to the ground
and have a substantially higher rate of
attenuation than direct waves. Ground wave
propagation is pertinent on BPL signal paths
below the power line horizon. Space waves
involve only direct waves and occur over
elevated signal paths, e.g., signal paths above
the power line horizon. Sky waves are
particularly important in the HF band (for
BPL, 1.7 to 30 MHz) and have temporal and
spatial variability. Here, signal paths are
represented as rays reflected and refracted by
the ionosphere. Sky waves can extend the
signal’s reach to several kilometers.
• The space around a radiator is typically
divided into three regions: reactive near-
field, radiating near-field, and far-field.
These regions are typically defined as:
3
r < 0.62 D Reactive Near-Field
λ
3
0.62
D < r < 2 D2 Radiating Near-Field
λ λ
2
r>2 D Far-Field
λ
where r is the distance from the radiator, D is
the largest linear dimension of the radiator,
and λ is wavelength. For BPL systems, the
victim receiver is typically in the radiating
near-fields, although far-fields are important
because of sky waves and at distances seen
by aircraft receivers.
Bechtel Telecommunications Technical Journal
The NTIA also provided some recommendations
and suggested some interference mitigation
techniques; these include:
• Mandatory registration of certain parameters
of planned and deployed BPL systems
• A requirement for BPL devices to be
frequency agile (i.e., to have notching and
retuning capabilities) and to have remote
power reduction and shutdown capabilities
to eliminate interference if any is reported
• Use of minimal required power
• Avoidance of locally used radio frequencies
• Use of symmetry and differential mode
signal injection to minimize radiation [31, 23].
Symmetry is defined in terms of impedance
between conductors and ground. If, for a
two-wire line, the impedance between each
conductor and ground is equal, the line is
symmetrical or balanced. Balanced lines are
necessary for differential mode transmission,
in which the currents are equal in magnitude
and flow in opposite directions on the
conductors. The fields radiating from these
conductors tend to cancel each other.
Subsequent to the above activities, the FCC
released its Notice of Public Rule Making
(NPRM) in February 2004, and received more
than a thousand comments and replies from
many concerned parties [32]. The FCC eventually
finalized its decision by adopting its Report &
Order (R&O) FCC 04-245 on October 14, 2004
(published in the Federal Register on January 7,
2005) [33]. The FCC considered various petitions
to reconsider the R&O and subsequently
amended the Part 15 rules to modify some of the
previous specified exclusion zones and add a few
new exclusion zones. However, the FCC denied
other petitions to reconsider other aspects and
published the final Memorandum Opinion &
Order (MO&O) on August 7, 2006, and the new
amended rules in 47 CFR.
The FCC basically decided to keep BPL under
existing Part 15 unlicensed device rules and
added Subpart G for access BPL. More
specifically, Sections 15.601, 15.607, 15.611, and
15.613 of this new Subpart include the following
new rules:
• Exclusion Bands: These are certain bands
of frequencies within which access BPL
operations are not permitted.
• Exclusion Zones: These are certain
geographic areas within which access
BPL operations are not allowed.
January 2007 • Volume 5, Number 1
• Consultation: A consultation is to be held
between an entity operating access BPL and a
licensed public safety or other designated
point of contact, for the purpose of avoiding
potential harmful interference.
• Equipment Authorization: Because BPL is a
new technology, the FCC has required that
all BPL-related equipment be certified.
Certification is an equipment authorization by
the FCC or its designated entities, as opposed
to verification, which is a manufacturer’s self-
approval procedure. The rules adopted in the
Because BPL is
R&O require that all access BPL devices
manufactured, imported, marketed, or a new technology,
installed 18 months or later after the Federal the FCC has
Register publication of the R&O (i.e., after required that
July 7, 2006) must comply with the
all BPL-related
newly adopted requirements of Subpart G
of Part 15 for BPL devices, including equipment
certification of the equipment. be certified.
• Databases: Publicly available databases are Certification is
an equipment
to be created and maintained by an industry-
sponsored entity recognized by the FCC and authorization
the NTIA. They are to contain information
by the FCC or its
regarding existing and planned access BPL
systems. Each database should be available designated entities,
within 30 days before initiation of the specific as opposed to
system’s service and should include the verification, which is
following information:
a manufacturer’s
– The name of the access BPL provider self-approval
– The frequency of the access BPL procedure.
operation
– The postal ZIP codes served by the
specific access BPL operation
– The manufacturer and type of access
BPL equipment and its associated
FCC identification, etc.
– Complete contact information for a
person at the BPL operator’s company
in charge of resolving any interference
complaints
– The proposed or actual date of access
BPL operation
• Interference Mitigation and Avoidance:
Access BPL systems are basically required to
adhere to the NTIA recommendations for
interference mitigation and avoidance
mentioned above.
• Field Limits: Access BPL systems that
operate in the 1.705-to-30-MHz band over
MV lines must comply with the radiation
limits for intentional radiators provided in
Section 15.209. Systems operating in the
31
 Table 1. Radiation Limits emissions at each frequency within the
frequency range of the access BPL device.
Power Line Frequency Field Strength Measurement
Type (MHz) Limits (μV/m) Distance (m) The distance from the measurement antenna
to power line is the slant distance or range,
LV or MV 1.705–30 30 30
as shown in Figure 5.
LV 30–80 100 3
Because the distances r specified in the guidelines
MV 30–80 90 10 may coincide with unsafe locations (e.g., the
middle of a highway), the guidelines also specify
how to extrapolate a distance correction factor
30-to-80-MHz band over MV lines must from measurements made at distances other than
comply with the radiation limits for as specified in the rules. For frequencies below
unintentional radiators provided in Section 30 MHz, the measured values are reduced by
The FCC recognized
15.109 (b). Systems operating over LV lines 40 log(10) (30/r); for frequencies at or above
the interference must comply with the Section 15.109 (a) and 30 MHz, the measured value is increased by
potential of (e) limits. Radiation emission limits for access 20 log(10) (r/10). The guidelines also specify the
BPL systems. BPL equipment are summarized in Table 1. type of measurement antenna (loop or linear)
and the type of detector (peak, quasi-peak, or root
That is why the The FCC also decided to eliminate conducted
mean square [RMS]).
FCC decided that, emission limits and testing for BPL systems
because of the danger and inconvenience It is worth mentioning again that the FCC
even though access
associated with measuring power line recognized the interference potential of BPL
BPL systems remain conducted emissions. systems. That is why the FCC decided that, even
under the newly though access BPL systems remain under the
• Measurement Procedure and Guidelines:
added Subpart G newly added Subpart G of Part 15 for unlicensed
The FCC requires that access BPL system
device rules, their operations cannot cause
of Part 15 emissions be measured in situ to demonstrate
harmful interference and the systems must accept
for unlicensed compliance with the new Part 15 rules.
any outside interference. Furthermore, any BPL
Measurements are to be made at a minimum
device rules, resultant interference must be corrected and
of three overhead and three underground
their operations resolved by the BPL operator immediately,
representative points and according to the
without ceasing broadband service to the public.
cannot cause measurement guidelines outlined in
harmful interference Appendix C of the NPRM. For access BPL On November 3, 2006, the FCC also decided to
systems installed on overhead power lines, to classify BPL-enabled Internet access services as
and the systems
take into account the effect of line length, the information services. By virtue of being considered
must accept received measurement antenna will be information services, BPL services become free
any outside moved down-line parallel to the power line, from many, if not all, common carrier regulations
interference. starting from the access BPL signal injection and associated fees and taxes. Specifically,
equipment location, to find the maximum the FCC’s Order finds that the transmission

Distance Specified in Rule (e.g., 30 m for <30 MHz)

)
(R
og
0l
Sl

r4
an

0o
tR

2
an

at
ge

e
lat
a po
Ring E xtr
Antenna

Antenna Height

Figure 5. Interference Measurement Setup

32 Bechtel Telecommunications Technical Journal

component underlying BPL-enabled access
services is telecommunications and that
providing this telecommunications transmission
component as part of a functionally integrated,
finished BPL-enabled Internet access service
offering is an information service. The FCC’s
decision was based on its desire to regulate
similar services in a similar manner. The FCC’s
Order places BPL-enabled Internet access services
on an equal regulatory footing with other
broadband services such as DSL or cable modem
Internet access services [34].
The FCC may, however, still decide to require
BPL operators who provide VoIP services to
contribute to the Universal Service Fund (USF),
based on a percentage of their gross revenues.
The USF was created by the FCC in 1997,
following enactment of the Telecommunications
Act of 1996, primarily to ensure that rural
and low-income customers receive levels of
telecommunications service similar to those in
nonrural areas. All telecommunications carriers
that provide service internationally and
between states are required to contribute to the
USF. The Universal Service Administrative
Company (USAC) submits fund size and
administrative cost projections for each quarter
in accordance with FCC rules.
The FCC also released a new R&O in May 2006
regarding law enforcement and emergency
services [35]. More specifically, the FCC resolved
a second R&O in the Communications Assistance
for Law Enforcement Act (CALEA) and
Broadband Access Services proceedings. As a
result of this FCC Order, VoIP- and facilities-
based broadband access providers, such as
BPL operators who provide VoIP services,
must bring their networks into compliance
with wiretap, surveillance, and other official
law enforcement and emergency services
requirements by May 14, 2007.
BUSINESS MODELS AND ECONOMIC ISSUES
D epending on their particular business
and financial objectives, electric utility
companies can choose one of three business
models with respect to their BPL deployment. As
presented below, each model has successively
more associated risks and rewards:
• The Landlord or Retail Model: In this
model, the electric utility company leases
its facilities to another company (preferably
one with prior communications experience)
that builds and operates the BPL system.
January 2007 • Volume 5, Number 1
End users interface only with this company
for all customer care, billing, and support.
The electric utility company only collects
leases on its facilities, and may also receive
smart-grid services from the same
BPL service builder/provider. This model
requires the lowest investment from the
electric company and provides it with a new
source of income along with its existing
investments. This is the lowest risk, if any,
model for the electric company.
• The Wholesale Model: In this model,
In November 2006,
the electric company builds out the BPL
network and leases it to another company, the FCC decided
which wholesales the bandwidth to to classify
communications service providers or BPL-enabled
Internet service providers (ISPs) that operate
Internet access
the network and interface with customers.
This is a medium risk option, and the BPL services as
network can be used to provide smart-grid information
services for the electric company. services.
• The Service Provider Model: This is the By virtue of
most aggressive model. The electric utility being considered
company builds and operates the BPL
information
network and interfaces directly with the
services, BPL
customers. Here, the electric company needs
to acquire the communications expertise services become
required to build, operate, and maintain free from many,
the BPL network. Of course, the electric
if not all,
company must also market the broadband
services. This model carries the most risk, common carrier
but offers the greatest potential return on regulations and
investment (ROI). associated fees
Currently, precise data regarding BPL and taxes.
deployment costs is not publicly available.
Various estimates show that BPL costs per home
passed could range from $50 to $300, depending
on the electric grid’s architecture, the need for
repeaters, the number of homes connected to the
substation, and similar factors. This cost includes
not only the cost of equipment and installation,
but also the cost over time of maintenance,
equipment replacement, and upgrades.
Consumer premises equipment (CPE) costs
currently range from $50 to $200. Assuming a
conservative initial deployment with a subscriber
penetration rate of 10 percent (blended over rural,
suburban, and urban areas), which is typical
of current initial deployment results, and a
$100-per-home-passed deployment cost and a
$100 CPE cost, the initial BPL deployment cost
becomes about $1,100 per subscriber. This
number is in line with numbers published in
the final BPL report from United Telecom
Council (UTC) Research and The Shpigler Group,
33
 In this formulation, PBPL becomes null if its cost
and data rates are the same as those of existing
broadband services. Of course, this formulation
FTTH $1,825 does not take into account the value that BPL
offers by providing smart-grid services.
Satellite $1,408 (Assessing the potential revenue and savings
from BPL smart grid services would be the
subject of another study.)

Access Method
BPL $1,007

Cable Modem $900

CONCLUSIONS

E
DSL $828 ven though the importance and direct
As the regulatory socioeconomic impact of access to broadband
uncertainties and Wireless $800 services are well understood, currently only
0 400 800 1,200 1,600 2,000 4 percent of the Earth’s population has access
interference issues
to some type of broadband services, typically
surrounding Deployment Cost per Subscriber ($)
via DSL or cable modem. BPL offers a new,
BPL dissipate, and potentially powerful alternative means of
with the success of Figure 6. Deployment Costs for
providing high-speed Internet services, VoIP, and
Different Access Technologies
many field trials and other broadband services to homes and
which compares deployment costs for various businesses by using existing MV and LV power
early commercial
broadband technologies [36, 37]. See Figure 6. lines. Because roughly 60 percent of Earth’s
deployments, inhabitants have access to power lines, BPL could
the release of It is also interesting to note that, even though play a significant role in bridging the existing
various standards, deploying BPL in rural areas could be less digital divide. But the success of BPL, like
expensive than deploying DSL, cable, or fiber, it that of any new technology in its infancy,
and the growing may still be prohibitively expensive per capita. depends on more than strong theoretical
availability of With this in mind, BPL operators may choose, results or successful field testing. It also depends
reasonably priced instead, to compete with DSL, cable, and other greatly on the appropriate business models and
standardized and service providers in suburban and urban areas deployment plans.
where some sort of broadband services already
reliable equipment, exists. Ironically, this would defeat the main As the regulatory uncertainties and interference
the road to BPL reason that the FCC adopted BPL: to accelerate issues surrounding BPL dissipate, and with the
is becoming the availability of broadband services in success of many field trials and early commercial
underserved areas. Furthermore, prior experience deployments, the release of various standards,
increasingly and the growing availability of reasonably priced
and research have shown that BPL service
well paved. needs to be either significantly better (e.g., have standardized and reliable equipment, the road
higher user throughputs), cheaper, or both, to to BPL is becoming increasingly well paved
be able to convince subscribers to change and broadband over power lines seems to be
existing services to BPL or to attract new well energized. Indeed, BPL’s future looks
subscribers to this new technology. very bright! „

With this in mind, BPL service penetration PBPL

would typically be some function of BPL service ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
cost CBPL , including CPE, installation and setup,
and a monthly service fee; the service costs of
existing broadband services Cexisting ; the available
O ne of the authors, S. Rasoul Safavian, would
like to express his gratitude for useful
discussions with Professor Mohsen Kavehrad of
data throughput of BPL RBPL ; and the data
the Electrical Engineering Department at the
throughput of existing services Rexisting [38]. A
Pennsylvania State University, several staff
simple formulation could be:
members of the Federal Communications
Commission, and David Shpigler of The
PBPL = Min {100, Max {0, [( Cexisting – CBPL) Shpigler Group.
+α [ log2(RBPL) – log2 ( Rexisting )]]}}

where α is a weighting factor (e.g., 10 or 20)

that reflects the importance of performance
versus cost.

34 Bechtel Telecommunications Technical Journal

TRADEMARKS
Amperion is a trademark of Amperion, Inc.
CURRENT Technologies is a registered
trademark of CURRENT Communications
Group, LLC.
EarthLink is a registered trademark of EarthLink,
Inc.
HomePlug is a registered trademark of the
HomePlug Powerline Alliance.
P1675 is a trademark of the IEEE.
REFERENCES
[1] T. Farrar, “ATC: The Future of Mobile Satellite
Services?” TMF Associates report, published
February 2006/updated August 2006
(http://www.tmfassociates.com/ATC.html).
[2] Information about and images of the Earth
in a website by The Ozone Hole, Inc.
(http://www.solcomhouse.com/earth.html).
[3] C. Howson, “Technology Outlook for
Broadband & Mobile Networks,” BROADWAN
Workshop, Cuenca, Spain, November 2005
(http://www.telenor.no/broadwan/
WorkshopNovember2005/
Howson_BROADWAN_Cuenca_Workshop.pdf).
[4] T.L. Friedman, “The Lexus and The Olive Tree:
Understanding Globalization,” Farrar, Straus
and Giroux, 2000.
[5] “Promoting Innovation and Competitiveness –
President Bush’s Technology Agenda”
(http://www.whitehouse.gov/infocus/
technology/).
[6] United Power Line Council (UPLC) BPL
Deployments Map (http://www.uplc.utc.org/
file_depot/0-10000000/0 10000/7966/conman/
BPL+Map+12_12.pdf).
[7] Open PLC European Research Alliance (OPERA)
(http://www.ist-opera.org/).
[8] IEEE BPL Study Group and Working Group
meeting information re Standardization
of Broadband Over Power Line Technologies
(http://grouper.ieee.org/groups/bpl/
index.html).
[9] Universal Powerline Association (UPA)
(http://www.upaplc.com/
page_viewer.asp?category=Home&sid=2).
[10] HomePlug Powerline Alliance
(http://www.homeplug.org/en/index.asp).
[11] S. Houle, “Building the Smart Grid – TXU BPL
Initiative” (http://www.gulfcoastpower.org/
default/2-06meeting-houle-austin.pdf).
[12] J.M. Bradbury, “Broadband over Power Lines
a Foundation for the Utility of the Future,”
Energy Summit 2006 (http://www.enrg.lsu.edu/
conferences/energysummit2006/
Jay_Bradbury_2.pdf).
January 2007 • Volume 5, Number 1
[13] M. Gotz, M. Rapp, and K. Dostert,
“Power Line Channel Characteristics and
Their Effect on Communication System Design,”
IEEE Communications Magazine, Vol. 42, No. 4,
April 2004, pp. 78-86.
[14] H. Ferreira, O. Hooijen, and H. Grove,
“Power Line Communications: An Overview,”
IEEE Conference Proceedings for AFRICON 1996,
Stellenbosch, South Africa, September 1996,
Vol. 2, pp. 558–563.
[15] M. Zimmermann and K. Dostert,
“A Multipath Model for the Powerline Channel,”
IEEE Transactions on Communications, Vol. 50,
No. 4, April 2002, pp. 553–559.
[16] M. Zimmermann and K. Dostert, “Analysis and
Modeling of Impulsive Noise in Broad-band
Powerline Communications,” IEEE Transactions
on Electromagnetic Compatibility, Vol. 44, No. 1,
February 2002, pp. 249–258.
[17] J.R. Carson, “Wave Propagation in Overhead
Wires with Ground Return,” Bell Systems
Technical Journal, Vol. 5, May 1926, pp. 539–554.
[18] M. D’Amore and M.S. Sarto, “A New
Formulation of Lossy Ground Return Parameters
for Transient Analysis of Multi-Conductor
Dissipative Lines,” IEEE Transactions on Power
Delivery, Vol. 12, No. 1, January 1997, pp. 303–314.
[19] P. Amirshahi and M. Kavehrad, “High-Frequency
Characteristics of Overhead Multiconductor
Power Lines for Broadband Communications,”
IEEE Journal on Selected Areas in Communications,
Vol. 24, No. 7, July 2006, pp. 1292–1303.
[20] P. Amirshahi and M. Kavehrad, “Transmission
Channel Model and Capacity of Overhead Multi-
Conductor Medium-Voltage Power-Lines for
Broadband Communications,” IEEE Proceedings
of CCNC 2005, Las Vegas, NV, January 2005,
pp. 354–358.
[21] J.J. Lee, “Measurements of the Communications
Environment in Medium Voltage Power
Distribution Lines for Wideband Power Line
Communications,” Proceedings of ISPLC 2004,
Zaragoza, Spain, pp. 69–74.
[22] M. Zhang and W. Lauber, “Evaluation of the
Interference Potential of PLC Systems,”
Proceedings of the 2006 IEEE International
Symposium on Power Line Communications and
its Applications (ISPLC-2006), Orlando, FL,
March 2006, pp. 296–301.
[23] P.S. Henry, “Interference Characteristics of
Broadband Power Line Communication
Systems Using Aerial Medium Voltage Wires,”
IEEE Communications Magazine, Vol. 43, No. 4,
April 2005, pp. 92–98.
[24] R.G. Olsen, “Technical Considerations for
Broadband Powerline (BPL) Communication,”
Proceedings of 15th International Zurich Symposium
on Electromagnetic Compatibility (EMC Zurich ‘05),
Zurich, February 2005.
[25] L.S. Cohen, J.W. de Graaf, A. Light, and F. Sabath,
“The Measurement of Broadband over Power
Line Emissions,” Proceedings of the 2005 IEEE
International Symposium on Electromagnetic
Compatibility (EMC 2005), Chicago, IL, Vol. 3,
pp. 988–991.
35
 [26] W. Liu, H. Widmer, and P. Raffin, “Broadband
PLC Access Systems and Field Deployment
in European Power Line Networks,”
IEEE Communications Magazine, Vol. 41, No. 5,
May 2003, pp. 114–118.
[27] B. Malowanchuk, “Broadband over Power Line
(BPL) Interference: Fact or Fiction?” La Revue des
Radioamateurs Canadiens (Canada’s Amateur Radio
Magazine), July & August 2004, pp. 39–44
(http://www.arrl.org/tis/info/HTML/plc/
files/Barry.pdf).
[28] H. Dai and H.V. Poor, “Advanced Signal
Processing for Power Line Communications,”
IEEE Communications Magazine, Vol. 41, No. 5,
May 2003, pp. 100–107.
[29] Corridor Systems, Inc.
(http://www.corridor.biz/).
[30] ARRL comments on ET 03-104, the FCC Notice
of Inquiry on Broadband Over Power Line
(http://www.arrl.org/announce/regulatory/
et03-104).
[31] NTIA Report 04-413, “Potential Interference from
Broadband over Power Line (BPL) Systems to
Federal Government Radio Communications
at 1.7 - 80 MHz – Phase 1 Study, Volume I,”
NTIA, U.S. Department of Commerce, April 2004
(http://www.ntia.doc.gov/ntiahome/fccfilings/
2004/bpl/).
[32] FCC 04-29, Notice of Proposed Rule Making,
in the Matter of Carrier Current Systems,
including Broadband over Power Line Systems
and Amendment of Part 15 regarding new
requirements and measurement guidelines for
Access Broadband over Power Line Systems,
February 2004 (http://hraunfoss.fcc.gov/
edocs_public/attachmatch/FCC-04-29A1.pdf).
[33] FCC Report and Order 04-245, ET Dockets 04-37
and 03-104, in the Matter of Amendment of
Part 15 regarding new requirements and
measurement guidelines for Access Broadband
over Power Line Systems and Carrier Current
Systems, including Broadband over Power Line
Systems, October 2004
(http://www.hraunfoss.fcc.gov/edocs_public/
attachmatch/FCC-04-245A1.doc).
[34] W.D. Gardner, “FCC Endorses Broadband
over Powerline,” TechWeb Technology News,
November 3, 2006 (http://www.techweb.com/
wire/mobile/193501695).
[35] FCC 06-56, Second Report and Order and
Memorandum Opinion and Order, ET Docket
No. 04-295 and RM-10865, in the Matter of
Communications Assistance for Law Enforcement
Act and Broadband Access and Services,
released May 2006/finalized December 2006.
[36] “Opportunities in Broadband over Power Line,”
Report by The Shpigler Group and UTC Research,
July 2004 (http://www.igigroup.com/st/pages/
utc.bopl.html).
[37] David Shpigler, private communication,
December 2006.
36
[38] P.A. Brown, “Identifying Some Techno-
Economic Criteria in PLC/BPL Applications
and Commercialization,” Proceedings of the
9th International Symposium on Power Line
Communications (ISPLC) and its Applications,
Vancouver, Canada, April 2005, pp. 234–239.
BIOGRAPHIES
Lee Lushbaugh, principal vice
president, Bechtel Corporation,
and general manager, Tele-
communications, Americas,
provides day-to-day oversight
for both business development
and operational activities
in the region. During 2006,
the regional staff reached
approximately 1,500 employees
working in 35 markets across the continental United
States. Previously, Lee has served as director of
engineering and as the program director of several
nationwide wireless programs and a fiber deployment
program. He joined Bechtel Telecommunications in
1996 as vice president/manager of engineering and was
the initial developer of its engineering department.
Lee joined Bechtel Corporation in 1974 and, before
joining Bechtel Telecommunications, held both
functional and operational roles in the fossil power and
nuclear business lines, including the plant design, civil,
and mechanical engineering disciplines.
Lee received a BS in Mechanical Engineering from
the University of Maryland. He is a Registered
Professional Engineer in various states, a member of the
American Society of Mechanical Engineers, and a Six
Sigma Champion.
Rasoul Safavian brings more
than 15 years of experience
in the wired and wireless
communications industry to
his position as Bechtel
Telecommunications’ vice
president of Technology,
Americas Regional Business
Unit. He is charged with
establishing and maintaining
the overall technical vision for Bechtel’s American
markets and providing guidance and direction to
its specific technological activities. In fulfilling
this responsibility, he is well served by his
background in cellular/PCS, fixed microwave, satellite
communications, wireless local loops, and fixed
networks; his working experience with major 2G, 2.5G,
3G, and 4G technologies; his exposure to the leading
facets of technology development as well as its
financial, business, and risk factors; and his extensive
academic, teaching, and research experience.
Before joining Bechtel in June 2005, Dr. Safavian
oversaw advanced technology research and
development activities, first as vice president of the
Advanced Technology Group at Wireless Facilities, Inc.,
then as chief technical officer and vice president of
engineering at GCB Services. Earlier, over an 8-year
period at LCC International, Inc., he progressed
through several positions. Initially, as principal
engineer at LCC’s Wireless Institute, he was in charge
of CDMA-related programs and activities. Next, as
lead systems engineer/senior principal engineer,
Bechtel Telecommunications Technical Journal
he provided nationwide technical guidance for LCC’s
XM satellite radio project. Then, as senior technical
manager/senior consultant, he assisted key clients with
the design, deployment, optimization, and operation of
3G wireless networks.
Dr. Safavian has spoken at numerous conferences
and industry events and has been published
extensively, including technical papers in the
previous three issues of the Bechtel Telecommunications
Technical Journal.
Dr. Safavian is quite familiar with the Electrical
Engineering departments of four universities: The
George Washington University, where he has been an
adjunct professor for several years; The Pennsylvania
State University, where he is an affiliated faculty
member; Purdue University, where he received his
PhD in Electrical Engineering, was a graduate research
assistant, and was later a member of the visiting faculty;
and the University of Kansas, where he received both
his BS and MS degrees in Electrical Engineering and
was a teaching and a research assistant. He is a senior
member of the IEEE and a past official reviewer of
various transactions and journals.

January 2007 • Volume 5, Number 1 37

38 Bechtel Telecommunications Technical Journal
SERVICE-ORIENTED ARCHITECTURE

Issue Date: January 2007

Abstract—Service-oriented architecture creates a framework wherein applications can use standardized Web
services to share data. Using standardized Web services eliminates the need for proprietary, custom-developed
middleware to specifically address how particular applications speak to one another. Eliminating middleware
significantly reduces the cost and complexity of enterprise networks. Telecommunications service providers can
build on the gains realized in enterprise architectures. Carriers benefit from deploying these architectures, both
in managing their networks and customers and in deploying new services and applications.
Key Words—application integration, distributed architecture, IMS, OSS/BSS, service-oriented architecture,
SOA, Web services

INTRODUCTION BACKGROUND

C alled “the next big thing in software,”

service-oriented architecture (SOA) promises
to change the way enterprises do business,
F undamental to SOA is the loose integration of
services and applications. What does this
mean? To better understand loose integration as
reducing the cost and complexity associated with it pertains to an enterprise network, a basic
integrating software applications. The primary understanding of distributed computing and tight
driver for change revolves around integration— integration of applications is helpful.
specifically, a methodology for ease of
As enterprises began to automate their
communications among applications. As
operations, multiple computing platforms were
enterprises scale, the number of applications
introduced. For example, an enterprise may have
required to accomplish basic business processes
initially purchased a mainframe and used
scales as well; to accomplish a business function,
specialized software to perform accounting and
the need to share data among applications
financial tasks. That same enterprise may have
becomes apparent. Getting applications to talk to
used other software and systems to perform
one another is a problem that has plagued
scientific computing, graphic design, document
information services departments for decades.
publishing, payroll processing, inventory, etc. At
Cottage industries have been built around this
some point, the enterprise recognizes the benefits
issue, with millions of hours in productivity and
of integrating the software platforms. Consider,
huge dollar amounts in services and software
for instance, a business transaction involving the
spent trying to address it. Building on the
enterprise’s purchasing system and accounting
innovations used to create the Internet’s
system, each running on a different computing
communications structure, SOA promises to
platform. When a bill is generated by the
change the approach to enterprise integration,
purchasing system, the outstanding amount
potentially eliminating the headaches involved in
needs to be passed to the accounting system as a
the inter-working of applications [1].
receivable item. But first, the message must be
The framework for SOA extends well beyond translated, since the two platforms use two
enterprise computing; in fact, the SOA model can differently written software packages. A separate
Brian Coombe
be applied in telecommunications provider piece of software is written to convert the
bcoombe@bechtel.com networks to both increase the speed of launch for information flowing from the purchasing system
new services and reduce the required network into data readable by the accounting system
infrastructure.

© 2007 Bechtel Corporation. All rights reserved. 39

 ABBREVIATIONS, ACRONYMS, AND TERMS
AS accounting system MRF multimedia resource function
BGCF breakout gateway control MRFC MRF control
function
MRFP MRF processor
BSC base station controller
ORB object request broker
BSS billing support system
OSS operation support system
BTS base transceiver station
P-CSCF proxy CSCF
CORBA® Common Object Request
PDF policy decision function
Broker Architecture
PLMN public land mobile network
An enterprise may CSCF call session control function
PSTN public switched telephone
face the choice of ETSI European Telecommunications
network
Standardization Institute
waiting to roll out RAN radio access network
GGSN gateway GPRS support node
new software or
RMI remote method invocation
spending thousands GPRS general packet radio service
RNC radio network controller
of dollars to update HLR home location register
SCIM service capability interaction
interface software to HSS home subscriber service
manager
address changes in HTTP hypertext transport protocol
S-CSCF serving CSCF
a new release. I-CSCF interrogating CSCF
SGSN serving GPRS support node
IMS IP multimedia subsystem
SIP session initiation protocol
IOOP inter-ORB object protocol
SOA service-oriented architecture
IP Internet Protocol
SOAP simple object access protocol
IPSec IP security
UDDI Universal Description,
ITU-T International Discovery, and Integration
Telecommunication Union-
WLAN wireless local area network
Telecommunication
Standardization Sector W3C® World Wide Web Consortium
MGCF media gateway control WSDL Web services description
function language
MGW media gateway XML extensible markup language

(see Figure 1). An additional process within this information flowing in the opposite direction.
custom interface software, or a separate piece of This deployment scenario is known as tight
software, is also required to convert the integration of applications [2].

For tightly integrated networks, developing

custom interface software can prove to be a
challenge. Developers must understand the inner
workings of both applications; extensive testing is
also required to ensure that all message and data
Custom
Interface formats can be passed successfully. Data
structures in commercial software packages are
tightly controlled as part of the intellectual
property of the developer, further adding to
Purchasing Accounting
System System the challenge. Network operations and
maintenance in this tight integration scenario can
also be troubling. Each application needing
Figure 1. Separately Developed Custom Interface Allows
Applications To Pass Information

40 Bechtel Telecommunications Technical Journal

communication requires a separate piece
of software to be executed and maintained,
adding to software and hardware cost, as seen in
Figure 2. Each new release of software must
undergo detailed evaluation to ensure that any
changes to data structures are understood. For
any changes identified, the software interfaces
must be modified; the process of executing,
testing, and troubleshooting issues slows the
deployment of new software and adds cost for
the enterprise. An enterprise may face the choice
of waiting to roll out new software or spending
thousands of dollars to update interface software
to address changes in a new release [3].
The complexity of tightly integrated applications
only increases as more applications are added.
For example, turning to the business transaction
discussed earlier, the enterprise may wish to
introduce a third software application, such as an
inventory system, into the existing purchasing
and accounting systems. Integrating this
application with both existing systems will
require two additional software interfaces to be
specified, developed, deployed, and maintained.
A firm can quickly expend a great amount of
both financial and human resources on
developing and maintaining all of these software
interfaces [4].
Fortunately for those enterprises seeking to use
and leverage the model of integrated software
applications, the development of the Internet and
the World Wide Web has led to better solutions
with the emergence of SOA. Using a concept
known as Web services, SOA is a model for loose
integration of disparate applications.
Custom
Interface
Custom
Interface
Purchasing System
Inventory System
Figure 2. Integrating a New System Requires Further Custom Interface Development
January 2007 • Volume 5, Number 1
SOA EXPLAINED
S
OA focuses on the perspective that software
applications are services that support a
particular business process. Fundamental to the
concept of SOA are standards that determine how
these services are built, maintained, and used in
the network. By defining a standard and
requiring adherence to it, SOA helps to address
the issues outlined earlier in describing a tightly
integrated network.
The SOA concept revolves primarily around the
use of Web services to facilitate communications
among applications. Web services generally use a Since
language based on extensible markup language Web services
(XML) to both standardize data formats and are platform-
exchange information. The language is referred to
independent and
as Web services description language (WSDL).
Both XML and WSDL are World Wide Web application-
Consortium (W3C®) standards, allowing the SOA transparent, even a
framework to use data formats put in place by sweeping change,
others.
such as wholesale
Using WSDL, system architects create a method replacement of
for communications among applications that is
an application,
fundamentally independent of the underlying
platforms and programming languages. The can be done
method created is then advertised to the while remaining
network as a “service,” a step referred to as invisible to the
“exposing” or “revealing” the application in an
users and the
SOA framework [5].
architecture.
Simple object access protocol (SOAP) is generally
used by computers to implement SOA. SOAP
specifies how a computer using hypertext
transport protocol (HTTP) and XML can execute
a program call to another computer; it also
specifies how the program on the other computer
Custom
Interface
Accounting System
41
 can format, package, and transmit a response to
the system calling it. HTTP and XML are present
on all computing platforms that use the Web,
regardless of manufacturer, and SOAP takes
advantage of their presence. An added benefit is
that interoperability in the presence of firewalls is
further assured by using HTTP and XML. While a
firewall may be configured to block certain types
of traffic, based on port usage, protocols, or
remote calls, almost all firewalls are configured to
allow standard HTTP traffic. By using HTTP to
transport XML, SOAP is most likely to
One of the greatest successfully penetrate corporate firewalls and
challenges for other perimeter security devices. While SOAP is
the dominant methodology for communications
service providers in
over Web services, other techniques exist,
launching a new
including remote method invocation (RMI),
application centers using Java™; and inter-object request broker
on supporting that (ORB) object protocol (IOOP), a part of the
Common Object Request Broker Architecture
application;
(CORBA®) [6].
specifically,
Once SOA is deployed in an enterprise,
how to provision,
developers need only maintain the applications
configure, manage, that use the SOA, and not their method for
troubleshoot, and communication. Again returning to the business
example discussed earlier, if the purchasing
bill for that service.
system was to be updated, a developer would
simply make sure that the updates used Web
services properly for communication. Since
Web services are platform-independent and
application-transparent, even a sweeping change,
such as wholesale replacement of an application,
can be done while remaining invisible to the users
and the architecture, as long as the new platform
continues to communicate with Web services [6].
The fundamental concepts of SOA have existed
for years, though described in different terms,
such as “distributed architecture,” “modular
programming,” and “event-oriented design.”
Why did the SOA push prove successful, while
XML
Interface
Purchasing Accounting
System System
Inventory
System
Figure 3. Web-Based XML or WSDL Ensures Interoperability Among Platforms
42
preceding concepts did not? With the rise of the
Internet and the World Wide Web, almost every
computer and operating system today ships with
the ability to access the Web using standard
protocols. Thus, the architects of the SOA concept
are able to leverage and build on these standards
to ensure interoperability among platforms, as
seen in Figure 3.
Businesses can use WSDL to enter themselves
into the Universal Description, Discovery, and
Integration (UDDI) registry, a list of businesses
worldwide that use Web services. The UDDI
registry contains information on the business, as
well as details on how data is implemented in the
firm’s Web services. The registry streamlines the
communications exchange among businesses,
allowing applications from different businesses
to interact and fostering e-commerce. Thus, SOA
not only improves integration within a
company’s network, it can also improve
integration among any number of company
networks [7].
SOA AND TELECOMMUNICATIONS
A
s outlined, SOA can fundamentally change
how businesses integrate their applica-
tions and can streamline both enterprise
communications and e-commerce. Can SOA
also be used to improve the business of
a telecommunications service provider? The
business problems for service providers
parallel those of large enterprises, and service
providers can benefit from the lessons learned
by these enterprises.
A large area of focus and expense for a service
provider is the operation support system and
billing support system (OSS/BSS). A typical
OSS/BSS supports inventory management,
provisioning, trouble tickets/resolution, lawful
intercept and compliance, customer relationship
management, order management, and network
services. Various applications accomplish one or
more of the many functions supported by the
OSS/BSS, but there is no “one-size-fits-all,”
single-supplier OSS/BSS implementation.
Instead, organizations generally rely on a
hodgepodge of vendor-provided and home-
grown solutions, each performing part of a
function, a single function, or several. Service
providers also have to deal with legacy systems,
some of which are built on foundations that
are decades old. Integration of these systems
is a great source of operational expenditures
for carriers.
Bechtel Telecommunications Technical Journal
Significant opportunities exist for integrating
the applications that make up the OSS/BSS.
Most of the data, such as subscriber information
or network infrastructure topology, is used by
multiple applications. To date, primarily point-to-
point, proprietary systems have been developed
and used to integrate the communications among
applications. These systems are fraught with the
issues outlined previously.
Carriers can work to expose each piece of
the OSS/BSS with Web services and to build an
SOA that links the pieces together, as shown in
Figure 4. By doing so, a service provider can
both extend the life of an existing system—
particularly in the case of a homegrown or
closed, proprietary solution—and simplify the
introduction of new systems and applications.
Holistically, as the pieces of the OSS/BSS work
better together, the subscriber experience should
be improved—including faster time-to-service
and quicker, easier problem resolution. Thus, a
service provider can reduce customer churn by
deploying Web services to unify and integrate its
support systems.
Inventory Network
Management
Provisioning Order
Management
OSS/BSS
Enterprise SOA
Lawful Trouble-Ticket
Intercept Tracking
Figure 4. Using SOA To Integrate OSS/BSS Systems
One of the greatest challenges for service
providers in launching a new application centers
on supporting that application; specifically,
how to provision, configure, manage,
troubleshoot, and bill for that service. Without
integration, each piece of the OSS/BSS must be
separately addressed to ensure that the new
service functions properly—often resulting in
significant duplications of effort. With
integration, applications can build on and
leverage already defined frameworks from other
parts of the OSS/BSS. Service providers can
therefore reduce the time-to-market for new
services by deploying an SOA framework [8].
January 2007 • Volume 5, Number 1
Standards bodies worldwide are exploring and
defining the benefits of using an SOA framework
in network management. The European
Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI)
has released its architecture document TS 188 001,
which outlines the architecture of a next-
generation network’s operational support
system. The International Telecommunication
Union-Telecommunication Standardization
Sector (ITU-T) has produced Recommendation
M.3060, “Principles for the Management of Next
Generation Networks.” Both of these documents
outline how a network management system The extensibility of
functions and the benefits offered by SOA. applications using
Consolidation is the norm in the Web services makes
telecommunications industry; the seven Baby them ideal for
Bells that resulted from the Modified Final
integration with
Judgment in 1983 have consolidated into three
today. Mergers and acquisitions have also dotted third parties; using
the landscape of cable system operators, wireless Web services, a
carriers, and competitive local exchange carriers. network provider
When a merger is executed, each firm brings a
can open its
patchwork network of systems and operational
functions that must be integrated, along with the network to allow
customers and networks of the firms involved. third parties to offer
Before SOA existed, a newly formed entity would content and
have to painstakingly inventory each system to applications.
understand its functionality, path forward, and
interfaces with other business processes before
deciding to either (a) build a custom front end to
integrate the pieces, or (b) merge two platforms.
Often, the same process was implemented
multiple times within each pre-merger entity,
further complicating the integration project.
With SOA, Web services can expose multiple
processes, allowing for seamless interaction of
data among them. As processes are consolidated,
the Web services used to communicate among
them continue to function, removing the
underlying infrastructure from the user
experience. Deploying SOA allows the newly
formed firm to slowly and carefully integrate the
pre-merger entity systems, easing transitions and
removing the urgency felt while evaluating the
path forward.
Verizon®, the nationwide local carrier formed by
the merger of the regional carrier Bell Atlantic
and the independent consortium GTE, chose the
SOA route when integrating the two networks.
Verizon identified 500 key business functions and
built Web services around them. Known as the IT
Workbench, Verizon’s SOA even goes as far as
having developers “advertise” the applications
they develop on a Web site, encouraging other
applications to use them [9].
43
 The SOA concept can go well beyond operations
support for carriers; in fact, an SOA model
can be used by a service provider in deploying
new applications and services. The extensibility
of applications using Web services makes them
ideal for integration with third parties; using
Web services, a network provider can open its
network to allow third parties to offer content
and applications.
Using SOA to leverage the network to provide
new services turns the SOA model on its side;
rather than just offering a way to save operational
Service providers
costs, SOA becomes a revenue generator for the
can follow the
operator. The SOA model also streamlines
example of development time and costs for the third-party
enterprises in developer. Standard information valuable to the
developer, such as the user’s handset type, is
deploying SOA to
now readily available, saving the developer
reduce operational the time of writing the code to discover this type
expenses and of information.
enhance the
T-Mobile® has taken this approach, sharing
integration of information about its network applications and
business processes. resources via the SOA framework. Third parties
using T-Mobile’s network can streamline the
development of their applications, making use of
existing infrastructure and services wherever
possible. T-Mobile provides external parties with
a Web repository of deployed applications and
services, and how the services are implemented.
This approach allows T-Mobile to collect higher
proportions of dollars in revenue-sharing
schemes with the third parties because the third
parties’ costs to deploy applications are greatly
reduced by the SOA [10].
As wireless and other service providers begin to
deploy integrated applications using an Internet
AS AS AS
Service
Plane
SCIM
Protocol (IP) multimedia subsystem (IMS), as
illustrated in Figure 5, comparisons are being
made between the IMS and SOA. Is an IMS an
SOA? As outlined earlier, SOA is not a particular
product or standard, but a framework for a type
of architecture. Much like other types of SOAs, an
IMS provides standardized, reusable services that
are separate from the underlying network;
however, the IMS adds the dimensions of call
setup and control (via session initiation protocol
[SIP]) and security (via IPSec). Security itself
is not specified in the SOA framework;
however, operators must consider security as a
fundamental piece of their architecture [11].
Thus, an IMS can be viewed as a special case of
SOA, designed in particular to support
telecommunications applications and services.
The IMS may also become just a portion of the
SOA in an evolved network—another piece of the
underlying architecture used to deploy services
to end users.
CONCLUSIONS
T hanks to the innovations of the Internet
and the World Wide Web, a new
framework—SOA—has emerged that allows for
the integration of applications residing on
various platforms and networks and even within
various firms. This framework holds great
potential that is only beginning to be realized.
Service providers can follow the example of
enterprises in deploying SOA to reduce
operational expenses and enhance the integration
of business processes. In addition, service
providers can use SOA principles to accelerate
new service offerings and increase revenues.
Service providers are just beginning to realize
the benefits of SOA, and the future
looks bright for this architecture in the field
of telecommunications. „

MRFC S-CSCF TRADEMARKS

HSS
I-CSCF HLR CORBA is a registered trademark of Object
Control
Plane P-CSCF BGCF Management Group, Inc., in the United States
PDF
MGCF and/or other countries.
MRFP Java is a trademark of Sun Microsystems, Inc.,
Node PSTN
B
RNC MGW MGW PLMN in the United States and other countries.
BTS BSC SGSN GGSN T-Mobile is a federally registered trademark of
Intranet/
WLAN Internet Deutsche Telekom AG.
RAN Transport Plane
The Verizon name is a registered trademark of
Verizon Trademark Services LLC or its affiliates
Figure 5. IMS Presents an SOA Framework in the United States and/or other countries.

44 Bechtel Telecommunications Technical Journal

W3C is a registered trademark (registered
in numerous countries) of the World Wide
Web Consortium; marks of W3C are registered
and held by its host institutions MIT, ERCIM,
and Keio.
REFERENCES
[1] “Service-Oriented Architecture (SOA)”
(http://www-306.ibm.com/software/solutions/
soa/overview.html?S_TACT=106AJ04W&S_CMP
=campaign).
[2] E. Pulier and H. Taylor, Understanding Enterprise
SOA, Manning Publications Co., 2005.
[3] T. Erl, Service-Oriented Architecture: Concepts,
Technology, and Design, Prentice Hall, 2005.
[4] D. Linthicum, “Application Integration:
Addressing the Issues” (http://
webservices.sys-con.com/read/44011.htm).
[5] “Will SOAP Wash Away Those Business
Integration Issues?” (http://
searchwebservices.techtarget.com/
originalContent/
0,289142,sid26_gci883699,00.html).
[6] “Publishing and Finding Web Services Using
UDDI” (http://edocs.bea.com/wls/docs92/
webserv/uddi.html).
[7] A. Skonnard, “SOAP: The Simple Object
Access Protocol,” MSDN site
(http://www.microsoft.com/mind/0100/
soap/soap.asp).
[8] “OSS/BSS Integration” (http://
www.capeclear.com/solutions/ossbss.shtml).
[9] L. Erlanger, “Verizon Goes Back to the
Workbench,” InfoWorld magazine
(http://www.infoworld.com/article/
05/11/07/45FEsoacaseverizon_1.html).
[10] C. Koch, “How SOA Really Works,”
CIO magazine (http://www.cio.com/
blog_view.html?CID=10591).
[11] C. Boulton, “When SOAs and Telcos Collide,”
Enterprise magazine
(http://www.internetnews.com/ent-news/
article.php/3606016).
As Bechtel’s technical lead for all radio frequency
issues, Brian draws on his extensive knowledge of
wireless and fiber optic networks. In his first position
with the company, he engineered configurations to
allow for capacity expansion of the AT&T Wireless
GSM network in New York as part of a nationwide
buildout contract. Later, he was the lead engineer for
planning, designing, and documenting a fiber-to-the-
premises network serving more than 20,000 homes. He
is the Bechtel Telecommunications Laboratory’s
resident expert for optical network planning,
evaluation, and modeling.
Before joining Bechtel, Brian was a systems engineer at
Tellabs®, where he launched the company’s dense
wavelength-division multiplexing services and
managed network design and testing. He developed
solutions to complex network issues involving echo
cancellation, optical networking, Ethernet, TCP/IP,
transmission, and routing applications.
Brian is currently completing work toward an MS
in Telecommunications Systems Engineering at
the University of Maryland. He earned a BS with
honors in Electrical Engineering at The Pennsylvania
State University.
Brian is a member of the Institute of Electrical and
Electronics Engineers; INSA; AFCEA; and Eta Kappa
Nu, the national electrical engineering honor
society. He has published technical articles in the
Bechtel Telecommunications Technical Journal, and his
tutorial on Micro-Electrometrical Systems and Optical
Networking was presented by the International
Engineering Consortium.

BIOGRAPHY
Brian Coombe joined Bechtel
Telecommunications in 2003.
Currently, as program manager
of the Strategic Infrastructure
Group, a pivotal unit of the
Bechtel Federal Telecoms
organization, Brian manages
a program that involves
telecommunications systems
and critical infrastructure
modeling, simulation, analysis, and testing. He
evaluates government telecommunications markets,
formulates requirements for telecommunications and
water infrastructure work, and develops the Strategic
Infrastructure Group’s scope.

January 2007 • Volume 5, Number 1 45

46 Bechtel Telecommunications Technical Journal
 I N V I T E D PA P E R

TECHNICAL ASPECTS OF LOCALIZATION

IN INDOOR WIRELESS NETWORKS

Issue Date: January 2007

Abstract—Location-aware wireless networking is an exciting new area in telecommunications. It is well-

known that knowledge of a user’s location enables a number of location-based services to be delivered to that
user. While this issue has been largely addressed for the outdoor case (most notably in cellular networks),
accurate indoor positioning (also known as indoor localization or indoor location estimation) is still an open area
of research. This paper discusses the technical aspects of indoor localization systems. It reviews the challenges
imposed by the indoor environment, the techniques used to surmount those challenges, and the state of the art
in accurate localization techniques, with an emphasis on the quality of estimation.
Key Words—indoor geolocation, indoor localization, indoor location estimation, wireless networks

INTRODUCTION AND HISTORICAL BACKGROUND respond to threatening situations and complete

S erious research in the field of outdoor
positioning first began in the 1960s, when
several US government agencies, including the
Department of Defense (DoD), National
Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA),
and Department of Transportation (DOT),
expressed interest in developing systems for
position determination [1]. The result, known as
the Global Positioning System (GPS), is the most
popular positioning system used today. Activity
in this area has continued since cellular networks
Muzaffer Kanaan 1, 2
began to flourish in the 1990s, driven largely by
muzaffer.kanaan
regulatory requirements (such as E-911) for
@verizon.com
position estimation.
Mohammad Heidari2
While these developments were taking place,
mheidari@wpi.edu similar research and development (R&D) began
in the field of indoor positioning (also known as
Ferit Ozan Akgül 2
localization or location estimation), driven by
ferit@wpi.edu
emerging applications in the commercial, public
Professor Kaveh safety, and military arenas. Commercial
Pahlavan, PhD 2 applications range from tracking inventory in a
kaveh@wpi.edu warehouse to tracking children, the elderly, and
1 Verizon Laboratories people with special needs [2]. Location-sensitive
2 Center for Wireless Web-browsing and interactive tour guides for
Information Network museums are other examples [3]. In the public
Studies (CWINS),
Worcester Polytechnic safety and military arenas, very accurate indoor
Institute positioning is required to help emergency
workers and military personnel effectively
their missions inside buildings. Accurate indoor
localization is also an important part of
various personal robotics applications [4] and of
context-aware computing [5]. More recently,
location sensing has found applications in
location-based handoffs in wireless networks [6],
location-based ad hoc network routing [7],
and location-based authentication and security.
Many of these applications require low-cost, low-
power terminals that can be easily deployed with
little or no planning; this is the basis for
developments in ad hoc sensor networks. Recent
developments in integrated circuit (IC)
technology and micro-electromechanical systems
(MEMSs) have made it possible to realize such
low-cost, low-power terminals. As a result, in the
next few years, scores of new applications for
indoor localization will undoubtedly emerge.
Unfortunately, positioning techniques developed
for GPS and cellular networks generally do not
work well indoors. A primary reason is the signal
attenuation caused by building walls. In addition,
indoor radio channels exhibit much stronger
multipath characteristics than outdoor channels.
Furthermore, the accuracy requirements for
indoor positioning systems are typically much
higher than those for outdoor systems. For an
outdoor application such as E-911, an accuracy

© 2007 Bechtel Corporation. All rights reserved. 47

 ABBREVIATIONS, ACRONYMS, AND TERMS
AOA angle of arrival LS least-squares
AP access point MAC medium access control
BW bandwidth MEMS micro-electromechanical
system
CDF cumulative distribution
function MSE mean-square error
CMS coverage map search NASA National Aeronautics and
Space Administration
CN-TOAG closest-neighbor with TOA
grid PDF probability density function
DME distance measurement error QoE quality of estimation
Required
DoD Department of Defense R&D research and development
estimation accuracy
DOT Department of Transportation RP reference point
in an indoor
DP direct path RSS received signal strength
localization system
is application FDP first detected peak TOA time of arrival

dependent. GPS global positioning system UDP undetected direct path

IC integrated circuit UWB ultrawideband
LOS line of sight WLAN wireless local area network

of 125 m 67 percent of the time is considered
acceptable [8], while a similar indoor application
typically requires an accuracy level on the order
of a few meters [9]. For all of these reasons, new
methods of position estimation need to be
developed for the indoor setting.
Another factor to be considered is that the
required degree of location estimation accuracy is
typically application dependent. For example, in
an application such as inventory tracking in a
large warehouse, estimation accuracy on the
order of a few meters might be acceptable. In
contrast, much higher accuracy is needed for
location estimates used in a public safety or
military application (such as situational
awareness systems). This makes it critical to
characterize the quality of estimation (QoE) of a
given location estimation system. QoE is a
function of the particular algorithm used to
estimate location, the quality of the information
available to the algorithm, impairments
introduced by the channel, and suboptimal
coverage conditions that are an ever-present
reality in any wireless network.

The rest of this paper is organized into four major

parts. First, the signal characteristics (also known
as location metrics) used to estimate location
RP-1 RP-2
Location Metric Location Metric are examined and the effects of channel
Sensor conditions on them are discussed. Second,
the effects of suboptimal coverage conditions
on localization are described. Third, a non-
Location Metric Location Metric exhaustive survey of localization techniques for
the indoor environment is presented. Fourth,
RP-N RP-3
QoE is assessed.
Location Metrics from
the Network

Positioning FUNDAMENTALS OF INDOOR LOCALIZATION

Algorithm SYSTEMS

Structure of a Localization System

Sensor Position Estimate The basic structure of a positioning system is
illustrated in Figure 1, which shows a sensor
Figure 1. General Structure of an Indoor Geolocation System
whose location is to be determined. The system

48 Bechtel Telecommunications Technical Journal

consists of two parts: reference points (RPs) and
the positioning algorithm. The RPs are radio
transceivers whose locations are known with
respect to some coordinate system. Each RP
measures various characteristics or location
metrics of the signal received from the sensor.
These location metrics are fed into the localization
algorithm, which then estimates the location of
and consequently the distance, between the
transmitter and the receiver. The basic concept
can be illustrated with reference to the channel
profile shown in Figure 4. Because the speed of
light in free-space c is constant, the time of flight
RP-1

the sensor. 78.3° Sensor

Location metrics are of three main types:

• Angle of arrival (AOA)

45.0°
• Time of arrival (TOA)

• Received signal strength (RSS) RP-2

Figure 2. Illustration of AOA

Angle of Arrival
As its name implies, AOA indicates the direction
from which the received signal is coming. RP-1
The RPs use special antenna arrays to estimate
the AOA. Figure 2 shows an example of 78.3° Sensor
AOA estimation in an ideal nonmultipath
environment. The two RPs measure the AOAs α
from the sensor as 78.3 and 45.0 degrees,
respectively. These measurements are used to 45.0°
form lines of position whose intersection is the
RP-2
position estimate.

In real-world indoor environments, however, Figure 3. Illustration of AOA in the

Presence of Multipath
multipath effects generally result in AOA
estimation error. This error can be expressed as:

^ Filtered Radio Channel and Ray Tracing Taps

θ = θ true α
±
(1)
0.12
Direct Path (Expected TOA)
where θ true is the true AOA value, generally
obtained when the sensor is in the line-of-sight 0.10 First Detected Peak (Estimated TOA)
^
(LOS) path from the RP; θ represents the
estimated AOA; and α is the AOA estimation
0.08 TOA Estimation Error (Ranging Error = 0.46 m)
error. As a result of this error, the ability to
Amplitude (mU)

estimate the sensor position is restricted to an

Channel Profile (BW = 100 MHz)
area defined by an angular spread of 2α, as 0.06
illustrated in Figure 3 for the two-RP scenario.
This clearly illustrates that to use AOA for precise
0.04
indoor localization, the sensor has to be in the
Detection Threshold
LOS path from the RP, which is generally not the
case. Therefore, relying on AOA techniques alone 0.02
results in a location estimate with a low accuracy,
or low QoE. However, AOA techniques can be
0
employed in certain adverse channel conditions 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
to obtain more accurate TOA measurements, as Time (ns)
discussed in the next section.
Figure 4. Illustration of Basic TOA Principles for Localization
Time of Arrival
In TOA-based localization systems, the TOA of
the first detected peak (FDP) of the received
signal is used to determine the time of flight τ

January 2007 • Volume 5, Number 1 49

 along the direct path (DP) between the
transmitter and the receiver gives the true
distance between the transmitter and receiver
as follows:
d=c×τ (2)
Figure 4 illustrates the channel impulse response
generated by ray tracing software for arbitrary
transmitter and receiver locations. The channel
impulse response is usually referred to as the
There are infinite-bandwidth (BW) channel profile because
two sources the receiver can detect every single detectable
path. In practice, BW is limited, and although
of ranging error:
the receiver detects the same set of paths, each
multipath and
path has a pulse shape. Adding these pulse
UDP conditions. shapes forms another signal, referred to as the
channel profile.
In a multipath environment, adding the pulse
shapes from paths other than the DP causes the
peak of the channel profile to shift away from the
expected TOA, resulting in a TOA estimation
error. As a result, the channel introduces ranging
error (also referred to as distance measurement
error [DME] in the literature), given as:
^
ε = d –d (3)
^
where d is the estimated distance and d is the
true distance.
There are two main sources of ranging error:
multipath effects and undetected direct path
Figure 5. Illustration of UDP-Based DME
50
(UDP) conditions. Multipath effects result in
reflected and transmitted paths being received
along with the DP. As system transmission BW
increases, the pulses become narrower and the
TOA estimate nears the expected TOA, resulting
in smaller ranging error [10]. More accurate TOA
measurements result in a location estimate with a
higher QoE. The UDP condition occurs when the
DP falls below the detection threshold of the
receiver, as shown in Figure 5 [11]. This generally
happens at the edge of coverage areas, or when
large metallic objects are in the path between the
transmitter and the receiver. As a result, the
difference between the FDP and the DP is beyond
the dynamic range of the receiver, and the DP
cannot be detected, as shown in Figure 5. UDP
conditions typically result in much larger ranging
errors that can significantly degrade the QoE.
Unlike multipath-based ranging error, UDP-
based ranging error typically cannot be reduced
by increasing the BW.
Ultrawideband (UWB) measurements in typical
indoor areas have shown that both multipath-
based and UDP-based ranging errors follow a
Gaussian distribution, with mean and variance
that depend on BW [10]. The overall model can be
expressed as follows:
^
d = d + G(mw ,σ w) log(1+d)+
(4)
ζ· G(mUDP,w ,σ UDP,w )
where Gmw ,σw and GmUDP,w ,σ UDP,w are the
Gaussian random variables (RVs) that refer to
multipath-based and UDP-based ranging error,
respectively. The subscript w in both cases
denotes the BW dependence. The parameter ζ is a
binary RV that denotes the presence or absence of
UDP conditions, with a probability density
function (PDF) given as:
f(ζ) = (1 – PUDP,w ) δ (ζ – 1) +PUDP,w δ (ζ ) (5)
where PUDP,w denotes the probability of
occurrence of UDP-based ranging error.
UDP Condition Classes
Two classes of unavoidable multipath UDP
conditions occur in a typical indoor localization
scenario. The first class occurs when a large
object such as an elevator or a metallic chamber
blocks the DP between the transmitter and the
receiver. This class of UDP conditions is referred
to as shadowed UDP because the huge metallic
object shadows the direct connection between
Bechtel Telecommunications Technical Journal
the transmitter and the receiver. In shadowed
UDP conditions, the distance between the
transmitter and the receiver could be short, and
the total received signal power consequently
could be large.
The second class of UDP conditions occurs in
obstructed LOS environments with low received
signal power. Here, the DP power is below the
detection threshold because of the large distance
between the transmitter and the receiver;
however, other paths still arrive that have signal
strengths above the threshold level. This class is
referred to as natural UDP because it occurs
naturally in any indoor area, even in the absence
of large metallic objects [12]. Shadowed UDP
conditions are characterized by a substantial drop
in DP power and large DMEs, while natural UDP
conditions are characterized by a moderate drop
in DP power and relatively smaller DMEs [13].
BW Effects
As explained earlier, DME is caused either
by limitations in system BW or by the occurrence
of UDP conditions. Figure 6 illustrates the effect
of BW in a typical indoor TOA measurement
scenario. As the BW is gradually decreased to 300,
200, and 100 MHz (Figure 6a), the larger DME
values caused by the BW effects appear in the
plots’ cumulative distribution function (CDF).
Because DME caused by BW limitations can shift
the peak of the detected first path of the channel
profile in either direction, negative DMEs are
now observable as well. BW reduction spreads
the error range. For example, at a 100 MHz BW,
the errors are between –5 and +10 meters.
Therefore, as may be seen in Figure 6b, BWs
on the order of 10 MHz, used by GPS, are
insufficient; instead, BWs on the order of several
hundred MHz are needed to reasonably protect
against the extensive multipath characteristics
found in indoor areas. For, say, a 200 MHz BW,
the DME range is on the order of –3 to +7 meters,
which is fairly comparable with the UDP errors of
up to 7 meters observed for infinite BW.
One approach to reducing BW requirements
below these values is to use super-resolution
Diversity
algorithms for post-processing, as described
in References [14 and 15]. However, to reduce techniques
DMEs to values below those observed in UDP are generally
areas with infinite BW, fundamentally different not helpful
approaches are required; these are examined in
in combatting
the following subsection.
ranging error.
Diversity Effects
It may be presupposed that using diversity
techniques (i.e., frequency, time, or space
diversity) may help to reduce DME in much
the same way as using them would in
communications. However, as shown in
Reference [13], these techniques are highly
inefficient in reducing DME. Frequency diversity
may be helpful to a certain extent in combatting
multipath-based, but not UDP-based, DME.
Precise Localization in the Absence of DP
AOA techniques can also be employed in the
absence of DP to help obtain more accurate TOA
measurements. Each resolvable path arriving at

CDF of Error of the First Detected Path for Different BWs

1.0 1.0
Infinite BW Infinite BW
0.9 BW = 300 MHz 0.9 BW = 100 MHz
BW = 200 MHz BW = 50 MHz
0.8 0.8
BW = 100 MHz BW = 10 MHz
0.7 0.7
0.6 0.6
Bandwidth

Bandwidth

0.5 0.5
0.4 0.4
0.3 0.3
0.2 0.2
0.1 0.1
0 0
-5 0 5 10 -40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40
Distance Distance

(a) (b)

Figure 6. CDF of Error Based on Bandwidth

January 2007 • Volume 5, Number 1 51

 the receiver can be associated with a certain
reflection scenario (called a path index) that has a
certain number of reflections and transmissions.
Additionally, each path has a certain signal
strength and TOA. These two quantities can be
regarded as the traceable features of the path.
As the sensor moves along a given direction, its
traceable features exhibit differential changes, but
the reflection scenario stays basically the same.
This concept is shown in Figure 7. As the sensor
moves along the dotted line toward the end of the
Each path corridor, the arriving path evolves in differential
steps in accordance with the differential distance
has a certain (dd) traveled by the sensor. In this example, the
signal strength
number of reflections and transmissions is each
and TOA. two and does not change along this particular
These are movement. Adaptive antennas and beam steering
can be used at the receiver to focus on this
regarded as particular path and try to trace it along the dotted
traceable features
line, because it exhibits smooth TOA behavior.
of the path. Thus, this additional information from the
indirect path can be used to estimate the arrival of
the DP when it cannot be detected. Only a certain
offset between the arrival time of the indirect path
and the DP needs to be considered.
Received Signal Strength
RSS is a simple metric that can be measured and
reported by most wireless devices. For example,
the medium access control (MAC) layer of the
IEEE 802.11 wireless local area network (WLAN)
standard provides RSS information from all
active access points (APs) in a quasi-periodic
beacon signal that can be used as a metric for
localization [16]. RSS can be used in two ways for
localization purposes, as discussed next.
If the RSS decays linearly with the log-distance
between the transmitter and receiver, it is
possible to map an observed RSS value to a
RP
DP Blocked
(UDP Condition)
dd
Sensor
Figure 7. Illustration of Different Reflection Scenarios Related to TOA Estimation
52
distance from a transmitter and consequently
determine the user’s location by using distances
from three or more APs. In other words:
RSSd = 10log10 Pr =
(6)
10log10 Pt – 10α log10 d +X
where α is the distance-power gradient, X is the
shadow fading (a lognormal distributed random
variable), Pr is the received power, and Pt is the
transmitted power. While simple, this method
yields a highly inaccurate estimate of indoor
distances because instantaneous RSS inside a
building varies over time, even at a fixed location;
this is largely due to shadow fading and
multipath fading. If, on the other hand, the RSS
value at a given indoor point is known, then the
location can be estimated as the point where the
expected RSS value most closely approximates
the observed RSS value. This is the essence of
the pattern recognition approach to position
estimation, which is discussed in greater detail in
the following section.
COVERAGE EFFECTS
S uboptimal coverage conditions exist in just
about every type of wireless network. Just
as the performance of an indoor wireless
communication system can be affected by
coverage deficiencies (manifested in ways such as
degradation of voice quality or data throughput),
an indoor localization system can be similarly
affected if an adequate number of location
metrics cannot be obtained. In fact, some
algorithms, such as those using least-squares (LS)
techniques, cannot be applied if the number of
RPs seen by the user is less than three. This
implies that location estimation systems have to
be robust enough to operate with a lack of
information. This is the motivation behind
algorithms such as the coverage map search
(CMS) algorithm discussed in the next section.
In addition, even if an adequate number of TOA,
AOA, or RSS measurements can be obtained, the
quality of the measurements can degrade
noticeably if coverage quality declines. For
example, empirical studies have shown that
UDP conditions occur more frequently at the
edges of the coverage area and can introduce
considerable error into TOA-based range
measurements [17]. This, in turn, degrades
location estimation performance.
Bechtel Telecommunications Technical Journal
 signature at each point. The error value, e(r), is
y
defined as:
TOA Grid Point (x_i, y_ j)

e(r) = e (x,y) =⏐⏐D – Z(r)⏐⏐=⏐⏐D – Z(x,y)⏐⏐ (7)

RP-4 d_4 d_3 RP-3

where D is the vector of observed range

measurements and Z represents the range
signature at a point r = (x, y)T. The estimated
d_1 L
location is the location with the minimum value
d_2
of e (r). It has been shown that the CN-TOAG
algorithm can yield more accurate location
estimates (i.e., higher QoE) than traditional
h algorithms such as LS, provided that the spacing
X
(h in Figure 8) between grid points is small
RP-1
L
RP-2 enough [25].

As can be seen, CN-TOAG is an example

Figure 8. Illustration of CN-TOAG Algorithm Concepts
LOCALIZATION ALGORITHMS
of a pattern-recognition algorithm, whereby
observations are compared with database values
that characterize the indoor area. The algorithm
also requires centralized computation to keep

P osition estimation techniques can be grouped

(a) in terms of whether the sensing
infrastructure used to measure location metrics is
track of the TOA grid data structure and of the
computations required for the location estimate.

deployed in a fixed or an ad hoc manner, or

Coverage Map Search Algorithm
(b) according to how the position computations
The CMS algorithm is conceptually based on the
are performed. In centralized algorithms, all
CN-TOAG algorithm [25]. The general system
location metrics are sent to one central node,
scenario is as shown in Figure 9, in which a
which then carries out the computations. In
regular arrangement of RPs is assumed. Each RP
distributed algorithms, the computational load for
the position calculations is spread over all
network nodes. This paper concentrates on V
centralized algorithms; for discussions of distri-
buted algorithms, the reader is referred to the
relevant literature (including References [18] to
[24] and associated references contained therein).

Two centralized algorithms for fixed position

d_4 d_3
estimation—the closest-neighbor with TOA grid RP-4 RP-3
(CN-TOAG) [25] and the CMS—are the subjects
of this section.

Closest-Neighbor with TOA Grid Algorithm

The CN-TOAG algorithm takes advantage of the L
fact that for any given configuration of RPs, the
d_1 d_2
exact value of the TOA is known that should be
observed at any given indoor point [25]. An
example is shown in Figure 8, in which a whole
area has been divided into a sequence of grid
points. Assuming that the position of the RPs is
known accurately, a vector of four range values
X
(one from each RP) can be associated with each
point; this vector is known as the range signature. RP-1 RP-2
The collection of range signatures for an area is L
known as a TOA grid. The vector of observed
range measurements is compared with the range
Figure 9. System Scenario Used To Develop the CMS Algorithm

January 2007 • Volume 5, Number 1 53

 y

RP-4 Area 2 RP-3

L
x

Area 1 Region Q_c

X
RP-1 RP-2
L

Coverage Bounds of RP-1

Coverage Bounds of RP-2
Coverage Bounds of RP-3
Coverage Bounds of RP-4

Figure 10. Illustration of Partial Coverage for the CMS Algorithm

performs a TOA-based range measurement to a RP-1. Therefore, the CN-TOAG algorithm is

user to be located. Like the CN-TOAG algorithm,
the CMS algorithm relies on a TOA grid.
In a realistic indoor environment, there are
coverage deficiencies or holes throughout the
area covered by the RPs, as depicted in Figure 10.
This means that a valid range measurement from
every RP cannot be guaranteed at every point. For
example, with the simple scenario depicted in
Figure 10, there are areas where only three or
fewer range measurements are available. This
essentially rules out the applicability of more
conventional algorithms, such as LS, which
require a minimum of three range measurements
to function properly. Figure 10 is a somewhat
simplified depiction of the coverage for the
different RPs; in reality, the coverage areas of
various RPs are not as tightly confined, due to
factors such as shadow fading. Nevertheless, this
view is useful for developing insight into the
CMS algorithm.
The range measurement deficiencies follow a
specified pattern. For example, in Area 1 of
Figure 10, a user is only able to communicate with
refined by defining a so-called coverage
signature C, which is an array of all RPs that
can communicate with the user at a specific
point. For example, at any point within Area 1,
C = [1, –1, –1, –1]T, where –1 indicates that the
user cannot communicate with a particular RP. In
the current example, this implies that the user can
only communicate with and obtain a range
measurement from RP-1. Similarly, for all points
in Area 2, C = [1, 2, 3, 4]T, indicating that in this
area the user can communicate with all four
references. It is possible to characterize an entire
area with a two-dimensional array of C vectors
which, for the purposes of this discussion, is
called a coverage map.
It is clear that observations of C can provide
valuable information in locating a user; this is
the idea behind the CMS algorithm. In essence,
the algorithm exploits the knowledge about
missing range measurements to narrow down the
user’s location to a specific area and then to
estimate it. In other words, the CMS algorithm
operates on the premise that the lack of information
is, in itself, information that can be exploited.

54 Bechtel Telecommunications Technical Journal

Specifically, the algorithm works as described in
the following paragraphs.
For a given vector of range measurements, a
pattern is derived. For example, suppose a user
is located at point X, as shown in Figure 10. At
this point, the user can communicate only with
RPs 1, 2, and 4. Therefore, the range measurement
vector D = [d1, d2, –1, d4]T, where –1 refers to a
missing range measurement from RP-3 caused by
coverage limitations. For the current example, the
CMS algorithm translates this to an equivalent
representation in the C vector space as:
Cm = [1,2, – 1,4]T
The algorithm then searches the coverage map for
a region Qc that is a subset Q of all points within
the area A where the coverage signatures match
Cm. In other words:
Qc = { Q ⊂ A: C = Cm} ∀C
In the current example, region Qc is as shown in
Figure 10.
Based on the coordinates of the different points
within Qc and the coordinates of the APs, a range
signature Z(x,y) can be computed for each point
(x,y) based on purely geometrical considerations,
just as in the CN-TOAG algorithm.
The range measurement vector D is then
compared with all range signatures to find the
point r where Z most closely approximates D. In
essence, this is equivalent to minimizing the
following objective function, with the additional
condition that the search for the minimum is
confined to the region Qc :
Σ ⎞⎟⎠d – (x – Xk )2 + ( y – Yk )2⎞⎟
N 2
e (x,y) =
k=1
k
⎠
where d k is the range measurement from the k-th
RP, N is the total number of RPs with which the
user can communicate, and (Xk, Yk) are the
coordinates of the k-th RP.
The primary advantage of the CMS algorithm is
that it can be used with any number of range
measurements, whereas other algorithms, such as
LS, require a minimum of three range
measurements. The main characteristic of the
CMS algorithm is that it requires a central
January 2007 • Volume 5, Number 1
computing entity in the network to generate the
coverage map and perform the search for the
minimum. Although the algorithm has been
presented in terms of the simplified coverage
scenario of Figure 10, it is readily applicable to
more realistic coverage scenarios if the coverage
map is generated using any accurate indoor radio
propagation model [26].
QoE ASSESSMENT
A s mentioned, the indoor environment
exhibits strong multipath characteristics and
propagation is highly site-specific. Collectively,
(8) this is referred to as channel effects. Channel
effects introduce errors into the metrics (such as
TOA and RSS) used in the location estimation
process. The accuracy of a location estimate also
depends on how the RPs are situated with respect
to the user; collectively, this is referred to as
geometry effects.
With these points in mind, it is critical to be able
to answer the following questions to effectively
(9) evaluate the performance of location estimation
systems:
• How can the effectiveness of a given system
be gauged across different types of
buildings?
• What is the probability of obtaining a given
performance from a given localization
algorithm x in any building configuration?
• How accurate should metrics measurements
be to guarantee a given location estimation
accuracy throughout a given area for a
certain application?
These and similar questions require the
characterization of a given localization system’s
QoE. Although QoE can be defined in several
ways, the definition adopted in this paper is
estimation accuracy as given by mean-square
error (MSE):
(10)
MSEpos = E {⏐⏐Rest – Ract⏐⏐ }
2
(11)
where Rest is the estimated location of the user
and Ract is the actual location.
If the number of RPs used in a TOA-based system
is known, the CDF of the MSE can be used to
gauge performance across different building
types. This concept, known as the MSE Profile
[27], uses the fact that for a given number of RPs,
different building configurations give rise to
differing numbers of UDP conditions.
55
 Now suppose that there is a TOA-based system CONCLUSIONS

T
over an indoor area of a known size, where the his paper has presented a technical overview
number of RPs and the location estimation of indoor localization (also known as indoor
algorithm are given. Assume that the MSE cannot location estimation) systems. Indoor location
exceed a certain value, MSEmax , at all points in the estimation is a relatively new area of research that
area. This requirement implies that the ranging will be an important enabler of future location-
error itself needs to be below a certain maximum aware indoor wireless networks. Before this can
value. Based on these pieces of information, an happen, however, a number of important
upper bound can be calculated on the required problems must be solved in terms of optimizing
ranging error at all points. The results of algorithm performance and characterizing QoE.
calculating and plotting this bound over a Once this is accomplished, the future holds many
20 x 20 m area for four RPs and for five RPs are different applications for indoor location
QoE shown in Figure 11 and Figure 12, respectively. estimation technology. „
depends on These figures also clearly depict the dependence
of the estimation accuracy on geometry effects.
geometry
effects.

Variation of Range Measurement MSE

as a Function of Actual Location
(Maximum Desired Positioning Error = 0.1)
y

0.105
d_4 d_3
Range Measurement MSE

0.100
RP-4 RP-3
0.095
0.090
20 m
d_1 d_2 0.085
0.080
0.075
x 20
RP-1 RP-2 15 20
10 15
20 m 10
5 5
y (m) 0 0 x (m)

Figure 11. Upper Bound on Range Measurement MSE over All Points in a 20 x 20 m Area for Four RPs

Variation of the Range Measurement MSE

as a Function of Actual Location
(Desired Positioning MSE = 0.1)
y

1.25
Range Measurement MSE

d_4 d_3 1.20

RP-4 RP-3 1.15
1.10
1.05
d_5 1.00
20 m
d_1 d_2
0.95
0.90
RP-5
0.85
x 20
15 20
RP-1 RP-2 15
10
10
20 m 5 5
0 0
y (m) x (m)

Figure 12. Upper Bound on Range Measurement MSE over All Points in a 20 x 20 m Area for Five RPs

56 Bechtel Telecommunications Technical Journal

REFERENCES
[1] E.D. Kaplan, ed., Understanding GPS:
Principles and Applications, Artech House,
Boston, MA, 1996.
[2] M.L. McKelvin, M.L. Williams, and N.M. Berry,
“Integrated Radio Frequency Identification and
Wireless Sensor Network Architecture for
Automated Inventory Management and
Tracking Applications,” Proceedings of the
Richard Tapia Celebration of Diversity in Computing
Conference 2005, TAPIA ‘05, Albuquerque, NM,
October 2005.
[3] S.G.M. Koo, C. Rosenberg, H.-H. Chan, and
Y.C. Lee, “Location-based E-campus Web
Services: From Design to Deployment,"
Proceedings of the First IEEE International Conference
on Pervasive Computing and Communications,
PerCom 2003, Fort Worth, TX, March 2003.
[4] P. Jensfelt, “Approaches to Mobile Robot
Localization in Indoor Environments,” PhD
Thesis, Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm,
Sweden, 2001.
[5] A. Ward, A. Jones, and A. Hopper, “A New
Location Technique for the Active Office,” IEEE
Personal Communications Magazine, Vol. 4, No. 5,
October 1997, pp. 42–47.
[6] K. Pahlavan, P. Krishnamurthy, A. Hatami,
M. Ylianttila, J. Mäkelä, R. Pichna, and
J. Vallström, “Handoff in Hybrid Mobile Data
Networks,” IEEE Personal Communications
Magazine, Vol. 7, No. 2, April 2000, pp. 34–47.
[7] Y. Ko and N.H. Vaidya, “Location-aided Routing
(LAR) in Mobile ad hoc Networks,” Proceedings
of ACM/IEEE International Conference on Mobile
Computing and Networking 1998, MOBICOM’98,
Dallas, TX, October 1998.
[8] FCC Docket No. 94-102, “Revision of the
Commission’s Rules to Insure Compatibility with
Enhanced 911 Emergency Calling Systems,”
Federal Communications Commission, Technical
Report RM-8143, July 1996.
[9] A.H. Sayed, A. Tarighat, and N. Khajehnouri,
“Network-Based Wireless Location: Challenges
Faced in Developing Techniques for Accurate
Wireless Location Information,” IEEE Signal
Processing Magazine, Vol. 22, No. 4, July 2005,
pp. 24–40.
[10] B. Alavi and K. Pahlavan, “Indoor Geolocation
Distance Error Modeling with UWB Channel
Measurements,” Proceedings of the 16th Annual
IEEE International Symposium on Personal Indoor
Mobile Radio Communications, PIMRC 2005,
Berlin, Germany, September 2005.
[11] K. Pahlavan, P. Krishnamurthy, and J. Beneat,
“Wideband Radio Channel Modeling for Indoor
Geolocation Applications,” IEEE Communications
Magazine, Vol. 36, No. 4, April 1998, pp. 60–65.
[12] M. Heidari and K. Pahlavan, “A Model for
Dynamic Behavior of Ranging Errors in
TOA-based Indoor Geolocation Systems,”
accepted for presentation at the IEEE Vehicular
Technology Conference, VTC2006-Fall,
Montreal, Canada, September 2006.
[13] K. Pahlavan, F. Akgul, M. Heidari, and
A. Hatami, “Indoor Geolocation in the Absence
of Direct Path,” accepted for publication in
IEEE Wireless Communications Magazine.
January 2007 • Volume 5, Number 1
[14] X. Li and K. Pahlavan, “Super-resolution
TOA Estimation with Diversity for Indoor
Geolocation,” IEEE Transactions on Wireless
Communications, Vol. 3, No. 1, January 2004,
pp. 224–234.
[15] K. Pahlavan, X. Li, and J.-P. Mäkelä, “Indoor
Geolocation Science and Technology,” IEEE
Communications Magazine, Vol. 40, No. 2,
February 2002, pp. 112–118.
[16] P. Bahl and V.N. Padmanabhan, “RADAR:
An In-Building RF-based User Location and
Tracking System,” IEEE Conference Proceedings,
Vol. 2, pp. 775–784, INFOCOM-2000, Tel Aviv,
Israel, March 2000.
[17] B. Alavi and K. Pahlavan, “Studying the Effect of
Bandwidth on Performance of UWB Positioning
Systems,” Proceedings of the IEEE Wireless
Communications and Networking Conference,
WCNC 2006, Las Vegas, NV, April 2006.
[18] L. Doherty, K.S.J. Pister, and L. El-Ghaoui,
“Convex Position Estimation in Sensor
Networks,” IEEE Conference Proceedings, Vol. 3,
pp. 1655–1663, INFOCOM-2001, Anchorage, AK,
April 2001.
[19] D. Niculescu and B. Nath, “Ad-Hoc Positioning
System (APS),” IEEE Conference Proceedings,
GLOBECOM-2001, San Antonio, TX,
November 2001.
[20] D. Niculescu and B. Nath, “Ad-Hoc Positioning
System (APS) Using AOA,” IEEE Conference
Proceedings, INFOCOM-2003, San Francisco, CA,
March/April 2003.
[21] G. DiStefano, F. Graziosi, and F. Santucci,
“Distributed Positioning Algorithm for Ad-Hoc
Networks,” Proceedings of the International
Workshop on Ultra Wideband Systems (IWUWBS
2003), Oulu, Finland, June 2003.
[22] B. Denis and N. Daniele, “NLOS Ranging Error
Mitigation in a Distributed Positioning
Algorithm for Indoor UWB Ad-Hoc Networks,”
International Workshop on Wireless Ad-Hoc
Networks, IWWAN’04, Oulu, Finland,
May/June 2004.
[23] J. Hightower and G. Borriello, “Location Systems
for Ubiquitous Computing,” IEEE Computer
Magazine, Vol. 34, No. 8, August 2001, pp. 57–66.
[24] D. Niculescu, “Positioning in Ad-Hoc Sensor
Networks,” IEEE Network, Vol. 18, No. 4,
July/August 2004, pp. 24–29.
[25] M. Kanaan and K. Pahlavan, “CN-TOAG: A New
Algorithm for Indoor Geolocation,” Proceedings of
the 15th IEEE International Symposium on Personal,
Indoor and Mobile Radio Communications, Vol. 3,
pp. 1906–1910, PIMRC 2004, Barcelona, Spain,
September 2004.
[26] K. Pahlavan and A. Levesque, Wireless
Information Networks, 2nd Edition,
John Wiley and Sons, 2005.
[27] M. Kanaan, F.O. Akgul, B. Alavi, and
K. Pahlavan, “Performance Benchmarking of
TOA-based UWB Indoor Geolocation Systems
Using MSE Profiling,” to appear in the
Proceedings of the IEEE Vehicular Technology
Conference, VTC2006-Fall, Montreal, Canada,
September 2006.
57
 ADDITIONAL READING
A dditional information sources used to
develop this paper include:
• A. Hatami, and K. Pahlavan, “Comparative
Statistical Analysis of Indoor Positioning Using
Empirical Data and Indoor Radio Channel Models,”
IEEE Consumer Communications and Networking
Conference, CCNC 2006, Las Vegas, NV,
January 2006.
• B. Alavi and K. Pahlavan, “Studying the Effect of
Bandwidth on Performance of UWB Positioning
Systems,” Proceedings of the IEEE Wireless
Communications and Networking Conference,
WCNC 2006, Las Vegas, NV, April 2006.
BIOGRAPHIES
Muzaffer Kanaan is a PhD
candidate at the Worcester
Polytechnic Institute, Massa-
chusetts, and a distinguished
member of the technical staff at
Verizon Laboratories (R&D
division of Verizon Corpora-
tion), where he is responsible for
leading various activities in the
field of wireless access network
architecture, design, and optimization. Previously, he
led optical network design initiatives within the
company, most notably lab evaluations leading to
Verizon’s nationwide long-haul optical backbone
network build-out.
Mr. Kanaan received his BS degree from Eastern
Mediterranean University, Famagusta, North Cyprus,
and his MS degree from New Jersey Institute of
Technology, Newark, both in Electrical Engineering.
He holds one US patent and another patent is pending.
Mr. Kanaan is a member of the IEEE and Eta Kappa Nu.
Mohammad Heidari received
his MSc degree in Communica-
tion and Computer Networking
from Worcester Polytechnic
Institute, Massachusetts, by
designing a real-time RF testbed
for performance evaluation of
WiFi localization systems. He
is currently pursuing his PhD
at the Center for Wireless
Information Network Studies (CWINS), where his
research is focused on statistical modeling of radio
channel dynamic spatial behavior for indoor
geolocation applications.
58
Ferit Ozan Akgül received a
BSc degree from Middle East
Technical University, Turkey,
and an MS degree, from Koc
University, Turkey, both in
Electrical Engineering. He is
currently a PhD candidate at the
Center for Wireless Information
Network Studies (CWINS),
Worcester Polytechnic Institute,
Massachusetts, where he works as a research assistant
on RF-based indoor geolocation and indoor channel
characterization, with a particular focus on angle-of-
arrival diversity.
Kaveh Pahlavan is a professor
of Electrical and Computer
Engineering (ECE) and
Computer Science (CS) and
founding director of the Center
for Wireless Information
Network Studies (CWINS),
Worcester Polytechnic Institute,
Massachusetts. Previously, he
was a visiting professor at the
Telecommunication Laboratory and Center for
Wireless Communications, University of Oulu, Finland.
Dr. Pahlavan is the editor-in-chief of the International
Journal of Wireless Information Networks, an advisory
board member of the IEEE Wireless Magazine, and an
Executive Committee member of the IEEE PIMRC.
He has been an IEEE fellow since 1996 and was a
Nokia fellow in 1999 and a Fulbright-Nokia scholar in
2001. He has served as the general chair and organizer
of many IEEE events and has contributed to numerous
seminal technical and visionary publications regarding
wireless office information networks, home
networking, and indoor geolocation science and
technology. Dr. Pahlavan is the principal author
of “Wireless Information Networks” (Allen Levesque,
co-author), John Wiley and Sons, 1995, 2nd Ed. 2005,
and “Principles of Wireless Networks – A Unified
Approach” (P. Krishnamurthy, co-author), Prentice
Hall, 2002. Additional information regarding his
work can be found at www.cwins.wpi.edu.
Dr. Pahlavan received a PhD from Worcester
Polytechnic Institute, Massachusetts, and an MS
degree from the University of Tehran, Iran, both in
Electrical Engineering.
Bechtel Telecommunications Technical Journal
 I N V I T E D PA P E R

FIELDABLE DIGITAL COHERENT

INTERFEROMETRIC COMMUNICATION
AND SENSING APPLICATION DOMAINS

Issue Date: January 2007

Abstract—A layered architecture unifying optical coherent communications and interferometric sensing via a
digitally stabilized quadrature modulator and a homodyne receiver, augmented by digital noise reduction and
channel compensation algorithm stacks, forms a new paradigm for coherent fieldable applications.
Key Words—coherent communications, integrated optics devices, laser sensors

INTRODUCTION orthogonal polarizations (H’ and V’; only one is

T o recapture the benefits that digital signal
processors (DSPs) have established in a
variety of radio frequency (RF) application
domains in recent decades, it is necessary to
operate on the optical field vector as opposed to
the optical energy. This approach enables digital
coherent communications and interferometric
sensing applications to be deployed. However,
it also requires overcoming a myriad of
technological and architectural challenges. This
paper describes proposed solutions. Reference [1]
discusses the key methods used by secure digital
coherent free-space optical communications for
tactical applications.
Figure 1 depicts an integrated homodyne receiver
fabricated and tested by CeLight1. The received
optical signal is split into two (arbitrary)
shown for clarity) and each is mixed with a local
oscillator in an optical 90° hybrid. The hybrid
accepts the signal S and the local oscillator L and
produces four outputs: (i) S+L, (ii) S-L, (iii) S+jL,
and (iv) S-jL. Each optical output pair, (i)–(ii)
and (iii)–(iv), is collected by a pair of
matched photodiodes whose photocurrents
are subtracted to produce output currents
proportional to |S+L|2 - |S-L|2 = 4 · Re{SL*} and
|S+jL|2 - |S-jL|2 = 4 · Im{SL*}; together, these
construct the complex value SL*.
____________________________
1 CeLight specializes in the research, development, and
sales of advanced opto-electronic subsystems, algorithms,
and architectures used in standoff detection of explosives,
chemicals, and trace gases; secure and robust optical
communications; coherent LADAR and vibrometry; target
identification, discrimination, and tracking; opto-electronic
warfare and signal intelligence; and medical diagnostics.

Frequency
Amplitude Phase Balanced Signal Boosted
Detectors by Local
Polarization and TIAs Oscillator Phase
j(ωt+ φ )
{

S+L
S=Ase H Optical Hybrid R{SL*}= AlAs cos( φ )
. Analog-to-Digital
Signal S-L I(t) Conversion
. Digital Processing
L=A e jωtH S+jL I{SL*}= AlAs sin( φ )
l . Advanced Algorithms
Local Oscillator Q(t)
S-jL

Isaac
Shpantzer, PhD
CeLight, Inc.
IShpantzer@celight.com
Figure 1. Digital Coherent Integrated Homodyne Receiver for Linear Transformation of Encoded Optical Signal to Baseband
(Top view shows fabricated device; tested device is shown at bottom right. For simplicity, only one polarization is shown.)

© 2007 Bechtel Corporation. All rights reserved. 59

 • Using an agile local oscillator makes the
ABBREVIATIONS, ACRONYMS, AND TERMS receiver inherently frequency-selective.
ASIC application-specific integrated • Linear down-conversion to electrical
circuit baseband enables the use of adaptive DSP-
BER bit error rate based noise reduction algorithms.
D/As digital to analog (converters) The linear transformation allows the order of
DSP digital signal processor compensation to be changed, thus enabling the
use of back-end digital adaptive algorithms to
DWDM dense wavelength division
compensate for a variety of noise sources.
multiplexing
Using these algorithms eliminates the need
FPGA field-programmable gate array for traditional complex front-end optical
IED improvised explosive device techniques such as optical phase locking
The key benefit
and polarization compensation. Furthermore,
of the linear LADAR laser radar
adaptive stabilization of the interferometric
transformation M-PSK M-ary PSK components to maintain their operational points
described above M-QAM M-ary quadrature amplitude is solved (see later discussion in this paper and
modulation Reference [2]).
results from the
ability to operate OCDMA orthogonal code division The key benefit of the linear transformation
multiple access described above results from the ability to
on the field vector,
PSK phase shift keying operate on the field vector, thus enabling digital
thus enabling adaptive compensation for multiplicative phase
QM quadrature modulator
digital adaptive noise induced by physical phenomena such as
compensation for QPSK quadrature PSK platform vibrations, Doppler shift, polarization
RF radio frequency rotation and birefringence, high-speed-air-
multiplicative phase
turbulence-induced fading and scintillation that
noise induced Rx receiver
cannot be compensated for by adaptive optics,
by physical SNR signal-to-noise ratio and electronic beam-steering. The advantages of
phenomena such as TIA trans-impedance amplifier this approach are discussed later in this paper
and in Reference [1].
platform vibrations,
Doppler shift, Following this linear transformation, the signals
and more. are electrically filtered, sampled, and then LAYERED ARCHITECTURE FOR DIGITAL
processed digitally as described in Reference [1]. COHERENT COMMUNICATIONS AND SENSING

The key advantages of this coherent detection
scheme are:
• The received signal is boosted by the local
oscillator to obtain the highest shot-noise
limited receiver sensitivity.
A
unified layered architecture for fieldable
digital coherent interferometric communi-
cations and sensing is depicted in Figure 2. The
layered architecture is based on two integrated
optical components that enable the embodiment

Systems Synthesizer Analyzer

Adaptive Noise Reduction Noise Reduction Algorithms

Vibration, Channel Estimation,
Doppler, Scintillation,
Polarization Scrambling
Subsystems
Stabilization Algorithms
Quadrature Modulator
Vibration, Channel Estimation,
Doppler, Scintillation,
Polarization Tracking,
Beam Steering
Stabilization Algorithms
Homodyne Receiver

Integrated
Components

Figure 2. Unified Layered Architecture for Fieldable Digital Coherent Interferometric Communications and Sensing

60 Bechtel Telecommunications Technical Journal

of a generalized transponder consisting of
synthesizer and analyzer constructs. Each
construct consists of three layers:
• An optical layer composed of an integrated
quadrature modulator (QM) and homodyne
receiver that performs the linear
transformation of coherent optical signals
to/from the electrical baseband
• A stabilization layer that maintains the
optical components at an optimized
operating point
• Adaptive DSP-based noise cancellation to
compensate for multiplicative phase noise
resulting from platform vibration, Doppler
shift, polarization rotation, and fading and
scintillation, as detailed later in this paper
and in Reference [1]
For free-space optical communications, the
synthesizer provides agile synthesis of key-based
multidimensional hopping in time, along
with frequency, polarization state, coherent
modulation scheme (e.g., M-ary phase shift
keying [M-PSK], M-ary quadrature amplitude
modulation [M-QAM]), and symbol rate.
Together, these factors produce an optimal
combination of security against jamming and
eavesdropping, spectral efficiency, and shielding
from atmospheric conditions in the tactical
environment. In the latter application, the
analyzer embodies coherent detection of a
generalized key-based multidimensionally
hopped coherent optical signal via a generalized
homodyne polarization diversity receiver with
DSP-based adaptive algorithms that digitally
extract the information content from both channel
noise and key-based multidimensional optical
scrambling without using optical frequency and
polarization tracking and unwinding.
Furthermore, for improved security and
flexibility, this approach does not require a fixed
dense wavelength division multiplexing
(DWDM)-like channel structure; instead, it takes
advantage of the contiguous gridless selection of
any optical carrier frequency based on
atmospheric conditions and tactical operational
needs (as further described in Reference [1]).
High-spectral-efficiency-fiber-based coherent
communications using CeLight’s components are
described in References [3] and [4]; an orthogonal A unified layered
code division multiple access (OCDMA) architecture for
approach is presented in Reference [5].
fieldable digital
Co-locating the synthesizer and analyzer and
sharing a common optical local oscillator enables coherent
the design of interferometric sensing applications interferometric
such as coherent laser radar (LADAR) or communications
vibrometry using a common layered architecture
and sensing is the
with the unique ability to switch applications via
software control. key for a variety
of application
domains.
STABILIZATION OF INTEGRATED
INTERFEROMETRIC OPTICAL COMPONENTS
C eLight designed, fabricated, and tested both
interferometric components (QM and
homodyne receiver) with closed loop
stabilization of their operating point for
uninterrupted up/down linear conversion
of baseband electrical signals of up to
12.5 Gsymbols/second. A stabilization algorithm
for the QM is described in Reference [2]
and shown in Figure 3. Both simulation
and experimental results for generating
12.5 Gsymbol/second quadrature PSK (QPSK)

90 90
2.0 1.0
120 60 120 60 0.5
0.8
1.5 0.4 Bias 1 - π
0.6 Bias 2 - π
Biases and Phase Error (π)

150 1.0 30 150 30

0.4 0.3 Phase - π/2
0.5 0.2 0.2
180 0 180 0
0.1

210 330 210 330 –0.1

–0.2
240 300 240 300 0 10 20 30 40 50
270 270 Iteration Number

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 3. (a) Constellation Plots of QM Optical Output at Startup; (b) Constellation Plots After 50 Iterations of the Control Loop;
(c) Deviations of the Two Biases and the Phase from Their Optimal Points (ππ and π/2) Versus Iteration Number

January 2007 • Volume 5, Number 1 61

 signals are described in Reference [2]. The
stabilization algorithm shows a 1-dB sensitivity
penalty compared with manually adjusting the
QM by minimizing the bit error rate (BER).
CeLight has developed and tested similar
stabilization algorithms for the homodyne
receiver; these will be reported in another
venue. Further improvement of the stabilization
algorithms is planned to accommodate
interferometric sensing.
architecture with the unique ability to adapt,
reconfigure, and switch coherent applications via
software control. The key application domains
for digital coherent interferometric sensing
investigated by CeLight include:
• Standoff Explosive Detection: The standoff
detection of improvised explosive devices
(IEDs) by exciting their emitted trace gases
and interferometrically measuring the minute
refractive index phase changes of air induced
by the photothermal effect.

Co-locating the ADAPTIVE NOISE REDUCTION ALGORITHMS • Standoff Chemical Warfare Detection and
Chemical Plant Monitoring: Similar to
synthesizer and
analyzer with an R eference [1] discusses digital adaptive noise
reduction algorithms that compensate for
various physical phenomena. Figure 4(a)
standoff explosive detection but using a
tunable laser to excite the trace gas molecules.
optical local
schematically shows the architectural approach as • Coherent Optical Fence: The pinpointing of
oscillator derived applied to channel compensation of air turbulence the incident location of an intrusion by
from the for free-space coherent QPSK communications. sensing the minute phase changes along a
transmitting laser Figure 4(b) shows simulated results of a free- fiber (laid underground to protect the
space QPSK optical link operating over a perimeter of a valuable installation) that
turns the
high-speed turbulent channel before and after result from vibrations, magnetic field,
transponder adaptive noise reduction, as well as the time electrical field, temperature, etc. This is the
configuration into convergence track. equivalent of a multisensor distributed fence
an interferometric using common communications fiber.
sensing system that • 3-D Coherent Vibrometry: The ability to
INTERFEROMETRIC SENSING APPLICATIONS
enables a variety of identify typical Eigen-vibrations by
application
domains.
C o-locating the synthesizer and analyzer with
an optical local oscillator derived from the
transmitting laser turns the transponder
measuring the minute phase changes
resulting from target vibrations in three
dimensions. This enables the discrimination
configuration into an interferometric sensing
between dummy and real nuclear warheads
system that enables a variety of application
in ballistic space or the identification of
domains, all of which use a unified layered
vehicles (friend or foe) on the ground.

Transmitted Samples Received Samples

90 5.0 90 5.0
120 60 120 60

150 2.5 30 150 2.5 30

High-Speed ~
X=IV+jQV+IHjQH ASIC X=Iv+jQv+IHjQH 180 0 180 0

(XWH)
210 330 210 330
H
Optical X=IV+jQV+IHjQH W
Homodyne Receiver 240 300 240 300
Input Filter Coefficients 270 270

DSP/FPGA Equalized Symbols

Optical Sampling (Noise Reduction @ 90 Convergence
120 60
Atmospheric 5.0 1.0
Mean Squared Error, |e(n)|2

Turbulence Rate) 150 30

Rx Stabilization 2.5 0.8
D/As Rx Stabilization
180 0 0.6

210 330 0.4

240 300 0.2

270 0 20 40 60
SNR = 30 Number of Iterations

Figure 4. (a) Embodiment of Digital Adaptive Algorithms; (b) Performance of Channel Equalization Algorithm over Turbulent Atmospheric Channel

62 Bechtel Telecommunications Technical Journal

CONCLUSIONS BIOGRAPHY
Isaac Shpantzer, founder and

A unified architecture for fieldable optical

coherent interferometric sensing was
developed and tested in a variety of application
CTO of CeLight, is a technology
visionary and accomplished
inventor with more than
domains. Adaptive DSP algorithms were used to 37 years of advanced
engineering achievements.
stabilize the interferometric components and
Prior to his involvement with
compensate noise sources of the optical path, CeLight, Dr. Shpantzer was
vibrations, movements and more, thus enabling founder and president of
practical deployment. „ NextNet, where he developed a
carrier-class wireless data communications system
deployed by service providers around the world, and
executive vice president of engineering at Racotek,
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS where he developed a mobile communications system
with tens of thousands of stations deployed. Previously,

T he author would like to thank the

CeLight team—P. Cho, A. Kaplan, Y. Achiam,
S. Kazi, A. Greenblatt, G. Harston, J. Khurgin, and
he developed technologies and products related to fiber
optics, electronic warfare, vector signal processing,
command, and control, and managed the Systems
A. Salamon—for their valuable contributions to Division of Israel’s Nuclear Research Center.
the paper. Dr. Shpantzer has BS and MS degrees in Electrical
Engineering from Technion – Israel Institute of
Technology, Haifa, Israel, and a PhD from the
University of Manitoba, Canada.
REFERENCES
[1] A. Salamon, G. Levy-Yurista, M. Tseytlin,
P.S. Cho, and I. Shpantzer, “Secure Optical
Communications Utilizing PSK Modulation,
Polarization Multiplexing and Coherent Digital
Homodyne Detection with Wavelength
and Polarization Agility,” MILCOM 2003,
Session U026, Boston, MA, October 13-16, 2003.
[2] P.S. Cho, J.B. Khurgin, and I. Shpantzer,
“Closed-loop Control of LiNbO3 Quadrature
Modulator for Coherent Communications,”
COTA Conference Proceedings, Whistler, Canada,
June 2006.
[3] P.S. Cho, G. Harston, C.J. Kerr, A. Greenblatt,
A.S. Kaplan, Y. Achiam, and I. Shpantzer,
“Coherent Homodyne Detection of BPSK Signals
Using Time-Gated Amplification and LiNbO3
Optical 90o Hybrid,” IEEE Photonics Technology
Letters, Vol. 16, No. 7, July 2004, pp. 1727–1729.
[4] P.S. Cho, G. Harston, C.J. Kerr, A. Greenblatt,
A.S. Kaplan, Y. Achiam, G. Levy-Yurista,
M. Margalit, Y. Gross, and J.B. Khurgin,
“Investigation of 2-bit/s/Hz 40-Gb/s DWDM
Transmission over 4×100-km SMF-28 Fiber Using
RZ-DQPSK and Polarization Multiplexing,”
IEEE Photonics Technology Letters, Vol. 16, No. 2,
February 2004, pp. 656–658.
[5] J.B. Khurgin, A.B. Cooper III, P.S. Cho, and
I. Shpantzer, “Painless Fully Orthogonal
Coherent OCDM,” COTA Conference Proceedings,
Whistler, Canada, June 2006.

January 2007 • Volume 5, Number 1 63

64 Bechtel Telecommunications Technical Journal
SOLAR ENERGY IN
TELECOMMUNICATIONS

Issue Date: January 2007

Abstract—Solar energy systems are increasingly used for a variety of applications, among them new
telecommunication converging technologies, the focus of this paper. Several examples of the use of solar energy
systems for different telecommunication scenarios are discussed. Because solar energy systems are robust and
cost effective, the demand for solar power in telecommunications will continue to grow.
Key Words—insolation, irradiance, mesh network, Niue, photovoltaic, solar cell, solar energy, solar Wi-Fi,
solar WiMAX, telecommunication

INTRODUCTION radio, and television (TV) services in rural areas.

Glenn A. Torshizi
gtorshiz@bechtel.com
S olar energy has proven to be a reliable This growing popularity is also attributable to the
and economical method of powering fact that people living in or traveling to many
telecommunication systems in places where remotely located rural areas simply have no other
conventional electricity is unavailable or choice in service.
impractical. It provides an excellent source of
clean, reliable power to keep batteries charged.
ELECTRICITY GENERATION THROUGH
This paper contains a brief description of
SOLAR CELLS
photovoltaic (PV) cells and provides examples of
new technologies for which solar power is—if not
the only option—an excellent choice of energy. P V or solar cells are semiconductor devices
that convert sunlight into direct current
electricity, bypassing thermodynamic cycles and
As the world's telecommunication networks are mechanical generators. When light photons of
extended and upgraded, rural communication sufficient energy strike a solar cell, they knock
services come into greater focus. Because site electrons free in the silicon crystal structure,
access is often difficult and connection to a forcing them through an external circuit and then
central electricity grid is seldom possible, a stand- returning them to the other side of the solar cell to
alone power system is required in rural areas. start the process all over again. See Figure 1.
Such a system must be cost effective, simple to
maintain, and reliable.
As the importance of
wireless communication
technologies grows, new Sunlight
demands are placed
on solar power. Solar
Antireflection Coating
power is also playing
an important role in Transparent Adhesive Front Contact
Current
powering the world’s Cover Glass
converging telecommu-
Electron
nication markets.

The relative ease of Hole

Mansour Niknam
mniknam@bechtel.com
installation and indivi-
dual ownership of solar n-Type Semiconductor
energy systems have p-Type Semiconductor Back Contact
made them very popular
for receiving cellular,
Figure 1. Typical Solar Cell Generator

© 2007 Bechtel Corporation. All rights reserved. 65

 ABBREVIATIONS, ACRONYMS, AND TERMS
AH ampere hour SSID service set identifier
AP access point TV television
CAPEX capital expenditures UHF ultra high frequency
CPE customer premises equipment VHF very high frequency
GPS global positioning system VoIP voice over IP
HAP high altitude platform Wi-Fi® wireless fidelity
IEEE Institute of Electrical and (Although synonymous with
Electronics Engineers the IEEE 802.11 standards suite
and standardized by IEEE,
IP Internet Protocol Wi-Fi is a certification mark
140 to 160 watts
LOLP loss-of-load probability promoted by the Wi-Fi
can be generated NREL National Renewable Energy Alliance.)
per square meter Laboratory WiMAX™ Worldwide Interoperability for
of solar cells OPEX operating expenditures Microwave Access
(Although synonymous with
placed in full sun, PC personal computer the IEEE 802.16 standards suite
with typical PDA personal digital assistant and standardized by IEEE,
crystalline solar PV photovoltaic WiMAX is a certification mark
promoted by the WiMAX
cell efficiencies RF radio frequency Forum.)
around
14 to 16 percent.
The voltage output from a single crystalline solar Figure 2 shows the components needed for a
cell is about 0.5 volt with an amperage output that solar energy system.
is directly proportional to the cell's surface area Solar is universal and will work virtually
(approximately 7 amperes for a 6-inch-square anywhere; however, some locations are obviously
multicrystalline solar cell). Typically, 30 to 36 more suitable than others. Irradiance is a measure
cells are wired in series (+ to –) in each solar of the sun's power available at the earth’s surface,
module. This produces a solar module with a with power peaking at about 1,000 watts per
12-volt nominal output (~17 volts at peak power) square meter (W/m2). With typical crystalline
that can then be wired in series and/or parallel solar cell efficiencies around 14 to 16 percent,
with other solar modules to form a complete about 140 to 160 watts can be generated per
solar array. square meter of solar cells placed in full sun.

Solar Irradiance

Module

Inverter Battery Charge

Controller

AC Loads DC Loads

Figure 2. Solar Energy System Components

66 Bechtel Telecommunications Technical Journal

 kWh/m2/day
10 to 14
8 to 10
7 to 8
6 to 7
5 to 6 Niue's most-
4 to 5 isolated places
3 to 4
2 to 3
can have
0 to 2 solar-powered
none Wi-Fi hotspots
Two-Axis Tracking Flat Plate
that allow
Figure 3. Average Daily Solar Radiation per Month (Annual) [1]
net surfing with
Insolation, which is a measure of the available range of an AP. An AP broadcasts its service set much greater speed
energy from the sun, is expressed in terms of identifier (SSID) via packets called beacons. The and reliability,
“full sun hours” (i.e., 4 full sun hours = 4 hours of beacons are transmitted at 1 Mbit/s every 100 ms. as in Hakupu.
sunlight at an irradiance level of 1,000 W/m2).
Obviously, different parts of the world receive Solar-Powered Wi-Fi
more sunlight than others, so these areas have
more full sun hours per day. The solar insolation Niue’s Solar-Powered Wi-Fi Solution
zone map provides a general idea of the full sun Niue, a speck of land in the middle of the South
hours per day during the year for locations in the Pacific Ocean, is the world's tiniest island nation.
continental US. See Figure 3. The people of Hakupu, Niue's second largest
village located about 7 miles from the capital
Alofi (see map in Figure 4), were dissatisfied with
the dial-up Internet connections available
WIRELESS FIDELITY through their existing telephone system. The
ancient phone system at best could handle
Functionality
In popular usage, the term Wi-Fi® has been
adopted to refer to wireless fidelity technology. 169° 55’ N 169° 50’ N 169° 45’ N
0 3 Miles
This technology is supported by the Institute of
0 3 Kilometers
Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) 802.11
Mutalau
family of standards. Products tested and Hikutavake
Toi
approved by the Wi-Fi Alliance® as Wi-Fi Namukulu
Tuapa
CERTIFIED™ are interoperable with each other,
Makefu 19° 00’ N
even if from different manufacturers, and are Lakepa
allowed to display the Wi-Fi certification mark.
A user with a Wi-Fi CERTIFIED product can use
any brand of access point (AP) with any other Niue Liku
Alofi (New Zealand)
brand of client hardware that is also certified.
Typically, in fact, any wireless fidelity 2.4 GHz
19° 05’ N
(for 802.11b or 802.11g) and 5 GHz (for 802.11a)
product using the same radio frequency (RF) Tarnakautonga
can work with any other, even if not
Avatele Hakupu Pacific
Wi-Fi CERTIFIED. Vaiea Ocean
A person with a Wi-Fi-enabled device such as a
computer, cell phone, or personal digital assistant
Figure 4. Map of Niue Island [2]
(PDA) can connect to the Internet when in the

January 2007 • Volume 5, Number 1 67

 Regulator Solar Panel Solar Panel
12 Volt 60 Watt 60 Watt

Backup Power
From Mains Tower
(Optional) Gell Cell Sealed
240 VAC 150 AH 12 Volt

With solar-powered
wireless APs, Charger
12 Volt Wi-Fi
Inverter
those responsible Equipment

for public safety

and services
can continue to use
the network during
electric grid
Figure 5. Basic Wiring Diagram for the Solar-powered Wi-Fi Repeater Station and AP in Niue [2]
outages.

4,800 baud over dial-up service. By 2005,
Hakupu's Internet users were looking to local
Wi-Fi as a solution, though they were 7 miles
distant from a satellite earth station, the
nearest AP.
Fortunately for the people of Hakupu, an
abandoned tower nearby was identified as
suitable for use in bringing Wi-Fi coverage from
the earth station 7 miles away. The 120-foot
tower, with no electricity at the site, had seemed
to hold little prospect for useful service. Instead,
the circumstances became the perfect equation
Solar Module
Wi-Fi
for the tower installation to gain new life
as a solar-powered Wi-Fi station. Hakupu’s
newfound ability to surf the net with much
greater speed and reliability soon led to requests
from other outlying villages in Niue for similar
service. Solar-powered units like Hakupu’s
could be the answer.
Figure 5 shows the basic wiring diagram for
the solar-powered Wi-Fi repeater station and AP
in Niue [2].
St. Louis Park, Minnesota—First Solar-Powered
Wi-Fi Community in the US
St. Louis Park, a Minneapolis suburb of about
44,000, recently became the first US community to
agree to city-wide deployment of solar-powered
Wi-Fi service. After a phased-in installation, the
entire network is slated to be on line by
July 2007 [3]. St. Louis Park’s service will be
powered by about 400 solar panels suspended
20 to 30 feet in the air on public rights-of-way,
such as roadsides. Each panel is 805 square
inches—about the size of a stop sign, but
rectangular and black. See Figure 6.

Utility Pole Solar power mitigates reliance on the electrical

grid. Especially during storm-related emergencies,
St. Louis Park's solar-powered wireless APs, in
conjunction with battery-powered backup at all
points along the network, will provide real value
for public safety and services applications. Thanks
to solar power, those responsible for public safety

Figure 6. Solar-Powered Wi-Fi AP on a Utility Pole [3]

68 Bechtel Telecommunications Technical Journal

and services can continue to use the network
during electric grid outages.
As shown in Figure 7, the network architecture
will support either router- or bridge-based
customer premises equipment (CPE).
The design of the entire solar power supply
is based on the historic climatic data for
Minneapolis, as provided by the National
Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL).
The wireless APs will be housed in weatherproof
enclosures that incorporate needed components,
including a rechargeable battery with a 5.5-day
power supply (for use in the event of solar
panel destruction).
The ultimate indication of the system’s reliability
is its loss-of-load probability (LOLP). The actual
LOLP for December (the worst month) is
0.05 percent, which equals about one December
day every 64 years [4].
Solar Wi-Fi Plus Satellite Backbone for
Rural Areas
Solar Wi-Fi plus satellite on a mesh network can
be a good choice for wireless communication in
rural areas. In a mesh network, each user can
communicate with the AP and also directly with
other users. If the AP is out of range, intermediate
users can relay messages to the AP.
A benefit of this method is that it extends the
range of the network without resorting to higher
powers or external antennas. A limitation is that a
line of sight is still needed between the users
making up the chain. If an intermediate terminal
goes down, all other subscribers connecting
through that terminal are cut off. In practice, the
number of hops from any subscriber to the AP
should be kept to three.
Mesh products are not commonly available at
present, but they hold the promise of “free”
range extension.
The number of subscribers on a single channel
should stay within the range of 20 to 30 to sustain
usable throughput. Assuming a usable range of
2.5 km from the AP, this number equates to a
subscriber density of 1 to 1.5 users per km2. A solar-powered
pre-WiMAX
base station
OTHER SOLAR-RELATED
delivers wireless
TELECOMS DEVELOPMENTS
broadband to
Solar Power and WiMAX™ Sand Harbor in the
WiMAX Defined Lake Tahoe-Nevada
In popular usage, the term WiMAX™ has been
State Park.
adopted to refer to the technology behind
Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access.
This technology is supported by the IEEE 802.16
family of standards. Projects tested and approved
by the WiMAX Forum™ as WiMAX Forum
Certified™ are interoperable with each other, even
if from different manufacturers, and are allowed to
display the WiMAX certification mark.
Solar-Powered Pre-WiMAX System—
Lake Tahoe, Nevada
AirTegrity Wireless™ has donated a pre-WiMAX
system (WiMAX-in-a-Box™) to deliver wireless

Wireless
Network

CPE Bridge Admin IP CPE Router Admin IP

CPE
Authenticator
802.11x
L2 Authenticator
CPE Has
PC Has Network IP
Network IP Provided by
Designated
St. Louis Park PC
PC Must Non-Routing
Authenticate Management
Partner IP

Figure 7. Logical Network Diagram [3]

January 2007 • Volume 5, Number 1 69


Airship development
has been assisted
by advances in
lightweight
materials
and by
new power
possibilities Figure 8. Pre-WiMAX Station at Sand Harbor [5]
stemming from
advances in broadband to Sand Harbor in the Lake Tahoe-
solar technology, Nevada State Park. This park is home to the Lake
Tahoe Shakespeare Festival every summer, and
energy storage,
wireless Internet access will now be available to
energy the park’s employees, volunteers, and visitors.
management,
and propulsion.
The solar-powered pre-WiMAX base station is
installed at an elevation of 8,000 feet, making
it the highest elevation pre-WiMAX deployment
in the nation and subjecting it to harsh
environmental conditions. See Figure 8.
Until certification is completed, the AirTegrity
Wireless system should be considered a pre-
WiMAX technology because it is based on the
current specifications for WiMAX.
Stratellite™ Airship
Stratellite is a massive solar-powered airship that
will be used to transmit wireless communications
at 65,000 feet above the Earth. This specialized
airship (see Figure 9) is being built by Sanswire
Networks. Under current development programs,
delivery of a demonstration airship is targeted for
the 2008–2011 timeframe [6].
Based on the frequency band used, Stratellite will
cover a 500 km radius footprint for very high
frequency (VHF). If ultra high frequency (UHF) is
available, a 250 km footprint is possible. At
3.5 GHz, the radius would be 75 km. A thin-film
PV array will be located on the top of the airship.
Batteries will be used through the night cycle. The
airship will float using the buoyancy of the lifting
gas, assisted by the propulsion units. It will be
70
global positioning system (GPS) guided and
ground controlled. The airship will remain aloft
for up to 18 months, and bringing it down
should not be difficult [6].
The Stratellite network will obtain its backhaul
over fiber connections. Point-to-point links will
bring the bandwidth up to the airship. Routers
and switches within the airship will assign the
bandwidth to the different transponders. Point-to-
multipoint radios will distribute the bandwidth
to the CPE units on the ground. Optional ground
repeaters will act as fill-in units, where necessary.
If multiple airships are used in a region, inter-
airship communication will provide additional
redundancy. See Figure 10.
The high altitude platform (HAP) concept
embodied by Stratellite is not new. While the
idea has been around for many years, Sanswire
indicates that recent airship development has
been assisted by advances in lightweight materials
and by new power possibilities stemming from
advances in solar technology, energy storage,
energy management, and propulsion.
THE BUSINESS CASE FOR SOLAR
S tudies have shown that solar energy is
becoming an increasingly viable alternative
[7, 8] where there is no access to the electricity
grid, providing the only realistic solution in some
situations, as discussed earlier in this paper. Even
when access to the electricity grid is not an issue,
a solar energy network can still make sense. As an
example, the discussion returns to St. Louis Park,
described earlier in this paper. The business case
for this community [9], the first solar-powered
Wi-Fi locality in the US, is summarized below [4].
As the numbers show, a solar energy network is
still a very viable solution even with access to
conventional grid electricity because solar- and
battery-powered radios eliminate the energy
portion of the pole attachment fees.
Figure 9. Stratellite Airship [6]
Bechtel Telecommunications Technical Journal
 Sanswire HAP
Stratellite
GPS Satellite Communications
Satellite

Stratellite Force Multiplier

Communications

VoIP
IP-Based IP/Hi-Def Terrestrial Network Operations Center Hi-Speed IP Digital Enhanced PDA
Cellular Phone Television Infrastructure Command and Control Broadband Service Cordless “All-In-One”
Augmentation Uplink/Downlink Telecommunications Device

Figure 10. Typical Stratellite Network [6]

Capital Expenditures (CAPEX) CONCLUSIONS

Wireless network equipment/
installation $1,144,321 S olar power has proven a reliable power
supply for telecommunications. The techno-
logy has been shown to be robust and cost
Fiber network/backhaul
(20 years of service) 483,300 effective where conventional grid electricity is not
CPE (1,000 units) 86,000 available. With networks expanding into rural
areas using wireless technology, the demand for
Additional implementation costs include: solar power will continue to grow. The falling
Storage, facility upgrades, cost of solar technology and the increased
project management, and sophistication of control and supervision
miscellaneous expenses 150,000 equipment will ensure that solar power remains
Contingency and commercially and technically competitive. „
50 percent of pilot costs 225,000
Equipment spares 106,000
Core network (routers, 14% 11%
6%

switches, and authentication) 200,000 27%

10%

Sales tax 190,000 17%

51%
CAPEX total $2,584,621 63% 33%

Operating Expenditures (OPEX)

33%

Wi-Fi (5 years of operation) $2,845,403

84%
Likely
73%
26% Neutral
Given the above assumptions, the break-even Not Likely
20% 53%
cash flow is at a subscriber level of 32 percent—
39%
6,100—of all eligible households at a subscription
fee of $14 per month. According to Figure 11, 16%
23%

a 32 percent subscriber penetration rate is a

realistic goal. Up to $20 per $21 to $25 per $26 to $30 per $31 to $35 per $36 to $40 per $41 or more per
Month (N=277) Month (N=278) Month (N=277) Month (N=276) Month (N=277) Month (N=277)

Figure 11. Subscriber Willingness to Switch to St. Louis Park Wireless Service [10]

January 2007 • Volume 5, Number 1 71

 TRADEMARKS
AirTegrity Wireless and WiMAX-in-a-Box are
trademarks of AirTegrity Wireless, Inc.
Stratellite is a trademark of Sanswire Networks.
Wi-Fi and Wi-Fi Alliance are registered
trademarks and Wi-Fi CERTIFIED is a
trademark of the Wi-Fi Alliance.
WiMAX, WiMAX Forum, and WiMAX Forum
Certified are trademarks of the WiMAX Forum.
REFERENCES
[1] “US Insolation Maps: Fixed Azimuth, Single and
Dual-Axis Tracked Flat Plates,” Watson™ Solar
Trackers (http://www.wattsun.com/resources/
insolation_maps/map_index.html).
[2] R. St. Clair, “Solarfi: Niue’s WiFi Nation
Goes Green,” Internet Users Society – Niue
white paper, Number 4, July 2005
(http://www.nunames.nu/ about/SolarFi.PDF).
[3] Wireless Internet Service Provider (for Residents),
City of St. Louis Park (http://
www.stlouispark.org/residents/wireless.htm).
[4] St. Louis Park Council Meeting, Item: 110606 –
8d – Citywide Wireless Project, p. 4
(http://www.stlouispark.org/pdf/
110606_8d_Citywide_Wireless_Project.pdf).
[5] “AirTegrity Wireless Donates Pre-WiMAX
Solution to Sand Harbor State Park to Provide
Park and Lake Tahoe Shakespeare Festival with
Free Wireless Internet Access,” AirTegrity
Wireless press release, August 26, 2006
(http://www.airtegrity.com/media_center/
press_releases).
[6] Sanswire Networks
(http://www.sanswire.com/).
[7] Global Environment & Technology Foundation
(http://www.getf.org).
[8] Australian Greenhouse Office
(http://www.communications@greenhouse.gov.au).
[9] City Council Study Session, Report Item
071706 – 2 – Wireless Pilot Update
(http://www.stlouispark.org/pdf/
July_17_2006.pdf).
[10] City Council Study Session, Report Item
071006 – 6 – Wireless Pilot Update
(http://www.stlouispark.org/pdf/
July_10_Wireless_Pilot_Update.pdf).
72
BIOGRAPHIES
Glenn Torshizi joined Bechtel
Telecommunications in 2001
and is currently working as
senior RF lead design engineer
on the Bechtel MSV WiMAX
ATC network preliminary
design for the Baltimore,
Washington, New York, Boston,
and Miami markets. Before
this, he worked on the Modeo
DVB-H project as a senior RF design engineer.
He has finished the preliminary SFN DVB-H design
for Boston; New York expansion; Philadelphia;
Baltimore; Washington, DC; and Pittsburgh. Before this,
he was a staff scientist/engineer at the Bechtel
Telecommunications Training, Demonstration, and
Research (TDR) Laboratory in Frederick, Maryland.
For 1 year, Glenn was involved with Bechtel’s Virtual
Survey Tool (VST) and received the award for most
innovative exhibit at Bechtel’s sixth Frederick
Technology Fair. Glenn also finished an evaluation
test on a 2.4 GHz Wi-FiTM phased array antenna
and published the results in the January 2006 issue of
the Bechtel Telecommunications Technical Journal. Before
relocating to Frederick, he spent more than 3 years as an
RF design engineer on the Bechtel AWS GSM, GPRS,
and UMTS Program in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, and
as the market RF lead in Harrisburg, Pennsylvania,
and Hackensack, New Jersey.
Before joining Bechtel, Glenn helped plan, optimize,
and integrate the Triton PCS TDMA system in
Norfolk, Virginia, and the Cricket Communications
CDMA system in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. As a
technical expert witness on numerous planning and
zoning boards, he was very successful in obtaining
final site approvals.
Glenn has a BS in Physics from Southwestern
Oklahoma State University and an MS in Physics
from the University of Tennessee, Knoxville. He
has done research in relativistic heavy ion physics at
Oak Ridge National Laboratory and Brookhaven
National Laboratory.
Mansour Niknam, currently
a manager in the Network
Planning department of
Bechtel Telecommunications, is
responsible for staffing, quality
assurance and control, planning
tools, and training. Previously,
he was a senior project controls
engineer on the AT&T Liberty
wireless projects. Mansour
joined Bechtel in 1997 as a senior project controls
engineer in the Power organization. In this capacity, he
maintained master budgets and schedules and
summary schedules for combined cycle steam power
plant construction projects; analyzed, forecasted, and
reported productivity and performance trends; and
monitored quantity deviations, among other scheduling
related duties.
Bechtel Telecommunications Technical Journal
For most of his career before joining Bechtel, Mansour
was involved as an engineer or manager in the design
and construction of power generation and industrial
water treatment projects. He was employed over an
8-year period by several environmental engineering
companies in the Netherlands to manage alternative
energy (waste, solar, wind) and oil refinery/
petrochemical plant water treatment projects in more
than 10 countries. He helped develop the use of waste
and refuse-derived fuel to generate power for urban
and rural applications in northern Europe. He has
participated in international conferences and prepared
technical proposals on alternative energy and water
treatment and has actively contributed his technical
assistance to international organizations providing
water treatment technology and alternative energy
sources to developing countries. In the Republic
of Suriname, for example, his technical expertise
assisted local farmers in constructing fruit dryers
using solar energy.

Mansour holds a BE in Marine Engineering from the

State University of New York, New York Maritime
Academy, and an MBA from Frostburg State University
in Maryland.

January 2007 • Volume 5, Number 1 73

74 Bechtel Telecommunications Technical Journal
cdma2000 ® WIRELESS LOCAL LOOP
EVOLUTION AND PERFORMANCE

Issue Date: January 2007

Abstract—WLL, once only a simple wireless replacement for copper wires, has evolved with the ever-changing
technology and market demands. Through the evolution of CDMA to cdma2000 ® , EV-DO, and eventually
EV-DO Revision C, and with performance approaching or equal to current DSL networks, WLL is no longer
limited to only voice service in remote regions. Fixed and mobile broadband wireless access is the new “WLL.”
Key Words—1xEV-DO, 1xEV-DO Revision A, 1xEV-DO Revision B, all-IP-based architecture, broadband
wireless access, cdma2000 evolution, CDMA/cdma2000, FWT, multicarrier CDMA, VoIP over 1xEV-DO,
wireless local loop, WLL

WIRELESS LOCAL LOOP limited to, cordless access systems, proprietary

Overview
Defining WLL
The local loop is the physical connection between
the terminating equipment in a central office (CO)
and the end users. It is often provisioned as a
twisted pair of copper wires. Traditionally
provisioned for plain old telephone service
(POTS) voice only, it is now being used to carry a
range of other technologies such as integrated
services digital network (ISDN) and digital
subscriber line (DSL). The term local loop is
sometimes applied to any “last-mile” connection
to the customer, regardless of technology or
intended purpose. This makes sense moving
forward with the shift to data services and
broadband wireless access (BWA). Therefore, a
wireless local loop (WLL), in its simplest
construct, uses a wireless radio signal to replace
all or part of the traditional copper infrastructure
between a subscriber and the switch.
A key point to highlight is that a WLL is an
application, and not necessarily a specific
technology. The technology is only an enabler for
this type of application. Various WLL systems
and technologies exist. They include, but are not
fixed radio systems, and fixed cellular systems.
As technology has evolved, so has WLL
implementation. Today, the most common WLL
implementation is via code division multiple
access (CDMA) cellular technology. This
technology is examined further in this paper.
The mobile technologies—global system for
mobile communication (GSM)/universal mobile
telecommunications system (UMTS), CDMA/
cdma2000® , etc.—can be deployed either in their
traditional mobile topologies or in a more
limiting fixed topology. Fixed wireless terminal
(FWT) units differ from conventional mobile
terminal units operating within cellular networks
in that an FWT is limited to an almost permanent
location, with virtually no roaming capabilities.
Also, an FWT is usually physically less conducive
to mobility and more suitable to fixed
communication devices. These devices could be a
desk telephone; an interface for a traditional
analog telephone; a connection to a fax machine,
terminal, or data card to provide Internet
connectivity; or even a combination of these or
some other more specialized interfaces. Figure 1
shows a few common FWT devices, including a
common mobile device. [1]

Nathan T. Youell
ntyouell@bechtel.com

Figure 1. Common FWT Devices

© 2007 Bechtel Corporation. All rights reserved. 75

 ABBREVIATIONS, ACRONYMS, AND TERMS
1xEV-DO 1x evolution-data optimized IMT-2000 International Mobile
Telecommunications-2000
1xEV-DV 1x evolution-data/voice
IP Internet Protocol
1xRTT 1x radio transmission
technology ISDN integrated services digital
network
3G third generation enhanced
digital mobile phone service at ITPC Iraq Telephone and Post
broadband speeds enabling Company
both voice and nonvoice data LMDS local multipoint distribution
transfer service
3x multicarrier CDMA using LS-OFDMA layered superposed OFDMA
three 1.25 MHz carriers
LTE long-term evolution
3xMC-DO 3x multichannel-data optimized
MAC media access control
4G fourth generation enhanced
digital mobile phone service MIMO multiple-input, multiple-output
boosting transfer rates to MIN mobile identification number
20 Mbps
MMDS multichannel, multipoint
A-key authentication key distribution service
BSC base station controller MSC mobile switching center
BTS base transceiver station OFDM orthogonal frequency division
BWA broadband wireless access multiplexing
CAVE cellular authentication and OFDMA orthogonal frequency division
voice encryption multiple access
CDG CDMA development group PDSN packet data service network
CDMA code division multiple access PMP point-to-multipoint
cdma2000 ® A family of standards, PN pseudo-random noise
developed through compre- POTS plain old telephone service
hensive proposals from
QUALCOMM, describing the PSTN public switched telephone
use of CDMA technology to network
meet 3G requirements for wire- PTP point-to-point
less communication systems
PTT push-to-talk
CMEA cellular message encryption
QAM quadrature amplitude
algorithm
modulation
CO central office
QoS quality of service
CPE customer premises equipment
RF radio frequency
DL downlink
SDMA spatial division multiple access
DSL digital subscriber line
SIP session initiation protocol
ESN electronic serial number
SSD shared secret data
FDD frequency division duplex
TDM time division multiplexing
FTP file transfer protocol
UL uplink
FWT fixed wireless terminal
UMTS universal mobile
GPRS general packet radio service telecommunications system
GPS global positioning system VoIP voice over IP
GSM global system for mobile WiMAX™ Worldwide Interoperability
communication for Microwave Access
HARQ hybrid automatic repeat (Although synonymous with
request the IEEE 802.16 standards suite
and standardized by IEEE,
HSDPA high-speed downlink packet WiMAX is a certification mark
access promoted by the WiMAX
HSPA high-speed packet access Forum™.)
iDEN integrated digital enhanced WLL wireless local loop
network

76 Bechtel Telecommunications Technical Journal

WLL Advantages
Several advantages of WLL systems make them
an attractive alternative to traditional outside
plant deployments. These advantages can be
characterized as cost, deployment speed, design
constraints, and flexibility. [2]
Cost—The main cost advantage of using wireless
technologies to deploy the “last mile” to
subscribers accrues from not having to deploy
potentially costly outside plant infrastructure. A
wireless site is limited by its coverage area and
capacity. Within these limits, there is a fixed cost
per subscriber. With copper and fiber cables, on
the other hand, the cost depends on the number
of subscribers and their distances from the CO, as
shown in Figure 2. This fact makes a WLL an
affordable alternative to wireline in low
teledensity areas. A further cost improvement
comes with economy of scale. The cost of wireless
drops as technologies advance and the number of
users/subscribers increases. Conversely, the cost
of digging trenches for fiber cables remains
relatively constant.
Deployment Speed—A wireless network can be
installed and commissioned relatively quickly
and easily. Adding new users is also very easy. A
user needs only to purchase a suitable end-user
device (phone, terminal, etc.) and sign up for a
corresponding service plan. It is not necessary to
send field personnel to turn the service on. In
other words, no truck rolls are necessary, and
adds, moves, and changes can be addressed from
a centralized location.
Design Constraints—Three key drivers must be
considered when designing WLL networks:
voice quality, coverage, and capacity. Since these
1,500
1,000
Cost ($)
500
Distance
Figure 2. Cost of WLL Versus Outside Plant [1]
January 2007 • Volume 5, Number 1
three key drivers are always competing among
themselves, it may be necessary to first determine
an acceptable voice quality level and to then
choose a correspondingly suitable wireless
communication system that can provide high
capacity and large coverage. [3]
Although adhering to the standard wireless
design criteria (such as coverage requirements,
terrain conditions, capacity, and interference),
WLL networks offer certain advantages over their
mobile counterparts. First, WLL deployments do
not need to be contiguous. In other words, it is
not necessary to worry about handoff boundaries. The main
Second, because of limited or no roaming, WLL cost advantage
networks provide increased coverage and
of using
capacity over similar mobile networks. WLL
network coverage also increases to some extent wireless
based on the type of end-user device. In many technologies
cases, end-user terminals and telephones are to deploy
capable of using a higher transmitter power and
the “last mile”
have better receive sensitivities than mobiles.
to subscribers
Of course, an important design constraint is
accrues from
whether or not roaming capabilities are enabled.
Roaming can be enabled to any degree, from not having to deploy
limited service to full mobility, generally potentially costly
depending on the prevailing regulatory outside plant
environment.
infrastructure.
Flexibility—The implementation of WLL
networks is extremely flexible, especially with
regard to expansion and increased capacity. It is
easy to expand a network to support added
coverage and capacity requirements.
The fact that the process of building a WLL
system does not require precise knowledge of the
user’s location adds flexibility to system planning
Wireline
Wireless
77
 and deployment [2]. Moreover, adds, moves, and
changes are readily addressed in a wireless
network and WLL devices can be easily moved to
accommodate new changes.
Depending on topology (urban, suburban, rural),
WLL networks can support both large and small
coverage areas and more readily cover adverse
terrain than can a fixed infrastructure.
WLL Disadvantages
Several issues need to be considered when
deciding to roll out a WLL network:
WLL technology is
• A subscriber can only access the network
evolving to provide when receiving a suitable signal level.
more than just Therefore, it is important to design WLL
basic voice and networks for the appropriate coverage areas.
data services; • Unlike a copper infrastructure, a WLL
it is merging with network has no per-user fixed capacity and
instead shares the total capacity among
broadband wireless
users. Therefore, more caution is needed
access enabled by
in designing for the expected capacity
3G and 4G network requirements.
technologies
• Though they are expected to be lower than
such as HSDPA, the cost of digging and trenching for a copper
1xEV-DO, and infrastructure, the costs associated with
WiMAX. constructing and installing a WLL network
can include tower construction or lease,
backhaul, and even spectrum costs.
• Spectrum itself is a critical issue when
deploying a WLL network. What spectrum is
available? What are the licensing costs? Are
there interference issues? What subscriber
devices are available? Spectrum affects the
system’s available technologies, coverage,
and capacity.
• Less critical, but still an issue, is the use of
specialized customer premises equipment
(CPE). Every WLL network user requires a
customer device, such as an FWT, to access
the network. Specific requirements depend
on the carrier, technology, and frequency
used.
One thing to keep in mind is that by leveraging
the economies of scale, the bigger the network
and the greater the number of subscribers, the
smaller the impact of these disadvantages.
WLL Growth and Evolution
Because of the advantages of WLL and the lack of
existing infrastructure, most traditional WLL
growth is occurring in emerging economies
where half the world’s population lacks basic
telephone service. Countries such as China, India,
Brazil, Russia, and Indonesia look to WLL
78
technology as an efficient way to deploy POTS for
millions of subscribers without the expense of
burying tons of copper wire [1].
For the rest of the world, including the
underdeveloped countries, WLL technology is
evolving to provide more than just basic voice
and data services; it is merging with broadband
wireless access enabled by third and fourth
generation (3G) and (4G) network technologies
such as high-speed downlink packet access
(HSDPA), cdma2000 1x evolution-data optimized
(1xEV-DO), and Worldwide Interoperability for
Microwave Access (WiMAX™).
WLL Technologies and Why CDMA
Although a primary focus of WLL networks has
been to provide basic voice services, an additional
challenge for operators is meeting the increasing
demand for Internet access and broadband data
applications. It is obvious that previously
optional Internet access and data services are
becoming mandatory. Therefore, apart from the
basic coverage requirement, WLL networks
must meet at least two additional minimum
requirements: sufficient voice capacity and data
service [4]. This section discusses how this is
being accomplished.
WLL Technologies
WLL systems have traditionally been separated
into two main groups: those operating above
2.4 GHz and those operating below 2.4 GHz. The
technologies that use frequencies above 2.4 GHz
are usually able to support data speeds matching
ISDN, cable, and DSL services, due to the
availability of greater bandwidths. Multichannel,
multipoint distribution service (MMDS) falls
under this group of technologies. Technologies
operating above 20 GHz include those designated
as local multipoint distribution service (LMDS).
These solutions are exclusively geared toward
data services and rely on point-to-point (PTP) and
point-to-multipoint (PMP) primarily line-of-sight
deployments. In most cases they can support
data transmission rates of several megabits per
second. However, radio coverage, equipment
cost, and availability are key limitations of
these services. [4]
Below 2.4 GHz, the common air-interface
technologies include mostly mobile service
technologies such as GSM, CDMA, cdma2000,
and UMTS. These systems are deployed
throughout the usual frequency bands (450,
800, 900, 1700, 1800, 1900, and 2100 MHz). The
most common frequency bands used for WLL are
450, 800, and 1900 MHz. The 450 MHz band,
Bechtel Telecommunications Technical Journal
where available, is a popular choice in poor and
underdeveloped areas due to its increased radio
frequency (RF) propagation characteristics, as
illustrated in Figure 3.
Since WLL networks are typically developed
using mobile cellular technologies, what makes
them different from traditional mobile services?
In most cases, the only differentiation is the way
in which the wireless technology is implemented.
The WLL operation is an alternative
configuration of fully mobile technology that
complies with the regulatory requirements of the
country in which it is deployed. Implementations
range from fixed configurations with no mobility
(except within a single cell) to fully mobile
configurations. This is due largely to the
regulatory environment where it is deployed.
The Emergence of CDMA
Through the 1990s, CDMA, and now cdma2000,
has emerged as the most widely deployed WLL
set of standards. Besides available frequency
band allotments, other factors, such as
infrastructure and handset availability, cost,
spectral efficiency, data service capabilities, and
evolution strategies, have played a role in the
technology selection. To many operators, CDMA
WLL best addresses the demands and has helped
lay the foundation for a smooth migration to new
and enhanced services [6]. Most WLL networks
in the world are based on cdma2000 at either
450 MHz or 800 MHz [4].
Frequency Cell Radius Cell Area
(MHz) (km) (km2)
450 48.9 7,521
850 29.4 2,712
950 26.9 2,269
1800 14.0 618
1900 13.3 553
2100 12.0 449
Figure 3. Frequency Coverage Areas [5]
January 2007 • Volume 5, Number 1
CDMA Security—As with any network,
especially wireless, security concerns are a key
issue. It is often said that “CDMA technology is
inherently secure.” Although there are always
security-related issues, CDMA technology has
several inherent features that make it superior to
its predecessors. This is in part based on the fact
that CDMA technology originated from military
applications and cryptography. [7]
The inherent security of the CDMA air interface
comes from its noise-like signature resulting from
the use of spread spectrum technology and of
codes. This signature makes the signal of any one
user difficult to distinguish and decode without
previous knowledge and synchronization of the
codes being used.
CDMA uses specific spreading sequences and
pseudo-random codes for the forward and
reverse links. The spreading techniques form
unique code channels for individual users in both
directions of the communication channel. This is
accomplished by using the long code (a 242-bit
pseudo-random noise [PN] sequence), the short
code (a 215-bit PN sequence), and Walsh codes.
Together, these codes scramble, spread, and
identify the users and channels in both directions
of the CDMA air interface [7]. However, simply
knowing the codes is of no value to the
would-be eavesdropper because, without
precise synchronization, the signal retains its
noise-like characteristics. This essential need for
Relative
Cell Count
1.0
2.8
3.3
12.2
13.6
16.2
IMT-2000
GSM-1800
GSM-900
CDMA450
Coverage
Area
79
 synchronization is the reason CDMA base
stations require global positioning system
(GPS) timing.
CDMA also has a unique soft-handoff capability
that allows a mobile to connect simultaneously to
as many as six radios in the network, each with its
own Walsh code. This means that someone
attempting to eavesdrop on a subscriber’s call has
to have several devices connected at exactly the
same time in an attempt to synchronize with the
intended signal. In addition, CDMA employs a
Through the 1990s, fast power control, 800 times per second, to
maintain its radio link. This characteristic alone
CDMA, and now
makes it difficult for a third party to achieve
cdma2000, has a stable link for interception of a CDMA
emerged as the voice channel, even with full knowledge of the
most widely Walsh code. [8]
deployed WLL In cdma2000 1xEV-DO, the forward link uses rate
set of standards. control instead of power control and time
division multiplexing (TDM) instead of spread
As of
codes. However, it still has inherent security that
September 2006,
protects the identity of users and makes
overall CDMA interception very difficult. In addition, the media
deployments access control (MAC) identification assigned to
users is encrypted. User packets are assigned
include more than
variable time slots, and the data rate is controlled
169 operators
by the access terminal based on radio conditions.
with commercially Packets are divided into subpackets using hybrid
deployed automatic repeat request (HARQ) and early
termination mechanisms. These attributes make
cdma2000
it virtually impossible to identify the user
networks in or to correlate user packets. The 1xEV-DO
six continents. standard specification supports a security
protocol layer that is ready to implement future
security protocols. [7]
CDMA addresses encryption and authentication
by using a 64-bit authentication key (A-key) and
the electronic serial number (ESN) of the mobile.
Together, these are used to generate subkeys that
provide voice privacy and message encryption.
CDMA uses the standardized cellular authenti-
cation and voice encryption (CAVE) algorithm
to generate a 128-bit subkey called the shared
secret data (SSD). The SSD has two parts: SSD_A
(64-bit) for creating authentication signatures and
SSD_B (64-bit) for service providers to allow local
authentication. A fresh SSD can be generated
when a mobile returns to the home network or
roams to a different system [8].
The mobile uses the SSD_B and the CAVE
algorithm to generate a private long code mask, a
cellular message encryption algorithm (CMEA)
key, and a data key. The private long code mask
is used by both the mobile and the network to
80
change the characteristics of a long code. This
modified long code is used for voice scrambling,
which adds an extra level of privacy over the
CDMA air interface. The private long code mask
does not encrypt information; it simply replaces
the well-known value used to encode a CDMA
signal with a private value known to only the
mobile and the network. It is therefore extremely
difficult to eavesdrop on conversations without
knowing the private long code mask.
Additionally, the mobile and the network use the
CMEA key with the enhanced CMEA algorithm
to encrypt signaling messages sent over the air
and to decrypt the information received. [8]
A-key security is a critical component of the
CDMA system. CDMA allows several A-key
distribution methods to valid users for the
purpose of acquiring subscription-related
information to communicate with the
network that is providing service. For all
distribution methods, security data is provided
electronically in an encrypted format. The
most secure distribution method uses handsets
pre-programmed with the A-key and ESN
by the mobile vendor and then assigned a
mobile identification number (MIN) by the
wireless provider or dealer. This approach
ensures that neither the equipment manufacturer
nor the dealer has all three pieces of security
information. [7]
CDMA Deployments—Current CDMA-based
WLL networks are deployed in the 450, 800,
and 1900 MHz frequency bands. The prominent
infrastructure vendors used in these networks
include Nortel™, Alcatel-Lucent™, Huawei™,
ZTE®, Motorola®, Ericsson™, and Samsung™.
As of September 2006, overall CDMA
deployments include more than 169 operators
with commercially deployed cdma2000 networks
in six continents. An additional 27 operators
are scheduled to be deployed in 2007,
adding approximately 300 million subscribers [9].
Table 1 provides a brief snapshot of where
CDMA WLL deployments are taking place.
Of the countries listed in Table 1, those that
continue to show a lot of activity include Nigeria,
Brazil, Iraq, Russia, India, and China. In essence,
WLL deployments are taking place in countries
with little or no existing outside plant
infrastructure (Iraq, Nigeria), large countries with
widely dispersed populations (Brazil, Russia),
and countries with large populations and a very
large subscriber base (India, China).
Bechtel Telecommunications Technical Journal
Table 1. Where CDMA WLL Deployments Are Taking Place [9]
Algeria, Angola, Congo, Egypt,
Ethiopia, Ivory Coast, Kenya, Mali,
AFRICA
Mozambique, Namibia, Nigeria,
Rwanda, Uganda, Zambia
SOUTH AND Argentina, Brazil, Guatemala, Haiti,
CENTRAL AMERICA Honduras, Peru
Iraq, Kuwait, Oman, Pakistan, Saudi
MIDDLE EAST
Arabia, Yemen
CENTRAL AND
EASTERN EUROPE
Azerbaijan, Moldova, Poland, Romania,
Russia, Ukraine, Uzbekistan
INDIA
CHINA
WLL Deployment in Developing Countries
In developing countries, there has always been
strong interest in using WLL technologies to
bridge the “digital divide.” A primary goal of
deploying WLL systems is to provide universal
telephone access. This is a popular choice in
developing countries or regions because it is an
affordable alternative to wireline for low
teledensity areas. In most cases, WLL is the
quickest and least expensive way to circumvent
the dire lack of infrastructure [10].
In developing countries, the driving focus has
been to provide basic voice services. Many
countries have focused solely on installing voice
networks, overlooking the growing use and
convergence of data services. Although voice,
and sometimes low-speed data, services are the
current technology driver, high-speed data and
video applications will likely drive the future.
Therefore, data services should be incorporated
from the beginning, as is the case with wireless
technologies such as cdma2000 1xEV-DO.
Incorporating data services should be an integral
part of a developing country’s growth strategy.
Data communications should be just as pressing
a concern as voice communications in the
deployment of WLL networks [10].
For poorer regions, the Internet presents a unique
opportunity as well as a unique challenge. The
opportunity derives from new Internet appli-
cations of greater value to developing countries
than to developed ones. Remote regions that have
never been able to afford adequate educational
and health facilities or to attract competent
teachers, doctors, agricultural extension officers,
and other professionals now have an alternative
medium by which they can benefit from the
January 2007 • Volume 5, Number 1
services of such professionals, namely, inter-
active multimedia. Therefore, deploying data
communications infrastructure should be regarded
as a high priority. In developing regions where
wired infrastructure is scarce, WLL has provided
a more-than-viable methodology for doing so. [11]
cdma2000 FOR BROADBAND
WIRELESS ACCESS
W ith the focus shifting from providing basic
telephony services in developing countries
or underserved areas to providing more
data-centric services, so too is the original idea
behind WLL evolving. Originally posed as
“How important is it to provide data services
in developing countries?” the idea has now
evolved—as we have seen—to the concept of
providing ubiquitous fixed and mobile wireless
access around the world. No longer is WLL
limited to just voice service in remote regions.
Fixed and mobile broadband wireless access
is the new “WLL.” That access is the topic of
this section.
Examples of Worldwide CDMA Deployments
Eurotel—Czech Republic
In August 2004, Eurotel, the largest provider of
wireless voice and data services in the Czech
Republic, launched the world’s first commercial
CDMA450 1xEV-DO network. The success of its
GSM/general packet radio service (GPRS)
solution, along with the growing demand for
broadband data, made Eurotel realize that a high-
speed wireless solution was needed. In 2004,
mobile penetration in the Czech Republic was
greater than 98 percent, while high-speed Internet
access remained less than 3 percent. Recognizing
a significant unmet demand for high-speed
mobile and fixed Internet access, Eurotel needed
to find a quickly deployable technology to
capture the broadband data market while
leveraging its 450 MHz spectrum resources.
Furthermore, it needed a technology that could
provide countrywide coverage cost effectively.
The search was narrowed to 1xEV-DO. Thus,
CDMA450, combined with the 1xEV-DO capacity
and throughput characteristics, was the ideal
infrastructure solution for Eurotel’s needs. With
224 base stations, Eurotel is now able to provide
coverage to 80 percent of the Czech Republic
population. Subscribers are able to gain high-
speed Internet access without waiting for
installation. They simply visit their local Eurotel
retail outlet and walk home as the owner of a
wireless access terminal that functions within
81
 minutes of purchase. In addition, subscribers with mobile broadband data services [14].
can use the service anywhere within the This high-speed wireless network was expected
Czech Republic. [12] to reach an estimated 190 million people by the
end of 2006. Sprint expected to concurrently
Iraq Ministry of Communications
implement 3G technology upgrades, known as
The Iraq Ministry of Communications is moving
1xEV-DO Revision A, and anticipates reaching
forward with the development of WLL networks
about 220 million people in the US with this
throughout the country. As announced in
advanced network by the end of the third quarter
September 2006, six licenses have been awarded
of 2007. Sprint claims to have the most wireless
to provide both national and provincial coverage;
broadband coverage of any carrier in the US with
this includes an award in 2005 to Iraq’s
average download speeds equivalent to DSL
incumbent telecommunications company, the
(400–700 kpbs). With the evolution to 1xEV-DO
Iraq Telephone and Post Company (ITPC).
WLL is no longer Revision A, average download speeds improve to
WLL is not new to Iraq; both ZTE and Huawei
limited to 450–800 kbps and average uplink speeds become
have installed systems in regions throughout
300–400 kbps (versus the current 70–144 kbps).
just voice service Iraq, including in Baghdad and Najaf. ITPC has
The 1xEV-DO network was originally launched
in remote regions. indicated that it will use the two Chinese
in July 2005. [14]
vendors to build out the networks under the
Fixed and mobile
license it was awarded. In addition to its 1xEV-DO plans, Sprint
broadband wireless announced in August 2006 its plans to develop
access is Licensees are authorized to establish operations
and deploy the first 4G nationwide broadband
to provide local telecommunications services
the new “WLL.” mobile network [15]. The 4G wireless broadband
by deploying WLL technologies and to use
network will use the mobile IEEE 802.16e-2005
frequencies assigned in the 450, 800, and
WiMAX technology standard. Working with
1900 MHz and 3.5 GHz bands. According to
Intel®, Motorola, and Samsung, Sprint will
license terms, operators have committed to
develop a nationwide network infrastructure as
using state-of-the-art technologies for their
well as mobile WiMAX-enabled chipsets that will
deployments, including 1xEV-DO. In addition,
support advanced wireless broadband services
WiMAX will be deployed as both an
for computing, portable multimedia, interactive,
access and transmission technology. The three
and other consumer electronic devices. The Sprint
national WLL licensees and three provincial
4G mobility network will use the company’s
WLL licensees authorized by the National
extensive 2.5 GHz spectrum holdings, which
Communications and Media Commission to
cover 85 percent of the households in the top
provide WLL services in Iraq will join the
100 US markets (the most of any wireless carrier
existing GSM mobile operators as licensed
in any single spectrum band). The company’s
telecommunications service providers in Iraq.
deployment plans target a launch of the advanced
To ensure that Iraq realizes the benefits of
wireless broadband services in trial markets by
having multiple telecommunications networks
the end of 2007, with plans to deploy a network
simultaneously able to serve users within the
that reaches as many as 100 million people
same geographic areas, and as a measure to
in 2008. [15]
ensure the creation of a distinct class of full
mobility telecommunications service providers, Verizon Wireless®
WLL licensees are prohibited from permitting Verizon Wireless has completed several rounds
roaming on their networks by other network of successful 1xEV-DO Revision A testing and
operators or roaming by their users on the trials and, like Sprint, has recently announced
networks of others. [13] plans to expand its 1xEV-DO network to
Revision A. These trials have lead to agreements
Sprint™
with Nortel, Alcatel-Lucent, and Motorola to
Sprint has been actively expanding, improving,
equip sites with 1xEV-DO Revision A and
and adding new services to its wireless
include core network gear and services [16], [17].
broadband network. This includes plans not
Verizon and Motorola have extended their
only to expand and evolve its high-speed
supply agreement to include upgrades of existing
1xEV-DO network, but also to develop and
1xEV-DO Revision 0 sites and incremental
deploy the first nationwide WiMAX-based
upgrades of CDMA 1xRTT (1x radio transmission
mobile network. In March 2006, Sprint
technology) sites to 1xEV-DO Revision A [16].
announced aggressive plans to expand and
evolve Power VisionSM, its 1xEV-DO network, In August 2005, Verizon and Lucent completed
which now covers over half of the US population the industry’s first live, over-the-air calls using

82 Bechtel Telecommunications Technical Journal

1xEV-DO Revision A technology; they have since
conducted live voice over Internet Protocol
(VoIP) and video telephony calls using the
1xEV-DO Revision A quality of service (QoS)
feature. The increased forward and reverse link
data speeds reduce data latency and enable
operators such as Verizon to deliver VoIP and
other multimedia services [17].
CDMA Performance Data
Expected Performance
What kind of performance should one expect
from cdma2000 networks? Current CDMA
network deployments consist mainly of the
cdma2000 1xRTT and 1xEV-DO variety. With
carriers such as Verizon and Sprint deploying the
next evolution, Revision A, and companies such
as QUALCOMM® and Motorola continuing to
push forward with Revisions B and C, CDMA
technology will continue to be a competitor in the
future of cellular and wireless broadband
deployments around the world.
cdma2000 1xRTT supports both voice and data
(low-speed data by today’s wireless standards).
The voice capacity of 1xRTT typically supports
33–35 voice calls per single 1.25 MHz frequency
division duplex (FDD) channel. The data
capability of a single 1xRTT channel supports
bi-directional peak data rates of up to 153 kbps
and an average of 60–100 kbps in commercial
networks [9]. High-speed data, introduced with
1xEV-DO Release 0, provides peak data rates of
2.4 Mbps in the forward link and 153 kbps in the
reverse link in the same 1.25 MHz CDMA carrier.
The average throughput of 1xEV-DO Revision 0
is 400–800 kbps in the forward link and
70–100 kbps in the reverse link. [9] Despite the
fact that Revision 0 no longer supports circuit-
switched voice traffic, the migration path for
CDMA relies on increased performance and data
rates, particularly in the reverse link, and on the
evolution of providing voice service through a
packet-switched data network.
With cdma2000 1xEV-DO Revision A
technology, peak download data rates
increase to 3.1 Mbps and peak upload data
rates increase to 1.8 Mbps. As stated earlier,
average download speeds improve to
450–800 kbps, and average uplink speeds
become 300–400 kbps [14]. Revision A starts
to make practical the shift to an all-IP-based
network for voice, data, and other multimedia-
based services. However, a long-term strategy
is necessary for continued evolution and
competitive positioning.
January 2007 • Volume 5, Number 1
cdma2000 1xEV-DO Release B, also called multi-
carrier EV-DO, introduces a 64 quadrature
amplitude modulation (QAM) scheme and
delivers peak rates of 73.5 Mbps in the forward
link and 27 Mbps in the reverse link by
aggregating fifteen 1.25 MHz carriers within
20 MHz of bandwidth. A single 1.25 MHz
carrier and an aggregated 5 MHz carrier in the
forward link deliver a peak rate of up to 4.9 Mbps
and 14.7 Mbps, respectively. Revision B will be
commercially available in 2008 [9].
Actual Performance
For service
Now that the expected performances for the
different flavors of cdma2000 are known, what operators, there are
are users actually experiencing? With Revision A three primary
just beginning to be deployed and Revision B still VoIP drivers:
some time out, actual performance data focuses
network efficiency,
on 1xRTT and 1xEV-DO Revision 0.
more efficient
One snapshot of typical user experience was spectrum use,
obtained from tests performed by PC World.
These tests characterized Verizon’s performance
and the ability
to enhance
as of January 2006 in various locations and usage
patterns. Reported results show typical 1xEV-DO voice service
data speeds of 300–500 kbps, with bursts of portfolios.
2.4 Mbps, and 1xRTT data speeds (in areas where
1xEV-DO was not available) of approximately
70 kbps. [18]
Additional information from a popular online
and mobile phone community, Howard Forums,
suggests that average performance on Sprint and
Verizon 1xEV-DO services, as of February 2006, is
774 kbps for Sprint and 594 kbps for Verizon,
with respective peak rates of 1.87 Mbps and
1.98 Mbps. These values are averages for over
100 tests on each network for users throughout
the country [19]. Additional Howard Forums
statistics for these tests are shown in Table 2.
Test results obtained from Huawei cdma2000
network equipment installed in the Bechtel
Telecommunications Laboratory demonstrate
similar findings. The tests used file transfer
protocol (FTP) on a local network with both
Table 2. User Performance for Sprint Nextel and Verizon
Wireless 1xEV-DO Networks as of February 2006 [19]
Sprint Verizon
Nextel Wireless
No. of Entries 122 159
Avg. Forward Link Throughput 774 kbps 594 kbps
Median 764 kbps 610 kbps
Peak 1.868 Mbps 1.976 Mbps
% > 1 Mbps 27% 7%
% > 600 kbps 64% 51%
% < 400 kbps 17% 24%
83
 Table 3. cdma2000 Test Results voice. Therefore, carriers that want to support
1xRTT Downlink (kbps) Uplink (kbps)
both voice and high-speed data must deploy a
hybrid cdma2000 1xRTT and 1xEV-DO network.
1 User – 1 Terminal 126 100
This approach, although used by CDMA carriers
4 Users – 4 Terminals 326 (82/user) 320 (80/user) today, is obviously not an ideal solution moving
1xEV-DO Downlink (kbps) Uplink (kbps) forward. To be supported by an all-IP-based
1 User – 1 Terminal 872 141
architecture such as 1xEV-DO, voice services
must migrate from conventional circuit-switched
4 Users – 1 Terminal 733 (183/user) 175 (44/user)
to packet-switched. As can be seen from even the
4 Users – 4 Terminals 1,361 (340/user) 458 (114/user) simple performance data given above, to this
point it has not been possible to support
1xRTT and 1xEV-DO networks. Since the tests large-scale VoIP services on existing 1xEV-DO
Each evolutionary were conducted in a laboratory environment and networks. However, with the introduction of
step of cdma2000 with a lightly loaded system, these values could 1xEV-DO Revision A and future revisions, the
be assumed as generally a best-case scenario. potential for VoIP and other multimedia services
builds on the
can be realized.
inherent advantages For cdma2000 1xRTT, the single-user average
download speed is 126 kbps and average upload For service operators, there are three primary
of CDMA
speed is 100 kbps. For cdma2000 1xEV-DO, the VoIP drivers: network efficiency, more efficient
technologies and spectrum use, and the ability to enhance voice
single-user average download speed is 872 kbps
introduces and average upload speed is 141 kbps. When service portfolios [20]. VoIP over 1xEV-DO
enhancements that additional users are added, the average benefits from several advantages. First and
throughput per user goes down. However, the foremost, there is only one network to support
further increase
bursty nature of data causes the combined and maintain. Another important benefit involves
spectral efficiencies spectrum use. As shown in Figure 4, current
realized throughput of the single cdma2000
and data carrier to appear to be much larger. The results CDMA networks require two radio channels:
throughput, while of these tests are shown in Table 3. one for 1xRTT voice and one for broadband data.
This separation of voice and data results in
supporting the
inefficient spectrum use because it is not possible
convergence of 1xEV-DO Revision A and the Introduction of VoIP
to offload traffic from one channel to the other to
fixed, mobile, and VoIP Drivers balance the load. Migrating to mobile VoIP over
Because 1xEV-DO is an inherently all-IP-based EV-DO allows voice and broadband data to be
multicasting
architecture, it does not support circuit-switched simultaneously carried over the same channel or
networks through
all-IP delivery.

Circuit
Core

BSC MSC

1xRTT
PTSN
Circuit Voice Network

BTS

BTS Packet
Core
Voice
Data BSC PDSN

EV-DO Release 0 PDSN

Packet Data Network

Figure 4. Traditional cdma2000 1xRTT/1xEV-DO Voice and Data Network [21]

84 Bechtel Telecommunications Technical Journal

carrier in a load balancing configuration. Mobile
VoIP gives operators efficiency and cost savings
through a single packet-based core network [21].
A flatter network architecture is realized, as
shown in Figure 5.
1xEV-DO Revision A Advancements
Not only can VoIP replace traditional voice
services, it can also make new services possible
because both voice and data communications
travel over the same network. Examples include
push-to-talk (PTT), video telephony, click-to-dial,
whiteboarding, and advanced accessibility
features. Although services such as PTT are not
new, the increased performance realized in
Revision A enables improved implementation
compared with what can be done on current
networks. As proof of this, Sprint has chosen
1xEV-DO Revision A as the technology it plans
to use to migrate millions of integrated digital
enhanced network (iDEN) subscribers to a more
scalable version of PTT based on IP. Sprint’s
offering will use an optimized version of
PTT, QUALCOMM’s QChat™, with very fast call
set-up times. Coupled with QChat, Revision A
will underpin the first cellular network to deliver
sub-second PTT call set-up [21].
1xEV-DO Revision A adds several advancements
for VoIP and other multimedia traffic. These
include increased data rates, end-to-end QoS,
support for short and multiuser packets, and
support for header compression. Compared with
Revision 0, Revision A increases the peak forward
EV-DO Revision A
Packet Voice and Data Network
BTS
VoIP
Data
Figure 5. cdma2000 1xEV-DO Revision A Voice and Data Network [21]
January 2007 • Volume 5, Number 1
link data rate to 3.1 Mbps and, more importantly,
increases the peak reverse link data rate to
1.8 Mbps. This dramatically enhanced uplink
data rate enables Revision A networks to support
significantly more voice communications than is
possible under Revision 0.
The 1xEV-DO forward link uses TDM to send
packets to various users; this requires a
scheduling function to select which user should
gain access to the air link at any given time.
1xEV-DO Revision A adds the ability for the
forward link scheduler to coordinate the use of
cdma2000
the air link with the various devices using it.
On the reverse link, Revision A permits the use 1xEV-DO Revision A
of higher power for QoS packets in order to adds several
reduce the number of transmissions and retries advancements for
necessary to successfully send these packets [22].
VoIP and other
1xEV-DO Revision A supports a wide variety of multimedia traffic.
shorter packet transmissions. This is necessary
These include
because, unlike many data applications, voice
increased data
applications regularly transmit relatively short
packets. The shorter packets can be transmitted in rates, end-to-end
less time and allow more users to access the QoS, support for
network with low latency. In addition, 1xEV-DO
short and multiuser
Revision A includes support for multiuser
packets, and
packets. This capability allows a long physical
layer packet to be addressed to separate users, support for header
again reducing air link overhead as well as compression.
per-user delay.
Along the same lines as short and multi-user
packets, 1xEV-DO Revision A supports header
PSTN
SIP Media
Server Gateway
Packet
Core
BSC
PDSN
PDSN
85
 1,400
1,200
1,000
Sector Throughput (kbps)
800
600
cdma2000
1xEV-DO Revision B 400
introduces a
64 QAM modulation 200
scheme and delivers
peak rates of 0 5
73.5 Mbps in the
forward link and
27 Mbps in the
reverse link by Figure 6. Simultaneous VoIP and Data Sector Throughput [21]
aggregating fifteen
1.25 MHz carriers compression. The overhead required in current
within 20 MHz networks results in an inefficient overhead-to-
payload ratio. Typical ratios can be on the order
of bandwidth.
of 2:1, or a required header twice as large as the
actual voice payload. Such inefficiencies affect the
overall network capacity to handle voice traffic.
Header compression reduces these headers from
as much as 40 bytes down to approximately
2 bytes. [20, 22]
Putting VoIP and 1xEV-DO Revision A Together
According to simulations performed in [22], VoIP
over 1xEV-DO Revision A supports 40–60
simultaneous users. Even with a guaranteed
voice quality of 270 ms mouth-to-ear delay
for 40–60 simultaneous VoIP users, 1xEV-DO
Revision A makes 400 kbps per sector available
on the forward link for data users. This is
in sharp contrast to 1xRTT, which cannot
deliver simultaneous voice and broadband
data under any circumstances. Figure 6 shows
the relationship between the number of
voice subscribers supported and the offered
data capacity.
In June 2006, QUALCOMM successfully
demonstrated the potential for using VoIP across
1xEV-DO Release A. The field tests, conducted
over a cdma2000 1xEV-DO Revision A system in
one sector within a single 1.25 MHz channel in a
fully mobile configuration, showed a voice
capacity capable of supporting 62 simultaneous
86
Data
Throughput
with 40
Simultaneous
VoIP Calls
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Voice Users
calls. These field tests validate the quality and
capacity of fully mobile VoIP over 1xEV-DO
Revision A and pave the way to large-scale
commercial trials by network operators [23].
The Path of cdma2000 Evolution
The principle underlying the path of cdma2000
evolution is backward and forward compatibility.
This compatibility allows operators to seamlessly
and cost-effectively upgrade their existing
networks to enhance capabilities and advance
services. Each evolutionary step of cdma2000
builds on the inherent advantages of CDMA
technologies and introduces enhancements that
further increase spectral efficiencies and data
throughput, while supporting the convergence
of fixed, mobile, and multicasting networks
through all-IP delivery. [9]
Evolutionary Dead Ends
In contrast to previous CDMA evolution
strategies that planned on cdma2000 1xEV-DV
(evolution-data/voice) and cdma2000 3x (multi-
carrier CDMA using three 1.25 MHz carriers), the
current evolution strategy is focused on upgrades
to the existing 1xEV-DO technology path. In this
manner, the intent of both 3x and 1xEV-DV
will be embraced in the advanced revisions of
1xEV-DO. Since 1xEV-DO was originally thought
of as a data-only service, cdma2000 1xEV-DV
was envisioned as a technology to provide both
Bechtel Telecommunications Technical Journal
high-speed data and voice services using the
same 1.25 MHz CDMA carrier. However, 1xEV-DO
Revision A technology incorporates many of the
advances originally planned for 1xEV-DV. The
same is true for cdma2000 3x. Future 1xEV-DO
Revisions B and C are expected to provide
scalable bandwidths by making use of multiple
cdma2000 EV-DO carriers. The present cdma2000
migration path, as outlined by the CDMA
Development Group (CDG), is shown in Figure 7.
1xEV-DO Revision A
cdma2000 1xEV-DO Revision A is an all-IP-based
air interface that enables the integration of
VoIP, high-speed packet data, and enhanced
multimedia capabilities. As previously discussed,
1xEV-DO Revision A represents a major step in
the evolution of cdma2000 standards toward
converged communication networks and
ubiquitous delivery of voice and data services
across fixed and wireless networks. The major
enhancements of Revision A include increased
data throughputs, increased rate quantization on
the forward and reverse links, reduced latency,
and optimized QoS. In addition, an orthogonal
frequency division multiplexed (OFDM)
waveform is introduced to offer high capacity
multicast capabilities that allow operators to offer
lower cost multicast services while maintaining
a robust high-speed mobile network with
cdma2000. [24]
1xEV-DO Revision B
cdma2000 1xEV-DO Revision B, also known as
multicarrier CDMA, introduces a 64 QAM
modulation scheme and delivers peak rates of
73.5 Mbps in the forward link and 27 Mbps in the
reverse link by aggregating fifteen 1.25 MHz
carriers within 20 MHz of bandwidth. However,
the aggregation of three channels within 5 MHz
for 9.3 Mbps on the forward link and 5.4 Mbps on
the reverse link is a more likely configuration in
commercial networks [11]. This scalable approach
to allocating bandwidth allows a linear approach
to aggregating carriers, depending on network cdma2000
demands and spectrum availability. Further 1xEV-DO Revision C
efficiencies can be realized through dynamic load
will use technologies
balancing, or allocating radio spectrum for
such as OFDMA,
particular locations, customers, or applications
that require increased data throughputs. Any SDMA, and MIMO
1.25 MHz carrier or group of carriers can be used to achieve
as needed [25].
higher peak
In addition to supporting mobile broadband data data rates,
and OFDM-based multicasting, as introduced in
extremely low
1xEV-DO Revision A, the lower latency
characteristic of 1xEV-DO Revision B further latency, and very
improves the performance of delay-sensitive high spectral
applications such as VoIP, PTT over cellular, efficiency.
video telephony, and the like. 1xEV-DO
Revision B systems, which will be commercially
available in 2008, maintain backward and
forward capability with previous revisions of

CDMA CDMA/TDM CDMA/OFDM CDMA/OFDMA/MIMO/SDMA

cdma2000 Path (1.25 MHz Channel)

VolP

1xEV-DO 1xEV-DO 1xEV-DO

cdma2000 cdma2000
1x 1xEV-DO Revision A Revision B Revision C
(Note 1) (Notes 1, 2) (Note 3)

DL: 153 kbps DL: 2.4 Mbps DL: 3.1 Mbps DL: 3.1–73 Mbps Requirements:
UL: 153 kbps UL: 153 kbps UL: 1.8 Mbps UL: 1.8–27 Mbps DL: 70–200 Mbps
1.25–20 MHz UL: 30–45 Mbps
1.25–20 MHz

2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010

NOTES:
Timeline depicts initial commercial availability of each technology. Those introduced beyond 2008 are under standardization and are subject to variability.
1. EV-DO Revision A and Revision B incorporate OFDM for multicasting.
2. Data rates of 73 Mbps for the DL and 27 Mbps for the UL figures are based on a 2 x 20 MHz allocation.
3. Data rate is dependent on level of mobility.

Figure 7. cdma2000 Migration Path [9]

January 2007 • Volume 5, Number 1 87

 1xEV-DO. [25] Figure 8 shows the expected
increase in performance for 3-channel 1xEV-DO
Revision B, compared with previous versions of
1xEV-DO and 1xRTT.
1xEV-DO Revision C
The latest enhancement in the evolution of
cdma2000 1xEV-DO is Revision C. According to
a system requirements document for the next
air interface evolution of cdma2000 approved in
May 2006, the forward link and reverse link peak
data rates, using scalable bandwidths up to
As current 3G
cellular networks
20 MHz, should be respectively capable of up to
500 Mbps and 150 Mbps in a stationary indoor
environment and up to 100 Mbps and 50 Mbps
evolve and new in a mobile environment [26]. Building on
networks such as Revision B, the technology has a flexible and
dynamic mode of operation to combine and
WiMAX are
allocate spectrum as needed to support a large
deployed, the
variety of user applications and activities. [25]
distinction between
them continues to Revision C is planned for commercial availability
in 2008 and uses technologies such as orthogonal
blur because the frequency division multiple access (OFDMA);
technological bases spatial division multiple access (SDMA); and
of IEEE 802.16e, multiple-input, multiple-output (MIMO) to
LTE, and EV-DO achieve higher peak data rates, extremely low
latency, and very high spectral efficiency.
revisions look
The framework employs OFDMA on the forward
increasingly similar. link and supports several advanced antenna
techniques, including MIMO and SDMA.
The reverse link employs quasi-orthogonal
transmissions based on OFDMA, along with
non-orthogonal user multiplexing with layered
superposed OFDMA (LS-OFDMA). The reverse
link also supports CDMA transmissions for
control and for low-rate, low-latency traffic.
Detailed technical specifications are expected to
be completed by early in the second quarter
of 2007. [26]
CONCLUSIONS—MOVING FORWARD
T his paper takes a very wide look at the
development and implementation of WLL
systems and in particular the predominant
technology employed in these systems,
cdma2000. Despite the fact that WLL systems
have mostly been used to provide basic
communication services, either as an alternative
carrier or in remote areas where legacy service
does not exist, the growing demand for high-
speed data services, along with advances in
technologies, has continued to morph the
landscape. Data services are no longer an option,
but rather the foundation for all other services.
Therefore, the shift has been made from WLL
systems to a more generic form of broadband
wireless access.
This paper focuses on cdma2000. However,
as current 3G cellular networks such as
UMTS/high-speed packet access (HSPA) and

Forward Link Performance Improvement Comparative Downloads

200 KB 3.5 MB 10 MB
Mbps Picture MP3 PowerPoint®
3xMC-DO
File Presentation
5 MHz
3xMC-DO
5 MHz 9.3 0.2 3 8.7
1xEV-DO
Revision A
1xEV-DO
Revision A 3.1 0.5 9 26
1xEV-DO
Revision 0
1xEV-DO
2.4 0.7 12 33
Revision 0
1x
1x 0.153 10 183 523

0.153 1.8 3.1 5.4 9.3

Mbps Seconds

Figure 8. Comparative Performance of 1xEV-DO Revision B [25]

88 Bechtel Telecommunications Technical Journal

cdma2000 1xEV-DO evolve (UMTS to HSPA
and eventually long-term evolution [LTE], and
1xEV-DO from Revision A to Revision B and
on to Revision C) and new networks such as
WiMAX are deployed, the distinction between
them continues to blur because the technological
bases of IEEE 802.16e, LTE, and EV-DO
revisions look increasingly similar. The
technological similarities include such things as
an OFDM basis, smart antenna techniques,
an all-IP network, and non-hierarchical
network structures. [27]
Even so, the importance of each system will
ultimately be decided by commercial and
political factors, not technological ones.
Because of this, cdma2000 1xEV-DO will have
an important place alongside other systems
in the mobile broadband picture moving
forward. [27] „
TRADEMARKS
Alcatel-Lucent is a trademark of Alcatel-Lucent.
cdma2000 is a registered trademark and
certification mark of the Telecommunications
Industry Association (TIA-USA).
Ericsson is the trademark or registered
trademark of Telefonaktiebolaget LM Ericsson.
Huawei is a trademark of Huawei Technologies
Co., Ltd.
Intel is a registered trademark of Intel
Corporation in the United States and other
countries.
Motorola is registered in the U.S. Patent and
Trademark Office by Motorola, Inc.
Nortel is a trademark of Nortel Networks
Limited.
PowerPoint is a registered trademark of
Microsoft Corporation in the United States
and other countries.
Power Vision is a service mark and Sprint
is a trademark of Sprint Nextel.
QChat is a trademark of QUALCOMM
Incorporated.
QUALCOMM is a registered trademark of
QUALCOMM Incorporated.
Samsung is a trademark of Samsung in the
United States or other countries.
January 2007 • Volume 5, Number 1
Verizon Wireless is a registered trademark of
Verizon Trademark Services LLC or its affiliates
in the United States and/or other countries.
WiMAX and WiMAX Forum are trademarks of
the WiMAX Forum.
ZTE is a registered trademark of ZTE
Corporation.
REFERENCES
[1] “Wireless Local Loop (WLL),” IEC white paper
(http://www.iec.org/online/tutorials/wll).
[2] V.K. Garg and E.L. Sneed, “Digital Wireless Local
Loop System,” IEEE Communications Magazine,
Vol. 34, No. 10, October 1996, pp. 112–115.
[3] W.C.Y. Lee, “Spectrum and Technology of a
Wireless Local Loop System,” IEEE Personal
Communications, Vol. 5, No. 1, February 1998,
pp. 49–54.
[4] M. Naidu, “CDMA2000 for Wireless in Local
Loop Networks,” QUALCOMM white paper,
December 2004.
[5] J. Cawley, Inquam, “Regulatory Policies and
Spectrum Requirements for use of CDMA in
the 450 MHz Band,” presentation at CDMA450
Seminar, November 2004.
[6] “CDMA Enabling WLL Services and Bridging
the Digital Divide,” QUALCOMM presentation,
December 2002.
[7] “CDMA End-to-End Security,” Nortel Networks,
September 2004.
[8] C. Wingert and M. Naidu, QUALCOMM,
“CDMA 1xRTT Security Overview,” August 2002.
[9] CDMA Development Group (http://
www.cdg.org and http://www.cdg.org/
technology/3g/evolution.asp).
[10] M. Kibati and D. Krairit, “Wireless Local Loop
in Developing Regions: Is It Too Soon for Data?”
Communications of the ACM, Vol. 42, No. 6,
June 1999, pp. 60–66.
[11] CDMA Development Group, “Taking CDMA2000
into the Next Decade,” October 2005.
[12] “Success Story: Eurotel,” Nortel case study, 2005.
[13] Iraqi National Communication and Media
Commission, Official Announcement Award
of Wireless Local Loop Licenses, September 2006
(http://www.ncmc-iraq.com/
wllAnnouncement.htm).
[14] “Sprint Extends Mobility Leadership with
Aggressive Broadband Network Expansion,”
Sprint news release, March 2006 (http://
www2.sprint.com/mr/news_dtl.do?id=11040).
[15] “Sprint Nextel Announces 4G Wireless
Broadband Initiative with Intel, Motorola and
Samsung,” Sprint news release, August 2006
(http://www2.sprint.com/mr/
news_dtl.do?id=12960).
[16] “Verizon Wireless and Motorola Agree to
Expand and Upgrade CDMA 1x Sites to EV-DO
Rev. A,” Verizon news release, September 2006
(http://news.vzw.com/news/2006/09/
pr2006-09-12.html).
89
 [17] “Verizon Wireless Selects Lucent Technologies for
CDMA2000 1xEV-DO Revision A Technology,”
Verizon news release, June 2006
(http://news.vzw.com/news/2006/06/
pr2006-06-27.html).
[18] C. Null, “Broadband to Go,” PC World magazine,
January 2006 (http://www.pcworld.com).
[19] Howard Forums, February 2006
(http://www.howardforums.com/
showthread.php?threadid=846131).
[20] Airvana VoIP Technology
(http://www.airvananet.com/print/
technology_voip.htm).
[21] P. Callahan, “Mobile VoIP over 1xEV-DO,”
Airvana technical white paper, July 2006.
[22] M. Yavuz, S. Diaz, R. Kapoor, M. Grob, P. Black,
Y. Tokgoz, and C. Lott, “VoIP over CDMA2000
1xEV-DO Revision A,” IEEE Communications
Magazine, Vol. 44, No. 2, February 2006,
pp. 88–95.
[23] “QUALCOMM Successfully Demonstrates Fully
Mobile VoIP Calls Across a Number of Field
Test Environments,” QUALCOMM press release,
June 2006.
[24] CDMA Development Group, “CDMA2000
1xEV-DO Revision A, The Gateway to True
Mobile Broadband Multimedia,” August 2006.
[25] “CDMA2000 EV-DO Revision B,” Motorola
white paper, May 2006.
[26] “CDMA Industry is Ready to Meet Future
Market Needs Head On,” 3GPP3 news release,
August 2006 (http://www.3gpp2.org/
Public_html/News/Release_15Aug2006.pdf).
[27] E. Weinman, “WiMAX: State of the Industry,”
WiMAX Business & Technology Strategies,
October 2006.
90
BIOGRAPHY
Nathan Youell joined Bechtel in
2001 and is currently a systems
engineer with the Bechtel
Federal Telecoms Strategic
Infrastructure Group. He is the
resident subject matter expert
for wireless systems and is
responsible for testing and
evaluating telecommunications
equipment, as well as modeling
and simulating critical infrastructure, with a primary
focus on telecommunications systems.
Previously, as a staff scientist/engineer and the
manager of the Bechtel Telecommunications
Laboratory, Nathan gained and then provided
expertise in developing and implementing test plans
and procedures. He was instrumental in creating
the Bechtel Training, Demonstration and Research
(TDR) Laboratory in Frederick, Maryland, and the
Bechtel Wireless Test Bed (BWTB) in Idaho Falls,
Idaho. He also tested numerous telecommunications
equipment and technologies, including TMA, 802.11,
802.16, GSM, DAS, DWDM, FSO, microwave and
millimeter wave radio, and wireless repeater. Earlier,
Nathan was an RF engineer in the New York and
Washington, DC, markets as part of Bechtel’s
nationwide build-out contract with AT&T Wireless.
Nathan received both his MS and BS degrees
in Electrical Engineering from Clemson University,
South Carolina.
Bechtel Telecommunications Technical Journal
BECHTEL
TELECOMMUNICATIONS

B echtel Telecommunications, a unit of Bechtel

Corporation, provides turnkey deployment services
that include network planning, RF design, engineering,
Telecommunications Leadership
and project and construction management for the
deployment of wireless, wireline, and other
TIMOTHY D. STATTON
telecommunication facilities worldwide. We are
Executive Vice President and Director,
headquartered near Washington, DC, and supported by Bechtel Group, Inc.
our global network of offices. President, Bechtel Telecommunications
With more than 100,000 new build, overlay, and
upgrade wireless sites deployed; 23,000 kilometers of MIKE HICKEY
wireline fiber laid; and numerous communication Principal Vice President and
centers constructed around the globe, Bechtel is the Manager of Functional Operations
global company of choice for telecommunications
infrastructure deployment.

Bechtel has continually set the bar for telecom- JAMES A. IVANY
munications network project deployment for clients Principal Vice President and
throughout the world. Due to our success with tight Business Manager and
schedules and cost effective delivery, we are currently Chief Financial Officer
managing network expansions and upgrades for major
operators in the US, Europe, and the Asia-Pacific region. J. S. (JAKE) MACLEOD
Signature record-breaking projects include Cingular, Principal Vice President and
AT&T Wireless, Vodafone, Verizon, Metromedia Fiber Chief Technology Officer
Networks, XO, WINFirst, Viatel, Pangea, and Equinix.

LEE LUSHBAUGH
Principal Vice President and
General Manager, Americas

RICK ASTLEFORD
Principal Vice President and
General Manager, Europe, Africa,
Middle East, Asia, and Asia-Pacific

January 2007 • Volume 5, Number 1 91

 Bechtel Corporation

B echtel Corporation is a privately held

company headquartered in San Francisco,
California, with approximately 40,000 employees,
more than 40 offices worldwide, and 2005
revenues of approximately $18.1 billion. Founded
in 1898, Bechtel has been under the leadership of
TECHNOLOGY EVALUATION its founding family for four generations. Riley P.

K ey to Bechtel's deployment success is our Bechtel, great-grandson of the founder, is the

technology expertise. To provide our current chairman and chief executive officer.
clients with complete turnkey deployment Bechtel is one of the world's premier engineering,
services, we offer expert technology research construction, and project management companies.
and testing services. We have assembled a
full-service Technology Group of leading • The Financial Times recently listed Bechtel
professionals that provides our customers as the “World’s Most Respected Company”
with neutral technology services and in the property and construction industries.
oversees our in-house telecommunications
• Global Finance magazine named Bechtel
laboratories: the Bechtel Wireless Test Bed
the “World’s Best Company” in the
(BWTB) and the Training, Demonstration
construction sector for 5 years in a row.
and Research (TDR) Laboratory.
• Engineering News-Record ranked Bechtel as
The BWTB, an over-the-air wireless test
Number 1 on the list of the “Top 400
bed, enables us to analyze network
Contractors” for 7 consecutive years.
products and technologies for our clients
in a real-world environment. It can be • Engineering News-Record also ranked
dynamically configured to meet specific Bechtel Number 1 Telecommunications
testing requirements without impacting the Contractor from 2002 to 2006.
client’s network.
Because of our unparalleled industry recognition
The TDR Laboratory offers our clients and financial stability, we are the partner of choice
the ability to integrate equipment from for network deployment.
multiple vendors to identify interoperability
issues, monitor product performance, and
ensure compatibility with legacy systems,
thereby reducing the risk of imple-
menting new technologies and paving the
way for investment in network upgrades
or expansion.

92