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What is This?
Article
Qualitative Inquiry
David L. Morgan1
Abstract
Although advocates of mixed-methods research have proposed pragmatism as a paradigm for social research, nearly all
of that work has emphasized the practical rather than the philosophical aspects of pragmatism. This article addresses that
gap by connecting John Dewey’s work on experience and inquiry to current issues in the study of social research. In doing
so, it also addresses the political concerns that link pragmatism and social justice. As a new paradigm, pragmatism disrupts
the assumptions of older approaches based on the philosophy of knowledge, while providing promising new directions for
understanding the nature of social research.
Keywords
mixed-methods design, methodologies, pragmatism, methods of inquiry, John Dewey
Every thinker puts some portion of an apparently stable world within MMR, this says more about the historical context
in peril and no one can wholly predict what will emerge in its involved rather than implying an intimate connection
place. between mixed methods as an approach to research and
—John Dewey, Experience and Nature (1925a/2008, p. 172) pragmatism as a paradigm.
The argument here is that pragmatism can serve as a
Although the possibility of pursuing pragmatism as a para- philosophical program for social research, regardless of
digm for social research is not entirely new (e.g., Gage, whether that research uses qualitative, quantitative, or
1989; Howe, 1988; Patton, 1988), its frequent linkage with mixed methods. As a new paradigm, it replaces the older
Mixed-Methods Research (MMR) has heightened the philosophy of knowledge approach (e.g., Guba, 1990; Guba
awareness of pragmatism (e.g., Biesta, 2010; Hall, 2013; & Lincoln, 2005; Lincoln, 2010), which understands social
Johnson & Onwuegbuzie, 2004; Maxcy, 2003; Morgan, research in terms of ontology, epistemology, and methodol-
2007; Pearce, 2012; Tashakkori & Teddlie, 2010). There ogy. This claim to be a new paradigm rests on demonstrat-
are, however, legitimate questions about the extent to which ing the broader value of pragmatism as a philosophical
MMR has actually made use of the intellectual foundations system, along with its immediate practicality for issues such
of pragmatism as a philosophy (Denzin, 2010, 2012). MMR as research design.
has emphasized the practical aspect of research methods in This article thus has two goals. The first is to make stron-
ways that both introduced pragmatism as a paradigm for ger connections between MMR and pragmatism as a phi-
social research, largely avoiding serious contact with the losophy by moving beyond the narrow approaches that
philosophical foundations of pragmatism. reduce pragmatism to practicality. Doing so leads to an
Does arguing for a broader application of pragmatism to emphasis on John Dewey’s concept of inquiry. The second
social research require a clarification of its specific relation- goal is to demonstrate that this philosophical pragmatism
ship to MMR? At issue here is the idea that pragmatism is provides a useful system for understanding social research
somehow uniquely related to MMR. This confusion is remi- in general. Doing so includes particular attention to issues
niscent of some paradigmatic claims that qualitative meth- of social justice as a broad agenda for social research.
ods must be connected to constructivism and quantitative
methods must be connected to post-positivism. In all of
these cases, there may be an affinity between paradigms and 1
Portland State University, OR, USA
methods, but there is no deterministic link that forces the
Corresponding Author:
use of a particular paradigm with a particular set of meth- David L. Morgan, Department of Sociology, Portland State University,
ods. Although the recent resurgence of interest in pragma- Portland, OR 97207-0751, USA.
tism was indeed sparked by an attempt to resolve issues Email: morgand@pdx.edu
Dewey’s rejection of arguments about the nature of real- Dewey and other classic pragmatists felt that the long-
ity is not the same, however, as denying the differences standing debates in traditional metaphysics were seriously
between post-positivism and constructivism as approaches misguided. By ignoring the centrality of human experience,
to research. Researchers from these traditions have very these debated simply asked the wrong questions. Of course,
difference experiences in the world of research, and these this dismissal of metaphysical issues will not sit well with
experiences lead to different beliefs and different actions. those who advocate for their importance in understanding
The point here is that any attempt to produce knowledge social research. Accordingly, Yvonna Lincoln (2010) com-
occurs within a social context. Morgan (2007) interprets plains, “The mixed-methods pragmatists tell us nothing
Kuhn’s (1996) concept of paradigms in terms of the impor- about their ontology or epistemology” (p. 7). This demand
tance of “shared beliefs within a community of researchers that pragmatism pay attention to metaphysics is hardly new,
who share a consensus about which questions are most and as noted above, Dewey himself saw his version of prag-
meaningful and which methods are most appropriate for matism as what we would now call a new paradigm within
answering those questions” (2007, p. 53). Paradigms are his home discipline of philosophy. Thus, in a passage from
thus social worlds where research communities exert a his work on evolution that sounds very much like Thomas
powerful influence over the beliefs we consider to be Kuhn (1996), Dewey claims that rather than solving the tra-
“meaningful” and the actions we accept as “appropriate.” ditional philosophical problems, we need to “get over them.”
Using a conception of paradigms as shared beliefs within
a community of researchers, what we know as and post-pos- Intellectual progress usually occurs through sheer abandonment
itivism and constructivism easily fit within this definition due of questions together with both of the alternatives they
to the distinctive research experiences that they define and assume—an abandonment that results from their decreasing
promote. Rather than assigning post-positivism and con- vitality and a change of urgent interest. We do not solve them:
structivism a priori to different ontological and epistemologi- we get over them. Old questions are solved by disappearing,
cal camps, a pragmatist would focus on their characteristic evaporating, while new questions corresponding to the changed
attitude of endeavor and preference take their place. (Dewey,
approaches to inquiry. Each of them creates its own world of
1910/2008, p. 14)
research—different contexts with different feelings about
and different standards for the nature of inquiry.
For metaphysical versions of the philosophy of knowl- Pragmatism presents a radical departure from age-old
edge, assumptions about the nature of reality determine the philosophical arguments about the nature of reality and the
kinds of knowledge that are possible. For pragmatism, this possibility of truth. As Hall (2013) puts it, pragmatism
abstraction is replaced by an emphasis on experience as the offers “an alternative epistemological paradigm” (p. 19). In
this new worldview, knowledge consists of warranted asser-
continual interaction of beliefs and action. This leads to
tions (Dewey, 1941/2008) that result from taking action and
questions about what difference it makes not only to acquire
experiencing the outcomes. But inquiry in general and
knowledge one way rather than another (i.e., the procedures
research in particular are specific realms of experience, and
we use), but to produce one kind of knowledge rather than
as such, they are only part of Dewey’s larger philosophical
another (i.e., the purposes we pursue). Knowledge is not
system. For Dewey, questions related to politics were at
about an abstract relationship between the knower and the
least as important as issues related to research, and the next
known; instead, there is an active process of inquiry that
section takes up this topic.
creates a continual back-and-forth movement between
beliefs and actions.
The key point here is that pragmatism as a paradigm can The Political Implications of
account for one of the most distinctive features of the previ- Pragmatism
ous paradigm—the importance of distinguishing between
post-positivism and constructivism—without relying on Examining the political and moral dimensions of pragma-
metaphysical assumptions about ontology and epistemol- tism requires, once again, a distinction between the merely
ogy. Pragmatism not only replaces arguments about the practical uses of pragmatism and its deeper philosophical
nature of reality as the essential criterion for differentiating content. Not surprisingly, the methods-centric view of prag-
approaches to research, it also recognizes the value of those matism within most of MMR has led to little explicit dis-
different approaches as research communities that guide cussion of the connection between social justice issues and
choices about how to conduct inquiry. Thus, pragmatism pragmatism. Denzin (2010) thus raises the concern that
acts as a new paradigm to replace an older way of thinking turning our discourse about research into a discussion of
about the differences between approaches to research by procedures “leaves little space for issues connected to
treating those differences as social contexts for inquiry as a empowerment, social justice, and a politics of hope” (p. 420).
form of social action, rather than as abstract philosophical At the same time, he recognizes the work of researchers
systems. who do pursue these goals from within MMR, such as
Hesse-Biber and Leavy (2008) and Mertens (2003). At a I am inclined to believe that the heart and final guarantee of
more personal rather than philosophical level, Dewey him- democracy is in free gatherings of neighbors on the street
self was notably active in the progressive politics of his day, corner to discuss back and forth what is read in uncensored
including working with Jane Addams at Hull House and news of the day, and in gatherings of friends in the living rooms
of houses and apartments to converse freely with one another.
playing a role in founding the American Civil Liberties
(p. 227)
Union (ACLU), the American Association of University
Professors (AAUP), and the National Association for the
Rather than staying within the limited political position
Advancement of Colored People (NAACP). Still the ques-
developed by Dewey and other classic pragmatists, more
tion remains about whether there are deeper links between
recent versions of pragmatism have developed a stronger
pragmatism and social justice.
bond to a social justice agenda. This is particularly notable
As the previous discussion of inquiry noted, all our
in the work of pragmatist feminists such as Charlene
attempts to understand and act in the world are inherently
Haddock Seigfried (1996, 2002a), Shannon Sullivan (2001),
contextual, emotional, and social. More specifically, prag-
and Judy Whipps (2010). The value of this line of work is
matism emphasizes that all aspects of research inherently
that it not only demonstrates the value of pragmatism as a
involve decisions about which goals are most meaningful
philosophy for feminism but also points out the ways that
and which methods are most appropriate. As Denzin (2010)
feminism can develop a social justice agenda within prag-
stresses, “Inquiry will always be a moral, political and
matism. Thus, Seigfried (2002b) points out that
value-laden enterprise” (pp. 424-425), and the same orien-
tation is central to Dewey’s philosophy. His approach to
Dewey does consistently argue against the subjugation of
questions of ethics, morality, and politics was identical to women, racial and ethnic or other minorities, and the working
his arguments in other realms of experience (1925a/2008). class, and for their emancipation and full participation in
In particular, he treated inquiry into ethical questions as Society. He thinks that these goals can be accomplished
continuous with other efforts to link existing beliefs with through rational persuasion . . . What is needed is need to
situations in which there is a need a for action. Ethical ques- complete his analyses and proposals is a more penetrating
tions are questions about what to do and about the differ- account of the sources of inherited prejudice. (p. 60)
ence it would make to act one way versus another, and, as
such, they fall directly within Dewey’s philosophical Thus, a feminist analysis of power, prejudice, and
emphasis on human experience. oppression has much to offer to Dewey’s overly optimistic
The central moral value that Dewey advocates for his version of conflict resolution. In other words, he offers a
version of pragmatism is freedom of inquiry (1925b/2008), vision of progressive politics that was in keeping with his
in which individuals and social communities are able to own times but which can benefit directly from subsequent
define the issues that matter most to them and pursue those analyses of these issues.
issues in the ways that are the most meaningful to them. His Recognizing that pragmatism provides a strong match
version of inquiry as the revision of beliefs places a central with the advocacy of social justice certainly does not claim
emphasis on the capacity for growth. In particular, he was that it is the only way to make the connection between poli-
opposed to any use of force or economic domination that tics and research. Lincoln (2010) argues that generations of
would limit the possibilities for growth of other social feminists and other researchers who advocate for social jus-
groups. This leads to a natural fit between pragmatism and tice “view epistemology as deeply linked to method, and
many versions of transformative or emancipatory research vice versa” (p. 7). Making this linkage, however, typically
through a shared emphasis on openness, fairness, and free- requires an expansion to include axiology as a fourth defin-
dom from oppression. ing element, alongside the traditional triad of ontology,
Saying that Dewey’s philosophy has a position on moral epistemology, and methodology. According to Hesse-Biber
and political experience is not the same, however, as saying (2012),
that his version of pragmatism presented a detailed method
or coherent agenda for action. Dewey has been rightly criti- Axiology means being cognizant of our values, attitudes, and
biases and acknowledging how these might play out in research
cized on these grounds, most notably by C. Wright Mills
praxis in terms of (a) what questions are asked or not asked in
(1964), who highlights how Dewey’s vision of democracy our research, (b) what type of data are or are not collected, and
never advanced beyond the kind of face-to-face interaction (c) the type of methods, measurement, analysis, and
he encountered in his New England upbringing. This lim- interpretation that shape our understanding of the research
ited perspective is evident in one of Dewey’s (1939/2008a) process. (p. 878)
late essays in which he explicitly claims the superiority of
American democracy in opposition to the fascist move- As the preceding discussion indicates, these same defin-
ments in Europe and then notes, ing characteristics also underlie pragmatism as a philosophy.
The difference is that these principles flow directly from more deeply into pragmatism as a philosophy, and that has
pragmatism’s core assumptions about the nature of inquiry been the goal of this article. The most basic objective has
without any need to add axiology as a separate element. been to demonstrate that pragmatism presents a coherent
While there is no doubt that metaphysical discussions about philosophy that goes well beyond “what works.” Based on
the nature of reality and truth can be extended to handle the the work of John Dewey, pragmatism points to the impor-
political and ethical aspects of research, pragmatism as a tance of joining beliefs and actions in a process of inquiry
philosophical paradigm has the advantage of naturally that underlies any search for knowledge, including the spe-
assigning a central role of politics and ethics in every aspect cialized activity that we refer to as research.
of human experience. One distinct consequence of advocating pragmatism as a
Once again, the larger point is that pragmatism as a paradigm is to disrupt the reliance on a metaphysical ver-
broad paradigm for social research can account for the sion of the philosophy of knowledge as a lens for examining
accomplishments of the previous paradigm without the social research. Although this disruptive influence may not
need for metaphysical assumptions. In this case, pragma- have been an intentional goal in the original pairing of prag-
tism can stand outside the previous assumptions and still matism and MMR, pragmatism insists on treating research
provide at least as strong a bond to social justice goals. Both as a human experience that is based on the beliefs and
social justice and pragmatism treat our actions as research- actions of actual researchers. This is quite different from
ers as located within belief systems, in which those beliefs characterizing social research in terms of ontology, episte-
are subject to change by our conscious actions. Furthermore, mology, and methodology; even so, it does not imply that
both the experiences we bring to research and the changes the older approach was “wrong.” Instead, pragmatism
we hope to produce are context bound, embodied and emo- would understand the prior paradigm as a set of beliefs and
tional, and thoroughly social in nature. Taken together, actions that were uniquely important within a given set of
these strengths point to both the value of classical pragma- circumstances. Since then, circumstances have changed in
tism as an orientation toward social justice and the potential ways that call for a new methodological agenda.
for current work on social justice to continue pragmatism’s Rather than framing the study of social science research
development in this direction. as commitments to an abstract set of philosophical beliefs,
pragmatism concentrates on beliefs that are more directly
connected to actions. This calls for an approach to methodol-
Conclusion ogy that goes back to its original linguistic roots, the study of
In considering the increased interest in pragmatism as a methods. Pragmatism shifts the study of social research to
paradigm for social research, it is essential to recognize that questions such as: How do researchers make choices about
paradigms are more than simple statements about future the way they do research? Why do they make the choices
directions for research. From the perspective of pragma- they do? And, what is the impact of making one set of
tism, new paradigms create new sets of beliefs that guide choices rather than another? Although these questions are
new kinds of actions. At a fundamental level, paradigms not new, making them the center of our program for studying
create new worldviews and social contexts that have wide- social research reorients us to a new set of issues and goals.
spread impacts on the conduct of inquiry. Pursuing this new agenda requires examining not just
Understanding the shift toward pragmatism as a para- what researchers do but why they do things the ways they
digm begins with the recent history of social research meth- do. Research never occurs in a vacuum, so how it influ-
odology, from which interest in pragmatism emerged enced by the historical, cultural, and political contexts in
through its association with MMR. MMR, in turn, arose in which it is done? And how do our research communities
a period when it was expected that any approach to social come together to emphasize one way of doing things rather
research would have a metaphysical paradigm explicitly than another? We need to pay more attention to how these
based on the philosophy of knowledge. Yet, MMR did not factors influence both the choices we make and the ways
fit comfortably within that context. In particular, most of that we interpret the outcomes of those choices. This is the
the focus in MMR was on practical, procedural issues about path that pragmatism proposes.
how to combine the strengths of qualitative and quantitative Like any change in paradigms, accepting pragmatism as
methods rather than philosophical claims. Thus, for most of a basis for social research will require a considerable altera-
the researchers operating within the field of MMR, the tion in our thinking. The same kind of change occurred in the
appeal of pragmatism was more about its practicality than 1980s when the philosophy of knowledge arose as a para-
in its broader philosophical basis. digm for understanding the nature of social research. Thirty
That is the setting for this article—a moment when prag- years later, it is time to put metaphysical issues behind us
matism has been proposed as a new paradigm for social and pursue the decisions that drive the practice of research.
research, yet its potential in this regard has remained under- Switching to this new paradigm does indeed require effort,
developed. The time has come for social research to dig but the benefits that it provides are well worth it.
Declaration of Conflicting Interests Guba, E., & Lincoln, Y. (2005). Paradigmatic controversies, con-
tradictions, and emerging confluences. In N. Denzin & Y.
The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with
Lincoln (Eds.), Handbook of qualitative research (3rd ed., pp.
respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this
191-215). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.
article.
Hall, J. (2013). Pragmatism, evidence, and mixed methods evalua-
tion (Special Issue: Mixed methods and credibility of evidence
Funding
in evaluation). New Directions for Evaluation, 2013(138), 15-
The author(s) received no financial support for the research, 26.
authorship, and/or publication of this article. Hesse-Biber, S. (2012). Feminist approaches to triangulation:
Uncovering subjugated knowledge and fostering social
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Author Biography
Sullivan, S. (2001). Living across and through skins. Bloomington:
Indiana University Press. David L. Morgan is a professor of sociology at Portland State
Tashakkori, A., & Teddlie, C. (2010). Overview of contemporary University. His work concentrates on focus groups and mixed
issues in mixed methods research. In A. Tashakkori & C. methods research. His most recent book is Integrating Qualitative
Teddlie (Eds.), Handbook of mixed methods research for the and Quantitative Research: A Pragmatic Approach from SAGE.