Building For A Sustainable Future - An Engineer's Guide (2014, Institution of Structural Engineers) PDF

Building for a sustainable future:
An engineer’s guide
February 2014
Membership of the Task Group
A R L Crossman CEng FIStructE FICE MCIWEM (Consultant) Chairman
W Addis PhD (Buro Happold) Vice Chairman
M Broadhurst (The Power of Cornwall)
M Bueno BA(Hons) CEng FIStructE AMICE (Sandwell MBC)
J A Burridge MA(Cantab) CEng MIStructE MICE (MPA The Concrete Centre)
J Fletcher (Consultant: timber industry)
R D Lloyd Jones AAdip RIBA FRSA (Studio E LLP)
J Newman (BERR)
H R Sims (John Newton Group)
B B P Smith BEng CEng MIStructE (Consultant)
K N P Steele PhD (Arup)
E C Travers-Jones BSc(Hons) CEng FIStructE (WL Squared Ltd)

representing ICE

representing RIBA
Corresponding members
A Arasteh PhD
D H Clark BEng(Hons) CEng MIStructE MCIBSE (Cundall)
Professor W P S Dias PhD DIC CEng MIStructE (University of Moratuwa)
D P Donnan BE(Hons) MIStructE MIEAust CPEng (Arup)
T J Hodsdon MEng CEng MICE MIEAust (AECOM)
F S Ng BSc FIStructE FICE FHKIE MCIArb (DLS Management Ltd)
R B Watermeyer DEng CEng FIStructE FICE FSAICE (Infrastructure Options)
M D Webster (Simpson Gumpertz & Heger Inc)
Consultant
Professor C M Ainger MA(Cantab) MSc FICE MCIWEM CEng FRSA (University of Cambridge)
Reviewing editors
Professor T E J Hope MEng CEng MIStructE AMICE (THiSolutions)
L Kirk MEng(Hons) (The Institution of Structural Engineers)
Institution of Structural Engineers staff member
H E Fielder MSc (until 2008)
S A Fray BSc(Hons) CEng MIStructE MICE (from 2009)
Acknowledgements
A Campbell BSc MSt(Cantab) CEng MICE (Arup)
Image copyright:
Figure 2.1a: Olympic Delivery Authority
Figure 2.1b: Expedition Engineering
Figures 2.2 and 8.3: Arup
Figure 5.1: 2012 Weidlinger Associates, Inc.
Figure 5.2: Pascal Tournaire
Figures 5.3a and 5.3b: Jo Reid and Jo Peck (Reid & Peck)
Figure 5.3c: John Linden
Figures 6.1 and 9.3: Wilkinson Eyre Architects Limited
Figure 6.2: Alan Baxter & Associates
Figure 7.1: Atkins
Figures 7.2, 8.5 and 9.6: Tristram Hope
Figure 8.1a: Antony Dubber
Figure 8.1b: Sam Burrell
Figure 8.2a: Paul Tyagi
Figures 8.2b and 8.2c: Wilkinson King Architects
Figures 8.4 and 9.2: MPA The Concrete Centre
Figure 9.4a: James Bellamy
Figures 9.4b and 9.4c: Robert Rich
Figure 9.5: Achterbosch Zantman Architecten, Onix and Peter de Kan
Figure 9.7a: Martin Tessler
Figure 9.7b: Hubert Kang
Figure 9.7c: Stephanie Tracey
Figure 10.2: schlaich bergermann und partner
Published by The Institution of Structural Engineers
International HQ, 11 Upper Belgrave Street, London SW1X 8BH
Telephone: +44 (0)20 7235 4535 Fax: +44 (0)20 7235 4294
Email: mail@istructe.org Website: www.istructe.org
First published 2014
ISBN 978-1-906335-21-2
# 2014 The Institution of Structural Engineers
The Institution of Structural Engineers and those individuals who contributed to this Guide have
endeavored to ensure the accuracy of its contents. However, the guidance and recommendations
given in the Guide should always be reviewed by those using the Guide in the light of the facts of
their particular case and specialist advice obtained as necessary. No liability for negligence or
otherwise in relation to this Guide and its contents is accepted by the Institution, the members of
the task group, the reviewing editors, their servants or agents. Any person using this Guide
should pay particular attention to the provisions of this Condition.
No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any
form or by any means without prior permission of the Institution of Structural Engineers, who may
be contacted at 11 Upper Belgrave Street, London SW1X 8BH.
List of tables
Table 1.1 The fundamental differences between the ‘green’

and ‘brown’ sustainability agendas 2
Table 3.1 Drivers towards sustainable construction 9
Table 3.2 Example target criteria for building
development 10
Table 4.1 Life cycle modules for building assessment (from
EN 15804) 13
Table 6.1 Levels of refurbishment dependent on building
performance and condition 22
Table 6.2 Relative impacts of options for foundations in new
buildings 27
Table 7.1 Sustainability opportunities on contaminated
sites 30
Table 9.1 Compressive strength of different types of earth
construction 49
Table 10.1 Carbon emissions for different modes of
transport 52
Table A.1 Comparison of national project work stages 57
Table A.2 Input from the structural engineer and value to the
client 58
Table B.1 Example credits from BREEAM 2011 62
Table B.2 Example credits from LEED v4 (2013) 64
Table B.3 Example credits from GREENSTAR v3 (2011) 65
Table C.1 Renewable systems and the structural engineer’s
input 71
The Institution of Structural Engineers Building for a sustainable future: An engineer’s guide v
Foreword Reviewing Editor’s commentary
Driven by public awareness, scientific and engineering Delivering pragmatic, usable guidance on such a
research, and fuelled by a rapidly increasing subjective topic as sustainability is a very significant
recognition of human impacts on the planet, challenge. The word ‘sustainability’ did not figure
sustainability has evolved in about fifteen years from prominently in the vocabulary of many construction
being a ‘special interest’ of a very few enlightened professionals a decade ago. Since then, much
advocates, largely in the developed nations, to thought and effort has been put into understanding,
become the focus of international and national political defining and quantifying this most capricious of
attention. It is a key strand of national and regional terms. This in turn has been informed by a growth in
development planning, not uncommonly one of the international views and experience, and through the
core elements of project business cases and often a recognition of different regional, national and state
key measure of success on construction projects. needs.
Equally the topic of sustainability itself has evolved It is now appreciated that the concept of
markedly over the past decade, particularly in sustainability is not only about working with a
developing regions and nations where whilst minimum amount of resource over a maximum period
‘environmental’ issues retain importance, of equal of time; we have come to realise that for any given
importance is sustainability as an engine for major system to be sustainable, we must reach appropriate
social change and improvement. ‘triple bottom line’ balances between environmental,
social and economic factors.
This publication is an evolution of the Institution’s
thought-leading ‘Building for a sustainable future: We also recognise that these three factors are
Construction without depletion’, published in 1999. themselves highly variable with location, time and
The ambition for this new publication has been to culture. The significance of this is that we are
deliver solid practical guidance which will support and continually aiming at a moving target, and it is not
enthuse structural engineers to engage with and realistic to expect to be able to arrive at prescriptive,
deliver increasingly sustainable projects. globally-universal solutions. Instead, we need to
foster an attitude of mind; to adopt a flexible
The process of developing this publication was approach that considers each case on its own
founded in the creation of a task group the merits, and which accepts that review, modification
composition of which was multi-disciplinary and and adjustment will be the order of the day.
included representatives of the design, construction
and supply chain community. The role of the Reviewing Editor has therefore been
to identify current thinking and best practice out of
The task group set out on the path to provide up-to- the wealth of experience and wisdom of a
date guidance and practical information for structural widely-based group of contributors. It has then been
engineers and those involved in design and to draw attention to useful information, methods and
construction. The worldwide need and differing processes, which it is hoped will be of assistance to
approaches and techniques required in other all who may be engaged in the struggle to make their
geographical locations and climates were also own particular area of construction activity more
broadly considered to avoid the publication having a sustainable.
single national context.
This has proved no simple task, and if certain
The resulting document offers an overview of the aspects have been favoured to the exclusion of
framework and components for sustainability others, this is principally due to the limitation of
together with advice in each chapter as to what the space, which of necessity has to be imposed on
structural engineer can consider. The socio-economic any publication such as this. The grateful thanks
aspects of sustainability have also been addressed as of the publishing team therefore go to all
there is a necessity to be fair and efficient with contributors of the drafting panel, whether or not
respect to meeting human needs and aspirations. their individual input has eventually been included
in the final document.
I would like to thank the members of the task group
and contributors who were passionate, forthright and
generous with their views, input, expertise and time.
Continuing along the path towards enhanced

sustainability can be metaphorically viewed as a series
of ‘stepping stones’ going in the right direction. I trust Prof. Tristram Hope
you will find that Building for a sustainable future: An Reviewing Editor
engineer’s guide provides such a contribution.
Alan Crossman
Task Group Chairman
viii The Institution of Structural Engineers Building for a sustainable future: An engineer’s guide
Contents
List of tables v 5.6 Embodied carbon 19

5.6.1 Embodied energy 19
Glossary vi 5.6.2 Carbon footprinting 19
5.6.3 Carbon calculators 19
Foreword and Reviewing Editor’s commentary viii 5.7 What can structural engineers do? 19
5.8 References 19
5.9 Bibliography 20
1 Introduction 1
1.1 What is sustainability? 1
6 Adaptation and re-use of existing buildings 22
1.2 Scope of the document 2
6.1 The benefits of re-using existing buildings 22
1.2.1 Focus and coverage 2
6.1.1 Existing record information 22
1.2.2 Influence of the structural engineer 2
6.1.2 Environmental and social benefits 22
1.3 References 4
6.1.3 Benefits for the client 22
6.2 Retrofitting existing buildings 23
2 The challenge of sustainability 5 6.3 Re-using the main loadbearing structure 24
2.1 Sustainability interconnections – why a holistic approach 6.3.1 Structural elements 24
is needed 5 6.3.2 Appraisal of existing structures 24
2.2 Environmental sustainability impacts 5 6.4 Re-using the building envelope 24
2.2.1 Effect of approach to projects 5 6.4.1 Planning considerations 24
2.2.2 Aspects to consider when designing buildings 6.4.2 Retention of loadbearing façades 24
and structures 5 6.4.3 Retention of cladding systems 25
2.3 Social and economic sustainability impacts 6 6.5 Re-using existing foundations 26
2.3.1 Effect of approach to projects 6 6.5.1 Considerations for re-use 26
2.3.2 Aspects to consider when designing buildings
6.5.2 Environmental impact of foundations 26
and structures 6 6.5.3 Assessment of existing foundations 26
2.4 Climate change impacts 7
6.6 Warranty 27
2.5 Hierarchy of the sustainable approach 7 6.7 What can structural engineers do? 28
2.6 What can structural engineers do? 7 6.8 References 28
2.7 References 8 6.9 Bibliography 28
2.8 Bibliography 8
7 Recycling land 30
3 The client’s perspective 9 7.1 Contaminated land as a resource for sustainability 30
3.1 The client and sustainable construction 9 7.2 Remediation methods 30
3.1.1 The client’s requirements 9 7.3 What can structural engineers do? 31
3.1.2 The client’s sustainability brief 9 7.4 References 32
3.2 The structural engineer’s response to clients’ 7.5 Bibliography 32
requirements 9
3.3 What can structural engineers do? 10 8 Details of sustainable design 33
3.4 References 11 8.1 Initial design 33
3.5 Bibliography 11 8.1.1 Conceptual design 33
8.1.2 Design for deconstruction 33
4 Planning 12 8.2 Detailed design and specification 33
4.1 Planning policies 12 8.3 Sustainable design of elements 34
4.2 The scope of planning policies 12 8.3.1 Designing for re-use and recycling 34
4.3 European Union policies 12 8.3.2 Separability of materials 34
4.3.1 Energy Performance of Buildings Directive 12 8.4 Foundations 35
4.3.2 Seventh Environment Action Programme 12 8.4.1 Shallow foundations 35
4.3.3 European standards for sustainability of 8.4.2 Deep foundations 35
construction works 12 8.4.3 Temporary/removable foundations 35
4.4 International policies 13 8.4.4 Basements 35
4.5 What can structural engineers do? 13 8.5 Structural frame 36
4.6 References 14 8.5.1 Embodied and operational energy 36
4.7 Bibliography 14 8.5.2 Over-design 36
8.5.3 Temporary buildings 36
5 Principles of sustainable design and environmental 8.5.4 Off-site construction 36
assessment 15 8.6 Structural floors 37
5.1 Holistic design 15 8.6.1 Thermal mass 37
5.2 Sustainability and BIM 16 8.6.2 Reduction in material use 38
5.3 Quantification and sustainability assessment 16 8.7 Envelope 38
5.4 Building environmental assessment tools 16 8.7.1 Environmental control aspects 38
5.4.1 Methodologies 16 8.7.2 Loadbearing façades 38
5.4.2 Covering local socio-economic impacts 17 8.7.3 Natural ventilation 38
5.5 Design life 17 8.8 Renewable technologies 39
5.5.1 Design life and maintenance 17 8.8.1 Definitions 39
5.5.2 Life cycle assessment 18 8.8.2 Unanticipated loading conditions 39
5.5.3 Environmental profiles 18 8.9 What can structural engineers do? 40
The Institution of Structural Engineers Building for a sustainable future: An engineer’s guide iii
8.10 References 40
8.11 Bibliography 40
9 Choice of materials and technologies 42

9.1 Introduction 42
9.2 Re-use and recycling 42
9.3 Common structural materials 42
9.3.1 Concrete 42
9.3.2 Structural steel 44
9.3.3 Masonry 45
9.3.4 Timber and wood products 46
9.4 Non-mainstream structural materials 48
9.4.1 Straw 48
9.4.2 Earth 49
9.4.3 Rubble masonry concrete 50
9.5 What can structural engineers do? 50
9.6 References 50
9.7 Bibliography 51
10 Construction stage 52
10.1 Sustainability during construction 52
10.2 Sustainable sourcing 52
10.2.1 The demand for responsible sourcing 52
10.2.2 Treatment of workers 52
10.2.3 Material traceability 52
10.3 Sustainable procurement 53
10.4 Waste management 54
10.4.1 The true cost of waste 54
10.4.2 Planning for waste on site 54
10.4.3 Utilising off-site construction and
prefabrication 54
10.4.4 Materials sourcing 55
10.4.5 End of life deconstruction 55
10.5 What can structural engineers do? 55
10.6 References 55
10.7 Bibliography 56
Appendix A How structural engineers can contribute to

the sustainability of a project 57
A.1 How structural engineers can contribute to the
sustainability of a project 57
A.2 References 61
Appendix B Sustainability assessment

methodologies 62
B.1 Global assessment tools 62
B.2 BREEAM 2011 for new construction: non-domestic
building 62
B.3 LEED Green Building rating system v4 (2013) 62
B.4 GREENSTAR offices v3 (2011) 66
B.5 References 66
Appendix C Climate change 68

C.1 Climate change science and responses 68
C.2 Location 68
C.3 Building design 69
C.4 Ventilation and cooling 70
C.5 Energy generation 70
C.6 Interactions with other urban utilities and
infrastructure 70
C.7 Commercial impacts of climate change 71
C.8 References 71
C.9 Bibliography 72
iv The Institution of Structural Engineers Building for a sustainable future: An engineer’s guide
1 Introduction
1.1 What is sustainability? visualise economic, social and environmental

considerations putting pressure on society, as natural
resources diminish and population grows.
‘‘Humanity has the ability to make development
sustainable – to ensure that it meets the needs of The Stern Review1.4, produced for the UK
the present without compromising the ability of Government in 2006, concluded that the cost of
future generations to meet their own needs.’’ – adopting sustainable living principles straight away
Brundtland Report, Our Common Future, 19871.1 would be a tiny fraction of the subsequent cost in the
future (if they were not). Fundamentally, to live
Thinking has moved on considerably since the sustainably requires that the wider impact of human
relatively simple definition quoted above was activities is controlled and understood for the benefit
proposed in the Brundtland Report Our Common of future generations. It is helpful to draw a distinction
Future in 19871.1. While different people and between ‘sustainable development’ (the process, or
organisations might have a range of views on an journey) and ‘sustainability’ (the aim, or destination).
appropriate definition1.2, the achievement of By way of further reading, Simon Dresner’s book
sustainability is now commonly considered to involve The Principles of sustainability1.5 provides a wider
a ‘triple bottom line’ balance of environmental, social background review of the history and principles of
and economic issues; sustainable solutions can only sustainability.
be reached if due consideration is given to each of
these three aspects (see Figure 1.1). Further discussion of sustainability within an
environmental, economic, social and corporate
The phrase ‘People, Planet, Profit’ – the three ‘P’s – agenda can be found in the Institution’s Sustainability
was coined in 2002 at the Johannesburg Earth Briefing Note 1 What is sustainability?1.2.
Summit, and memorably summarises the three main
aspects of sustainability. Sarah James and Torbjörn Sustainability priorities differ from country to country.
Lahti in their book The Natural step for As can be seen from Table 1.1 (adapted from
communities1.3 use the metaphor of a funnel to Watermeyer1.6 ) the ‘green agenda’ addresses issues
Social–Environmental
Environmental justice Environmental–Economic
Environmental
Climate change Energy efficiency and renewable
Regulation and legislation Reduction of greenhouse gas energy
Health and safety emissions Resource efficiency
Clean water, air and land
Recycling and zero waste
Social Sustainability
Economic
Nurturing community
Equal opportunity Cost savings
Diversity Economic growth
Research and
innovation
Economic–Social
Business ethics
Local job creation
Training and development
Distribution of resources
Figure 1.1 The triple bottom line of sustainability
The Institution of Structural Engineers Building for a sustainable future: An engineer’s guide 1
1.2 Introduction
Table 1.1 The fundamental differences between the ‘green’ and ‘brown’ sustainability agendas
Green agenda Brown agenda
Current issue Affluence and overconsumption Poverty and underdevelopment
Key focus Reducing carbon footprints and minimising harmful Creating economic opportunities and alleviation of
effects on the environment poverty
Scale of actions National and global Local
Concerns Preservation for future generations Providing immediate relief for current communities
Resources Promote use of environmentally friendly building Establishment of use of indigenous materials
materials
Services Use less Provide more
often found in developed countries: social equity and issues for resolution early in the design process is
equal opportunity, cultural issues, traditions, heritage often a useful method for introducing sustainability
issues, health and comfort, social infrastructure and considerations to the client and project team.
safety. The so called ‘brown agenda’ focuses on the
needs of developing countries: poverty reduction, job The bibliographies at the end of each chapter provide
creation, training of unskilled workforce and access to additional information and references for detailed
safe, affordable, healthy shelter and safe drinking guidance on the topics covered in this Guide.
water.
1.2.2 Influence of the structural engineer
This document highlights specifically what structural

1.2 Scope of the document engineers can do in a dedicated section ‘What can
structural engineers do?’ at the end of each chapter.
It is intended that this will help engineers to
1.2.1 Focus and coverage implement the changes needed to achieve
sustainability, and provide a summary for issues over
The purpose of this Guide is to assist structural which the structural engineer has influence.
engineers in the delivery of sustainable projects. It is
not about internal company office impacts or Issues of particular relevance to structural engineers
‘footprints’. Guidance on this specific topic can be are developed throughout the Guide. Through being
found in the Institution’s Sustainability Briefing Note 4 dedicated to process, engineers have an advantage
How to carry out a carbon impact assessment of a over other professions in that engineering processes
structural consultancy office1.7, which refers to the move logically: from concept through scheme design,
assessment of the carbon footprint of engineers’ to construction and commissioning, and on to use,
offices. maintenance, re-use and demolition. For cost control,
the impact on design is considered stage by stage,
Nearly all the text and examples refer to the building and the same approach is possible for the
sector, though structural engineers may work on consideration of sustainability impact.
many other types of projects. However, many of the
structural components in such projects have similar Figure 1.2 shows the stages of this process, linked
sustainability issues to the components of buildings, with the stages of the 2013 RIBA Plan of Work (see
so much of the guidance is still pertinent. Appendix A), and shows the issues that are critical to
achieving sustainability at each stage. It thus
This Guide also includes discussion of some non- suggests that structural engineers can help by asking
structural elements of the design of buildings (e.g. pertinent questions at each stage, so as to maximise
energy, planning, transport, water, contaminated land influence over the design process.
etc.) because these are often critical to overall
sustainable design. A structural engineer in a Such action by structural engineers is not simply
management or technical lead role may also have altruistic; responding to the challenges of
significant influence on these aspects, through asking sustainability is now seen as good engineering
the right questions at the right time as early as practice, which applies to all cultures, climates and
possible in the design process. geographical locations, and across all disciplines.
Although it is environmental sustainability which first

comes to mind to most people, this Guide also
includes references to social sustainability issues,
where these are considered to be critical.
This Guide deals with aspects of sustainability only,

and does not aim to provide guidance on general
structural engineering planning and design issues, for
which standard references are plentifully available.
However, sustainability considerations may in some
instances clash with traditional approaches and code
guidance, which may need to be amended in due
course to reflect sustainability concerns. Raising such
2 The Institution of Structural Engineers Building for a sustainable future: An engineer’s guide
Introduction 1.2
RIBA 2013 stage

0
Strategic Define client’s business case
definition
1 Ecology
Preparation Selection of site
Access
and brief
Consider re-use
Analyse any existing buildings on site
Adaptation
Occupation/design life
Outturn effects
Feasibility study Flexibility/adaptability
Social sustainability
Life cycle assessment
2 Develop energy-efficiency requirements

Climate
Concept Orientation
and study options
design Available energy
Longevity
Thermal mass/insulation
Choice of built form Orientation
Re-use/recycle
3 Select materials for low

Developed Choice of structural materials
environmental impact
design
Flexibility
Design out waste Maintenance
Deconstruction
Local sourcing
Minimum from abroad
Available labour
Integration of services Standardisation
Passive systems
Human intervention
Sustainability assessment
Loadings/use
4 Complete design with specifications Embodied energy
Technical commissioning and handover procedures Target energy costs
design Re-use/recycle
Construction for minimum waste
5 Ensure contract quality control Sourced from responsible supply
Construction procedures operate satisfactorily Right first time
Off-site manufacture
Ensure that waste minimisation Directly re-use

procedures are in place on site Dismantle, reclaim, re-use/recycle
6 Check that manuals describe efficient Relevant design documents

Handover operation and maintenance and calculations
and close out
Confirm client/tenant is familiar with energy-efficient

Monitoring targets
features and has the operating and maintenance manual
7 Carry out yearly audits and

In use performance checks
Figure 1.2 Sustainable building design – critical stages
1.3 Introduction
1.3 References
1.1 World Commission on Environment and Development.

Our common future. Oxford: OUP, 1987
1.2 Institution of Structural Engineers. What is

sustainability? Sustainability Briefing 1. Available at:
http://www.istructe.org/sustainability-briefing-notes
[Accessed: 10 July 2013]
1.3 James, S. and Lahti, T. The Natural step for

communities: how cities and towns can change to
sustainable practices. Gabriola Island, BC: New Society
Publishers, 2004
1.4 Stern, N. The Economics of climate change: the Stern

review. Cambridge: CUP, 2007
1.5 Dresner, S. The Principles of sustainability. 2nd ed.

London: Earthscan, 2008
1.6 Watermeyer, R.B. ‘Poverty reduction responses to the

Millennium Development Goals’. The Structural
Engineer, 84(9), 2 May 2006, pp27-34.
1.7 Institution of Structural Engineers. How to carry out a

carbon footprint assessment of a structural
consultancy office. Sustainability Briefing 4. Available
at: http://www.istructe.org/sustainability-briefing-notes
2 The challenge of sustainability
2.1 Sustainability interconnections – why themselves are also evolving and are therefore likely
to apply differently in different locations across the
a holistic approach is needed globe.
The world comprises an interconnected multitude of 2.2.2 Aspects to consider when designing buildings and
natural components, elements of man-made structures
infrastructure and products, in continuous interaction
with each other, subject to the ever-changing aspects Buildings and structures have large impacts on the
of human behaviour. Understanding the various environment, from the materials used in their
parameters to be considered and the uncertainty this construction, their locality, their operation and
may entail is not easy. Structural engineers tend to maintenance, and how they are disposed of at end-
rationalise and simplify; indeed these processes are of-life. Across the globe, buildings (primarily in their
essential in the successful design and construction of construction and use) account for approximately 40%
projects. of the world’s energy use2.3; this figure is rapidly
rising in many countries. In turn, this contributes to
This ‘systems thinking’ challenge (translation of a greenhouse gas emissions and climate change, and
problem to a solution) has been summed up by this effect on the global climate is often the first
Fenner et al2.1: environmental impact which comes to mind.
‘‘This challenge may be highlighted by considering There are also many wider issues to consider. These
the three broad stages that a project goes through: include:
defining the problem; choosing a solution; and – use and depletion of finite natural resources
implementing it through design, construction and (including fossil fuels), for example in the
operation.’’ manufacture of construction materials
– energy used in extraction processes and product
The project itself, in construction and use, is also an manufacture
interacting complex system. Hence its planning, – demands placed on water supply
design and construction also require the adoption of – provision of good natural air quality and natural
a holistic approach, with effective engagement daylight within the internal environment
between the many different disciplines responsible for – effects of noise and vibration
its interacting parts, at each critical point in its – general health and wellbeing of the occupants
development. It also requires a more pro-active – land degradation
interaction with a wide range of internal and external – disposal of waste
participants. – emissions (particularly of CO2 and other
greenhouse gases) to air and water.
The structural engineer may be able to help meet

2.2 Environmental sustainability impacts these objectives by re-using an existing building
structure where appropriate (see Chapter 6), or by
contributing to the design of buildings:
2.2.1 Effect of approach to projects – with a long life, including anticipating the effects of
climate change
‘‘It is clear that we cannot meet our declared – that fully meet their current functional requirements,
environmental targets without dramatically reducing but whose life can be prolonged by virtue of their
the environmental impact of buildings and flexibility and adaptability
infrastructure construction; we have to change the – with a reduced need for maintenance
way we design and build.’’ – HM Government. – using smaller quantities of materials
Strategy for sustainable construction, UK, – using materials with low embodied energy
June 20082.2 – using renewable materials
– using materials with high recycled content
The impact of structures and construction on the – using materials that can be recycled
environment is the area that structural engineers are – using materials that can be sourced locally
most directly able to influence. Structural engineers – that can be dismantled at their end of life
need to be aware of ‘cradle to grave’ issues (see (to facilitate recycling and re-use)
Section 5.5). These range from the depletion of non- – that avoid or reduce the generation of construction
renewable resources and the adverse impacts of waste
manufacturing and construction processes on the – that consume less energy in operation (by working
climate, to the structure’s impact on climate change, in conjunction with building services engineers)
air and water quality, and its local environment. – which make use of land on-site that has previously
been occupied.
Through taking account of both the nature of
environmental impacts and their magnitude, structural In many countries, measuring environmental
engineers can help promote more environmentally- impact remains voluntary, though many governments
responsible construction. In doing so, it must be now incorporate varying degrees of impact
appreciated that in a rapidly changing and varied assessment into future planning and construction
world, the measurement process or even the impacts requirements.
2.3 The challenge of sustainability
Figure 2.1 highlights the London Olympic Velodrome, The socio-economic impacts of a building/structural
a project in whose design many of the wider issues of project can be sub-divided into ‘construction’
sustainability were addressed. impacts during its initial procurement and delivery,
and ‘in-use’ impacts during its lifetime.
Particular attention needs to be given to the potential

2.3 Social and economic sustainability for socio-economic benefits in the construction
impacts process. The procurement and supply chain
opportunities of a project can be directed specifically
to economic development, poverty reduction, job
2.3.1 Effect of approach to projects creation and training of unskilled workforce. This can
be done by making these processes localised and
All building and structural projects are driven by at using skills and resources, whether procurement of
least one clear social and/or economic need – to materials or the recruitment of workforce, that are
provide a school, factory or workplace, for example, available within the surrounding community2.4.
or to provide an office block to generate a
commercial return – and in that sense, they are 2.3.2 Aspects to consider when designing buildings and
designed to have a positive socio-economic impact. structures
However, such structures also interact with their
internal users and the external community in many Broadly, the objectives of socio-economic
other intended and unintended ways. A focus on sustainability2.5, in conjunction with ISO 26000
socio-economic sustainability requires engineers to Guidance on social responsibility2.6, may be defined as
take a more systematic approach to identify all the identification and the meeting of expectations of
related impacts, with the use of an appropriate the users and wider community. The way in which
assessment methodology (see Chapter 5), and then such expectations are identified and met is also
use this to optimise their overall positive benefits. important; this should be through ‘stakeholder
engagement’ (the involvement of all interested parties)
and through consideration of their values and needs,
with resolution of any conflicts that might arise.
Issues of functionality, health, safety, security, comfort

and accessibility need to be addressed, by providing:
– The ability to fulfil the user functions of the building
efficiently, while still maintaining the capacity for
future functional flexibility.
– Good natural air quality, which improves comfort
levels, lowers absenteeism, increases productivity
and beneficially influences the perception of well-
being. Mechanical ventilation should be avoided
where possible as it can use significant amounts of
energy.
– Visual amenity, thus providing a pleasant indoor
visual environment (through the inclusion of natural
daylight and artificial lighting) for comfort,
productivity and energy efficiency.
– Safety and convenience in access from any form of
transport into the building, including access from
outdoor spaces such as underground car parks,
during the day and night, for able and disabled
users.
– Security, by developing designs and technologies
that offer personal, material and data security,
including protection against terrorism2.7.
– Safe and resistant shelter during any exceptional
events, by maintaining the safety of the users and
occupants while also maintaining the function of the
property and minimising disruption as a result of
these exceptional events.
During construction, structural engineers can meet

socio-economic sustainable objectives by:
– Choosing materials and construction methods
which are available from, and known in, the local
supply chain, in the construction and maintenance
of buildings and structural projects.
– Preferring local contractors and suppliers in
procurement to create local jobs, develop
contractors from within the community, and retain
(as far as possible) the funds expended on the
project within the community.
Figure 2.1 The London Olympic Velodrome, UK, is naturally ventilated, makes use of – Suggesting construction sites be registered with
recycled materials and optimises the use of natural light the Considerate Constructors Scheme2.8
(or similar).
The challenge of sustainability 2.4
Typically these need to be addressed in the context

of acceptable financial cost.
Figure 2.2 shows the Ayensudo kindergarten, based on

methods first developed in Dwabor, in which the key
objectives met were working with the local community
to develop lasting job skills and to provide amenities.
By achieving a balance of environmental, social and

economic aspects, a truly sustainable approach as
defined by the triple bottom line approach
(see Section 1.1) can be achieved.
2.4 Climate change impacts
Within an overall sustainability approach, the design

team can review and agree specifically on measures
and performance targets to design for mitigation of,
and adaptation to, climate change. Irrespective of
individual opinion on the likelihood of various
proposed scenarios, it is increasingly clear that there
is a professional duty of care which requires
engineers to be aware of climate change impacts and
to use their skill and judgement to reduce them –
enhancing sustainability by preparing for adaptation
and management of risks from disaster events. This
can be done while also informing clients of the
potential impacts that climate change may have on
the built environment.
Advice on this will continuously develop and

engineers may seek advice from climate scientists if
any areas (e.g. consideration of higher wind loads)
are of concern. Further information on climate change
can be found in Appendix C.
2.5 Hierarchy of the sustainable approach
In summary, the sustainable approach may be

considered as follows, in order of preference:
(1) Directly re-use, either in situ or elsewhere where
applicable, as much as possible of:
– the whole structure: see Chapter 6
– its main elements: see Chapter 6
– the land: see Chapter 7.
(2) Dismantle, reclaim and re-use as many as
possible of the individual components, either on
or off-site: see Chapter 6.
(3) Demolish, then reclaim and re-use or recycle the
materials, with minimum possible environmental
impact (processing and mode of transport): see
Chapters 8, 9, 10.
(4) Demolish and dispose, with minimum possible
environmental impact (mode of transport and
‘in-tip’). A sustainable approach should also
consider the use of local resources in the
construction and maintenance of buildings and Figure 2.2 Ayensudo Kindergarten, Ghana, made use of sustainable materials, while
structural projects. Demolition and disposal will employment of a local workforce ensured that skills were developed within the community
become very much the last resort. that could be used to create subsequent projects
2.6 What can structural engineers do? towards their role, in collaboration with the whole
project team, in order to:
– Understand that the project’s scope is framed by
In approaching their work on all projects, structural the whole socio-economic-environmental reality,
engineers can take care to broaden their attitude which is a highly complex adaptive system.
2.7 The challenge of sustainability
– Include socio-economic sustainability objectives CIBSE. Environmental design. CIBSE Guide A. 7th ed. London:
and criteria for occupants and local residents CIBSE, 2006
during planning and design, and for the supply
chain and local community during construction. Ellingham, I. and Fawcett, W. Whole life sustainability. London:
– Choose a solution considering a wide range of RIBA Publishing, 2013
more sustainable options, and using more
sustainable choice criteria. Halliday, S. Sustainable construction. Oxford: Butterworth-
– Adopt a holistic approach at each point, with Heinemann, 2008
effective engagement between the many different
disciplines. Hargrave, J. It’s alive: can you imagine the urban building of the
– Engage pro-actively with a wide range of internal future? London: Arup Foresight & Innovation, 2013
and external stakeholders.
Harris, C. and Borer, P. The Whole house book: ecological
building design and materials. 2nd ed. Machynlleth: Centre for
Alternative Technology Publications, 2005
2.7 References
HM Government Low Carbon Construction Innovation and
Growth Team. Final report executive summary. Available at:
2.1 Fenner, R.A. et al. ‘Widening horizons for engineers: https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/
addressing the complexity of sustainable development’. attachment_data/file/31774/10-1266es-low-carbon-
ICE Proceedings, Engineering Sustainability, 159(ES4), construction-igt-executive-summary.pdf [Accessed: 10 July
December 2006, pp145-154 2013]
2.2 HM Government. Strategy for sustainable construction. Kibert, C.J. Sustainable construction: green building design and
2008. Available at: https://www.gov.uk/government/ delivery. 2nd ed. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley, 2008
uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/15370/
strategy-for-sustainable-construction.pdf [Accessed: MacKay, D.J.C. Sustainable energy – without the hot air.
10 July 2013] Cambridge: UIT, 2008. Available at: http://www.withouthotair.
com [Accessed: 10 July 2013]
2.3 World Business Council for Sustainable Development.
Energy efficiency in buildings. 2008. Available at: Mumovic, D. and Santamouris, M. jt eds. A Handbook of
http://www.wbcsd.org/pages/edocument/ sustainable building design and engineering: an integrated
edocumentdetails.aspx?id¼13559 [Accessed: 10 July approach to energy, health and operational performance.
2013] London: Earthscan, 2009
2.4 Watermeyer, R.B. ‘Socio-economic responsibilities: Royal Academy of Engineering. Engineering for sustainable
the challenge facing structural engineers’. The development: guiding principles, London: RAEng, 2005.
Structural Engineer, 77(17), 7 September 1999, Available at: http://www.rpd-mohesr.com/uploads/custompages/
pp22-28 Engineering_for_Sustainable_Development.pdf [Accessed:
10 July 2013]
2.5 ISO 15392: 2008: Sustainability in building
construction: general principles. Geneva: ISO, 2008 Stasinopoulos, P. et al. Whole system design: an integrated
approach to sustainable engineering. London: Earthscan, 2009
2.6 ISO 26000: 2010: Guidance on social responsibility.
Geneva: ISO, 2010 Stern, N. The Economics of climate change: the Stern review.
Cambridge: CUP, 2007
2.7 See, for the UK, the Centre for the Protection of
National Infrastructure (CPNI) website available at: Strategic Forum for Construction and the Carbon Trust. Carbon:
http://www.cpni.gov.uk [Accessed: 10 July 2013] reducing the footprint of the construction process. July 2010.
An action plan to reduce carbon emissions. Available at: http://
2.8 Considerate Constructors Scheme website. Available www.strategicforum.org.uk/pdf/06CarbonReducingFootprint.pdf
at: http://www.ccscheme.org.uk [Accessed: 10 July [Accessed: 10 July 2013]
2013]
Target Zero. Guidance on the design and construction of
sustainable, low carbon mixed-use buildings. Report V2.0
January 2012. [s.l.]: Target Zero, 2012
2.8 Bibliography
Target Zero. Guidance on the design and construction of
sustainable, low carbon office buildings. Report V2.0 January
Bokalders, V. and Block, M. The Whole building handbook: how 2012. [s.l.]: Target Zero, 2012
to design healthy, efficient, and sustainable buildings. London:
Earthscan, 2010 Wells, J. and Hawkins, J. Increasing local content in the
procurement of infrastructure projects in low income countries:
BRE Global et al. Sustainability in the built environment: an briefing note. London: Engineers Against Poverty and ICE, 2008.
introduction to its definition and measurement. BR502. Watford: Available at: http://www.engineersagainstpoverty.org/_db/_
IHS BRE Press, 2009 documents/Local_content_briefing_note.pdf [Accessed:
30 August 2013]
Brophy, V. and Lewis, J.O. A Green Vitruvius: principles and
practice of sustainable architectural design. 2nd ed. London:
Earthscan, 2011
Bull, J.W. ed. ICE manual of structural design: buildings.

London: ICE Publishing, 2012
3 The client’s perspective
3.1 The client and sustainable – Undertake a cost-benefit analysis of various

options to decide which are best suited to the
construction project.
– Involve supply chain members as early as possible
3.1.1 The client’s requirements so that the suppliers can contribute to help meet
sustainability objectives.
A client is likely to be motivated to procure a
‘sustainable’ building or larger development for one Further details of specific benefits to the client
or several of the reasons listed in Table 3.1. through adopting a sustainable approach to design
can be found in Appendix A.
There is now much guidance for clients on ‘the
business case for sustainable development’3.6. There A client’s sustainability brief for a building project
are also several share indices for companies that might include, but not be limited to, a number of key
operate in accordance with a number of criteria for issues and related performance targets (see
responsible corporate governance, sustainable Table 3.2). The values for these will need to be set
and environmentally responsible methods of with regard to the building type, the location and land
operation3.7-3.9. Clients and their advisors often need use, the client’s aspirations, environmental impacts
to address all aspects of sustainable development – and the cost plan for the project.
social, economic and environmental – especially with
regard to meeting planning policies at an early stage. It is important that these targets are set as early in
the design stage as possible, to maximise the
When working on any particular type of development, it opportunities to explore where sustainability
is important to identify the relevant industry standard objectives can fit into the project and to reduce any
(baseline) performance benchmarks as well as any costs later on (see Figure 3.1).
guidelines, benchmarks and performance targets specific
to the sustainable design of such a development.
3.1.2 The client’s sustainability brief 3.2 The structural engineer’s response to
clients’ requirements
While it should be an aspiration of a responsible client
to provide the design team with a ‘sustainability brief’
for a project, this is not yet common. It is certainly Structural engineers are employed by clients or
beneficial to set a clear sustainability agenda at the architects to fulfil the specific requirements of a
earliest possible stage in a project. In order to create project brief and the standard requirements set
a sustainability agenda, the client can: out in a contract of employment, and it is not yet
– Liaise with various members of the design team to common for these to include a comprehensive set
draw up sustainability objectives and performance of objectives or targets for sustainability.
targets. Nevertheless, an engineer acting as an informed
– Follow an appropriate assessment method (see practitioner can enlighten their client as to various
Appendix B) to see where sustainable objectives sustainability objectives that can be set and also
can fit in to the building design. how they might be achieved.
Table 3.1 Drivers towards sustainable construction

– To meet planning policies in order to help obtain planning permission for a building (see Chapter 4).
– To achieve a high rating for a building when assessed using an environmental assessment tool; sometimes planning permission
can be conditional upon achieving a certain minimum rating.
– To increase the potential value of a property as an asset3.1 and make the property more attractive to users3.2
(tenants, occupiers, customers).
– To fulfil the client’s own company sustainability or environmental policy.
– To enhance the client’s image and reputation when compared to their competitors, for example in the Global Reporting
Initiative3.3, and to enhance the share value of their company.
– To reduce operational costs (both short-term operating costs, such as energy and water, and whole life costs). Costs during
construction include energy and water consumption, using non-renewable materials, long-distance transport movements and
waste production. Costs after construction include use (e.g. energy and water consumption), operation, maintenance and
replacement of project components.
– To reduce risk and liability associated with climate change, rising environmental building standards and regulations, and changing
policies and legislation.
– Meeting stipulations for external funding.
– To improve the quality of life of the communities surrounding a project3.4.
– To manage development risks in conflict zones3.5.
– For the good of the local and global environment.
3.2 The client’s perspective
Table 3.2 Example target criteria for building development

Issue Environmental sustainability performance target
Demolition – % of demolition arisings materials re-used on- and off-site.
– Verification using the Institution of Civil Engineers Demolition Protocol3.10 or similar guidance.
Materials for new construction – % recycled content.
(see Chapter 9) – Re-use of whole existing building, or part thereof (e.g. foundations, frame, floors, façade, roof. See Chapter 6).
– Environmentally preferred materials (various criteria may be used, e.g. carbon emissions).
– Use of responsibly-sourced materials, e.g. timber from sources accredited by the Forest Stewardship Council
(FSC)3.11, or locally sourced material with low transportation costs.
– Use materials with zero ozone depletion potential.
– Use materials with low global warming potential.
– Avoid materials linked to various types of pollution.
Whole building performance – A certain rating using an appropriate assessment method (see Appendix B).
(see Chapter 5)
Energy in use – A minimum energy rating.
– % improvement on appropriate benchmark in kWh/m2 per year.
– % of total energy demand generated from renewable sources (e.g. solar).
Emissions of carbon dioxide – % improvement on appropriate benchmark.
Water use – % improvement on appropriate benchmark.
– Litres per person per day.
Waste management – Submit a Site Waste Management Plan, which can include reducing packaging for materials and components
delivered to site (see Chapter 10).
Local content – Key performance indicator (contract participation goal) established in terms of ISO 10845 Construction
procurement3.12, which measures the participation of targeted enterprises and/or target labour in the performance of
a contract.
– Percentage of contract value which represents the non-imported content.
It may not always be clear how an engineer can – Agree with the client and their cost advisers
contribute to meeting these goals; of course, they appropriate performance targets for each
are not achieved by the structural engineer acting sustainability objective.
alone, but rather by a many-disciplined design – Identify any risks associated with meeting the
team, each member of which makes their own sustainability objectives, and agree with the client
contribution. how these risks should be shared between the
client and various members of the project team.
Ideally, various objectives and performance targets – Compile a sustainability brief for the building(s) with
would be included in the project brief for a building. specific performance targets.
There is great benefit in setting up arrangements to – Verify during/after construction that performance
deal with sustainability issues early (see Figure 3.1) targets have been met.
including the recruitment of specialist assessment – If involving new housing, plan for compliance with
expertise, if needed – in some assessment tools such appropriate assessment; this enables structural
as GREENSTAR (see Appendix B), this is a engineers to make a positive impact on the
requirement. This ensures that the right questions reduction of a building’s environmental ‘footprint’.
can be asked at the right time, and the right data
collected3.13. Sustainability ‘checklists’ may be available3.14 that
remind building designers and other members of
The most effective route to delivering the client’s the project team what can be done. While useful
sustainability requirements is to follow a process as aides memoire, they do not include the
similar to the following: specific performance targets that designers need
– Agree sustainability objectives with the client. and that enable verification that the required
sustainability performance has been achieved
when a building is complete. Useful examples of
performance targets relate to efficiencies per m2
of building floor space (as for cost targets), and
Value
Cost
can include:
– Total ‘embodied energy’ in materials and
construction, in GJoules/m2.
– Total annual energy use (or more directly, CO2
Opportunity emissions), in kWh/m2 or Tonnes CO2/m2.
to increase
value before the Further guidance on the calculation method of
Opportunities to
costs of change performance targets is given in EN 15978:2011
rise too high influence design
Cost of change Sustainability of construction works – Assessment of
environmental performance of buildings – Calculation
Prepare Design Construct method 3.15.
Figure 3.1 The value and cost of implementing sustainable decisions changes throughout The structural engineer may make the client aware of
project stages various awards and grants that are available for
The client’s perspective 3.3
‘sustainable buildings’, such as the Institution’s 3.7 FTSE. FTSE4Good index series. Available at: http://
Structural Awards3.16. Although many awards focus www.ftse.com/Indices/FTSE4Good_Index_Series/index.
on reducing energy use, there are some appropriate jsp [Accessed: 10 July 2013]
to innovative ‘sustainable’ structural design.
3.8 Dow Jones and RobecoSAM. Dow Jones sustainability
indices. Available at: http://www.sustainability-index.
com [Accessed: 10 July 2013]
3.3 What can structural engineers do?
3.9 NASDAQ OMX Group and CRD Analytics. NASDAQ
OMX CRD Global Sustainability Index. Available at:
– Stress the list of benefits given in Table 3.1 to https://indexes.nasdaqomx.com/Index/Overview/QCRD
clients with no sustainability agenda, to encourage [Accessed: 10 July 2013]
them to consider implementing a sustainability
agenda focussing on both the long-term and 3.10 Institution of Civil Engineers. Demolition protocol 2008.
short-term benefits in construction. Available at: http://www.ice.org.uk/Information-
– Whether or not a client has issued a sustainability resources/Document-Library/Demolition-Protocol-2008
brief for a project it can be very helpful for the [Accessed: 10 July 2013]
design team to compile their own, and use it to
clarify the sustainability objectives and performance 3.11 Forestry Stewardship Council website. Available at:
targets with the client, as early in the project as http://www.fsc-uk.org [Accessed: 10 July 2013]
possible. The structural engineer can take a lead on
this, at as early a stage as possible. 3.12 ISO 10845: Construction procurement [in 8 parts]
– Help the client to find a balance between
environmental and socio-economic benefits and 3.13 Thomson C.S. et al. ‘Mapping sustainability
commercial reality. There may be a perception that assessment with the project lifecycle’. ICE
these will all ‘cost more money’, but experience Proceedings, Engineering Sustainability, 164(ES2),
shows that early consideration can often add such June 2011, pp143-157
value at no cost, or save money.
– Help the client to make decisions regarding 3.14 Brownhill, D. and Rao, S. A Sustainability checklist for
sustainability issues, at different stages during the developments: a common framework for developers
project. and local authorities. BR436. London: CRC, 2002
– Agree performance targets and specifications with
the client. 3.15 EN 15978: 2011: Sustainability of construction works
– Assessment of environmental performance of
buildings – Calculation method
3.4 References 3.16 IStructE Structural Awards website. Available at:

http://www.istructe.org/structuralawards [Accessed:
30 August 2013]
3.1 World Business Council for Sustainable Development.
Energy efficiency in buildings. 2008. Available at:
http://www.wbcsd.org/pages/edocument/
edocumentdetails.aspx?id¼13559 [Accessed: 10 July 3.5 Bibliography
2013]
3.2 Urban Land Institute. Emerging trends in real estate Addis, W. and Talbot, R. Sustainable construction procurement:
2013. Available at: http://www.uli.org/research/ a guide to delivering environmentally-responsible projects. CIRIA
centers-initiatives/center-for-capital-markets/emerging- C571. London: CIRIA, 2001.
trends-in-real-estate [Accessed: 10 July 2013]
Brownhill, D. and Rao, S. A Sustainability checklist for
3.3 Global Reporting Initiative website. Available at: https:// developments: a common framework for developers and local
www.globalreporting.org/Pages/default.aspx [Accessed: authorities. BR436. London: CRC, 2002.
10 July 2013]
Construction Industry Council. Constructing for sustainability:
3.4 Watermeyer, R. and Pham, L. ‘A Framework for the a basic guide for clients and their professional advisors.
assessment of the structural performance of London: CIC, 2003
21st century buildings’. The Structural Engineer, 89(1),
4 January 2011, pp19-25 Eley, J. Sustainable buildings: the client’s role. London: RIBA
Publishing, 2011
3.5 Engineers Against Poverty. Conflict-sensitive business
practice: Engineering contractors and their clients. Sommer, F. et al. ENGAGE: how to deliver socially responsible
2006. Available at: http://www. construction – a client’s guide. CIRIA C627. London: CIRIA,
engineersagainstpoverty.org/_db/_documents/Conflict- 2004
Sensitive_Business_Practice.pdf [Accessed:
11 September 2013] Sustainable Construction Task Group. Reputation, risk and
reward: the business case for sustainability in the UK property
3.6 See, for instance, Gardiner, J. The sustainability sector. Available at: http://projects.bre.co.uk/rrr/RRR.pdf
equation: finding the gold in green buildings. Available [Accessed: 10 July 2013]
at: http://construction.practicallaw.com/blog/
construction/blp/?p¼237 and Yudelson, J. The Yates, A. Sustainable buildings: benefits for investors and
Business case for green buildings. Available at: http:// developers. BRE Information Paper IP13/03 Part 3. London: BRE
www.greenbuildconsult.com/pdfs/PPA-Yudelson.pdf Bookshop, 2003
4 Planning
4.1 Planning policies 2002/91/EC4.2 to require all EU countries to develop

their building regulations so that an improvement in
the energy performance of buildings could be
In many countries it is necessary to get permission achieved. The EPBD also introduced mandatory
from a local planning authority to construct a new energy certification schemes to make users and
building or undertake major changes to an existing clients more aware of how energy efficient buildings
one, by submitting some form of planning application. were in use. In order to help countries to meet the
While structural engineers seldom need to search targets set out in the EPBD, a multi-phased
through planning policies as a direct part of their Concerted Action EPBD plan was launched to
work, it is useful to understand precisely what it is promote the exchange of best practice between EU
that may drive clients to introduce sustainability countries.
objectives into their building projects, and precisely
what sustainability targets may need to be achieved A revised EPBD was adopted in 2010 which aims to
in order that planning permission is granted. Such an steer EU member states towards having new and
understanding can help bring precision to a design retrofitted buildings which are zero energy (or close
brief and clarify less well-defined aims such as the to) by 2020 (2018 for public buildings), through the
desire to ‘use sustainable materials’. Both the scope application of a methodology which helps to set
and the nature of the targets are very different from minimum requirements in buildings and is cost-
the performance specifications with which structural optimal.
engineers are familiar in structural design codes.
4.3.2 Seventh Environment Action Programme
Most of the sustainability requirements and targets
mentioned in planning policies are imprecise, The Seventh Environment Action Programme (EAP) of
however this situation is changing in some areas the European Commission4.3 is under development
such as in the setting of targets for renewable energy, to guide European environmental policy up to 2020
emissions of carbon dioxide and water consumption and identifies nine priority areas on which to focus
in residential buildings. It may be anticipated that action. The three main areas (‘thematic objectives’)
similar precision will become incorporated into the are as follows:
targets for the use of both structural and non- – Natural capital: protect nature and strengthen
structural materials in construction. ecological resilience.
– Resource efficient, low-carbon economy: boost
sustainable resource-efficient low-carbon
growth.
4.2 The scope of planning policies – Health and well-being: effectively address
environment-related threats to health.
Planning policy deals with a very wide range of issues
These main objectives are supported by an ‘enabling
and sustainable development has become a crucial
framework’ (covering implementation, knowledge,
consideration4.1. While sustainable development
investment and integration) and ‘spatial dimension’
embraces many of these issues, the majority of the
(covering urban and international actions).
issues that directly affect building construction come
under an environmental heading. The precise sub-
To achieve improvements in these areas, the new
headings vary, but the following list is typical of the
programme is focussed on setting out four
aspects which can be expected to be found in
approaches which emphasise the need for more
planning policy documentation:
effective implementation and more innovative
– climate change
solutions. These are:
– flood risk
– Improving the implementation of existing
– water quality and supply, including storm water
legislation.
drainage and sewage
– Providing more beneficial information by improving
– air quality
the scientific evidence base.
– noise
– Encouraging further investment in the
– contaminated land
environment.
– ecology and biodiversity
– Fully integrating environmental concerns into other
– energy
policies.
– waste
– minerals extraction
4.3.3 European standards for sustainability of
– hazardous substances.
construction works
CEN/TC 350 is part of the European Committee

4.3 European Union policies for Standardization and is formed of technical
work groups which publish standards for the
sustainability of construction works4.4. These
4.3.1 Energy Performance of Buildings Directive provide a system for assessing buildings using a
life cycle approach (see Section 5.5.2) and cover
In January 2003 the European Union (EU) introduced the environmental, economic and social
the Energy Performance of Buildings Directive (EPBD) performance assessment of buildings.
Planning 4.4
Two of these standards which are of particular 4.4 International policies

relevance to structural engineers are:
– EN 15804:2012 Sustainability of construction
works – Environmental product declarations – At an international level standards have been
Core rules for the product category of developed for providing a framework for life cycle
construction products4.5. assessment (LCA), such as the International
– EN 15978:2011 Sustainability of construction Standards Organisation’s ISO 14040 range4.7, which
works – Assessment of environmental is intended to be used with ISO/TS 21931
performance of buildings – Calculation Sustainability in building construction – Framework for
method 4.6. methods of assessment of the environmental
performance of construction works – Part 1:
EN 158044.5 provides consistent methods and Buildings4.8. The EPD system is based on LCA which
rules for producing environmental product many EU countries have used for assessing the
declarations (EPDs) for products used in environmental impact of manufacturing individual
construction. All EPDs use the same construction materials.
environmental indicators (across all TC 350
standards) for 17 life cycle modules. These The International Federation of Consulting Engineers
modules are shown in Table 4.1. EPDs for ‘cradle (FIDIC) has created project sustainability management
to grave’ units are mandatory for all A, B and C (PSM) guidelines4.9 to aid engineers to set
stages. development goals in sustainability for a project.
There are three main headings under which the
guidelines are divided: social, economic and
EN 158044.5 ensures that comparable
environmental – there are clear similarities to the triple
environmental information is produced whenever a
bottom line approach to sustainability (see
product is constructed or used. It is intended that
Section 1.1).
this will help minimise barriers to trade by
transferring the information across schemes in
The Investment Property Databank’s (IPD) Environment
Europe.
Code4.10 provides a framework for measuring
environmental impacts of buildings and information
EN 159784.6 provides calculation rules which can be related to (among other things) energy, water and
used to assess the environmental performance of waste. The code covers a wide range of building types
both new and existing buildings, based on a life cycle and can be applied anywhere in the world.
approach.
Agenda 214.11 is a voluntary global sustainability plan
A provision for a methodology for the produced by the United Nations Environment
accumulation of material and component data to Programme (UNEP) after the Rio Earth Summit in
determine a building’s overall integrated 1992. The implementation of the plan was intended
environmental performance is covered in to engage action at all levels (national, regional and
EN 158044.5. Together with EN 159784.6, these local) through the responsibility of governments. This
standards can be used to calculate and report in turn was intended to provide an overarching
embodied carbon and impact across the supportive international climate for achieving the
construction industry and encourage the structural goals for sustainable development set out in the plan.
engineer to consider how components and
materials are treated beyond the end of life of a The International Code Council has produced the
building. The evaluation of environmental data for 2012 International Green Construction Code4.12,
construction products to the same standard intended to be adopted on a mandatory basis to
would provide wider accessibility of this achieve environmental benefits which are not possible
information to engineers. with voluntary rating systems. The code is applicable
to both new and existing structures (with a few
Standards for sustainable sourcing of construction exceptions) and includes a series of mandatory
products are discussed in Section 10.2.3. minimum requirements which address indoor
environmental quality and the conservation of natural
resources, materials, energy and water.
Table 4.1 Life cycle modules for building assessment (from EN 15804)
Product stage Construction process Use stage End of life stage Benefits and loads beyond
stage the system boundary
A1 A2 A3 A4 A5 B1 B2 B3 B4 B5 B6 B7 C1 C2 C3 C4 D
Deconstruction and demolition
Potential for re-use, recovery

Construction/installation
Operational energy use
Operational water use

Raw material supply
Waste processing
Refurbishment
Manufacturing
and recycling
Replacement
Maintenance
Transport
Transport
Transport
Disposal
process
Repair
Use
4.5 Planning
4.5 What can structural engineers do? 4.11 United Nations Environment Program. Agenda 21.
Available at: http://www.unep.org/Documents.
Multilingual/Default.asp?DocumentID=52 [Accessed:
At the planning stages of the project, the structural 10 July 2013]
engineer can take the following actions so as to
influence the design and materials thinking, and 4.12 International Code Council. 2012 International Green
identify sustainability opportunities from an early stage: Construction Code. Country Club Hills,
– Understand clients’ motives for introducing Illinois: ICC, 2012
sustainability objectives into their building projects,
and what sustainability targets may need to be
achieved in order that planning permission is
awarded. 4.7 Bibliography
– Identify current or likely future sustainability
performance targets.
– Research other national, regional and local policies Berry, C. and McCarthy, S. Guide to sustainable procurement in
and guidance documents. construction. CIRIA C695. London: CIRIA, 2011
– Contribute to the development of a sustainability
brief for the project. Construction Products Association. A Guide to understanding the
embodied impacts of construction products. Available at:
http://www.constructionproducts.org.uk/fileadmin/client/cpa/
4.6 References documents/Sustainability/Embodied_Impacts_brochure_small_
V9.pdf [Accessed: 10 July 2013]
4.1 See, for example, the National Planning Policy Cotter, E. et al. Delivering sustainable development in the built
Framework (NPPF) in the UK. Available at: https://www. environment. BRE Information Paper IP4/09. Watford: IHS BRE
gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_ Press, 2009
data/file/6077/2116950.pdf [Accessed: 10 July 2013]
Denyer-Green, B. and Ubhi, N. Development and planning law.
4.2 Directive 2002/91/EC of the European Parliament and 4th ed. Abingdon: Routledge, 2013
of the Council of 16 December 2002 on the energy
performance of buildings. Available at: http://eur-lex. European Commission. EU policies and legislation impacting
europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri= construction. Available at: http://ec.europa.eu/enterprise/sectors/
OJ:L:2003:001:0065:0065:EN:PDF [Accessed: construction/policies-legislation/index_en.htm [Accessed:
10 July 2013] 10 July 2013]
4.3 European Commission. Proposal for a new EU Greater London Assembly. The London Plan: spatial
Environment Action Programme to 2020. Available at: development strategy for Greater London. GLA, July 2011.
http://ec.europa.eu/environment/newprg/index.htm Available at: http://www.london.gov.uk/priorities/planning/london-
[Accessed: 10 July 2013] plan [Accessed: 30 August 2013]
4.4 CEN. Sustainability of construction works – published HM Government. Securing the Future – delivering UK
standards. Available at: http://www.cen.eu/cen/ Government sustainable development strategy. 2005. Available
Sectors/TechnicalCommitteesWorkshops/ at: http://www.defra.gov.uk/publications/2011/03/25/securing-
CENTechnicalCommittees/Pages/Standards.aspx? the-future-pb10589 [Accessed: 10 July 2013]
param=481830&title=Sustainability%20of%
20construction%20works [Accessed: 10 July 2013] Mayor of London. Sustainable design and construction: the
London Plan supplementary planning guidance. 2006. Available
4.5 EN 15804: 2012: Sustainability of construction works at: http://www.london.gov.uk/thelondonplan/guides/spg/spg_04.
– Environmental product declarations – Core rules for jsp [Accessed: 10 July 2013]
the product category of construction products
Prior, J. and Williams, C. Delivering sustainability objectives
4.6 EN 15978: 2011: Sustainability of construction works through planning. BRE Information Paper, IP3/08. Watford: IHS
– Assessment of environmental performance of BRE Press, 2008
buildings – Calculation method
4.7 ISO 14040: 2006: Environmental management – Life

cycle assessment – Principles and framework. Geneva:
ISO, 2006
4.8 ISO 21931-1:2010: Sustainability in building

construction – Framework for methods of assessment
of the environmental performance of construction
works – Part 1: Buildings. Geneva: ISO, 2010
4.9 FIDIC. Project sustainability management guidelines.

Geneva: FIDIC, 2004
4.10 IPD. IPD environment code: measuring the

environmental performance of buildings. Available at:
http://www.ipd.com/LinkClick.aspx?link=downloads%
2Fprodukter%2FIPD_Environmentcode_2010.
pdf&tabid=3152&mid=10513 [Accessed: 10 July
2013]
5 Principles of sustainable design and environmental
assessment
5.1 Holistic design
Chapter 2 discussed the complexity of the issues that

surround and define the scope of the project, and its
interaction with many external systems – transport,
landscape, energy, climate, urban planning and
design, drainage and flooding, and water use. It is
important that design should start with structural
engineers bringing their expertise into discussion with
the client, services engineers, architects and the
whole design team, in order to review such
interactions in a holistic manner, before each
specialist starts to concentrate on their own area of
design.
From the point of view of environmental

sustainability, there are many systems (such as off-
site manufacture and prefabrication) which can be
used to help reduce the energy used to build the
structure, and these may be investigated. Further
energy can be saved by designing buildings to be
low energy in use during their life time – for
example, orientating buildings appropriately on the
site to take account of local prevailing wind
conditions and to maximise the benefits of
available natural daylight, by making use of the
building’s inherent thermal mass to minimise peak
heating or cooling demands, perhaps by
maximising solar gain to reduce heating demands
in cool climates. Such an approach may also
examine the potential for ‘green roofs’5.1, 5.2, as
utilised at the Brooklyn Botanic Gardens visitor
center (see Figure 5.1). It might even consider the
provision of a micro combined heat and power
plant (micro CHP) on-site, to meet the building’s
electrical power and heating/cooling demands in
an area where current power supply is limited or
non-existent5.3.
For socio-economic sustainability, engineers may

start by considering the comfort and environmental
control for the building occupants (see Figure 5.2).
Further consideration of safety and security might
involve the structural engineer in the design of
appropriate road and pavement access and possibly
require reference to governmental anti-terrorist
recommendations. Consideration can also be given
to broader issues which ensure local participation in
projects, such as the use of indigenous and local
materials and the use of construction technologies
that increase employment and local business
opportunities.
Economically and financially, the team need to check

that cost comparisons of options utilise whole life
costing processes5.4.
One feature of adopting a holistic approach as

described above will be the need to carry out some
form of integrated sustainability assessment, which
measures and minimises impacts beyond costs and Figure 5.1 Brooklyn Botanic Gardens visitor center, USA. Building is
can bring together all the varied and interacting Integrated within the natural topography, utilising glazing to provide natural
impacts and opportunities of the project. light in the interior spaces and incorporating a green roof
5.2 Principles of sustainable design and environmental assessment
would have to pay for extensive survey work to be

undertaken.
The stored data in the BIM model can also help in

deconstruction: it can be used to enable recycling
and re-use at the end of the structure’s life, as the
allowable stresses in each element will have been
calculated and thus can be used to determine how
the structural elements can be dismantled and
re-used in the future.
5.3 Quantification and sustainability

assessment
‘‘Sustainable development objectives are broad. To

deliver them, we must focus on specific issues. One
way to do that is through indicators. They help to
identify areas for action and connections between
them.’’ – A Better quality of life – strategy for
sustainable development for the United Kingdom,
19995.5.
Since this statement was written in 1999 many

organisations, including planning authorities in local
government, have developed assessment tools and
checklists of sustainability issues that may need to be
met on a project in order for approval to be granted.
These can also be used to provide a simple
assessment of the level of sustainability achieved.
While these generally cover roughly the same range
of economic, social and environmental issues, the
degree to which these issues can be measured varies
greatly and is a matter of continuing debate.
Figure 5.2 Hall de l’Innovation et Vitrine de l’Energie (‘Le Hive’), France, focuses on
5.4 Building environmental assessment
working with users to provide a comfortable and safe working environment, while continually tools
driving down energy consumption
5.4.1 Methodologies
5.2 Sustainability and BIM When structural engineers are engaged in the design
of buildings they are more likely to encounter
assessment tools that focus on only a few of these
Building information modelling (BIM) is a issues – mainly those relating to:
communications process which allows for – The use of natural resources, both directly
collaborative and co-ordinated sharing of data (minerals, timber) and indirectly in the processes of
between members of the design team using a single manufacture (fuels for energy and transport, water,
model. It can help to minimise inefficiencies on site by land).
allowing the client and design team to visualise the – The impact of construction on the environment –
structure and determine the co-ordination of different pollution of air, water and ground, damage to
components before construction, thus minimising ecology and habitats, waste sent to landfill sites,
on-site changes. BIM can allow integrated modelling transport congestion, cultural heritage (archaeology,
of combined structural elements to determine energy the built environment), including visual impact.
analysis, carbon energy cost and thermal mass. The
production of a BIM model can also have the Many sustainability assessment methods and systems
beneficial effect of reducing wastage through avoiding have been developed in different parts of the world as
over-ordering of materials, due to lack of confidence a result of the initiatives of world-wide ‘Green Building
or inaccurate quantification data. Councils’5.6 (along with various national governments
and the EU), which are at the forefront of the
BIM models can include data on the longevity of development of assessment methodology.
structural components and flag up when they reach
the end of their design life and/or need to be Each assessment tool varies in its approach and has
inspected and maintained, to prevent expensive different ‘boundaries’ of assessment. Several tools list
repairs following unforeseen failure. General certain important areas of consideration, for which
construction data can also be used when analysing some form of action or response is mandatory, and
existing buildings for possible re-use and renovation. they all award a rating level indicating how ‘green’ the
This can be invaluable to the client who otherwise building is.
Principles of sustainable design and environmental assessment 5.5
Assessing impact can be done in a variety of ways ISO standards, other useful information is available:
and structural engineers may be familiar with several – The Human Development Index (HDI)5.15 applies
environmental assessment methods for buildings5.7. internationally and concentrates on income, health
A list of the better-known methods can be found in and education.
Appendix B. – Many urban and local authorities have indicator sets,
sometimes developed from the original ‘Agenda 21’
Further to these assessment methods, there is a approach at a local or regional level (see Section 4.4),
growing set of International Standards Organisation which followed the Rio Earth Summit in 1992. These
(ISO) standards for Sustainability in building can form a natural starting point.
construction. They cover various aspects of – ISO 10845: 2011 Construction procurement:
sustainability, including: Part 1: Processes, methods and procedures5.16
– ISO 15392:2008 General principles5.8: identifies describes a number of targeted procurement
and establishes general principles for sustainability procedures which can be linked to key
in building construction. performance indicators (KPIs). KPIs are provided in
– ISO 21929-1:2011 Sustainability indicators – Parts 5 to 8 to enable the performance of a
Part 1: Framework for the development of contractor in the engagement of enterprises, joint
indicators and a core set of indicators for venture partners, local resources and local labour
buildings5.9: provides a framework, makes to be quantified, measured and audited.
recommendations, and gives guidelines for the – SATS 1286: 2011: Local goods, services and
development and selection of appropriate works: measurement and verification of local
sustainability indicators for buildings. content. Technical specification5.17 specifies
– ISO 21931-1:2010 Framework for methods of requirements and procedures to measure, declare
assessment of the environmental performance of and verify local content when required for
construction works – Part 1: Buildings5.10: provides procurement and other purposes.
a general framework for improving the quality and
comparability of methods for assessing the
environmental performance of buildings and their
related external works. 5.5 Design life
– ISO 21930:2007 Environmental declaration of
building products5.11: provides the principles and
requirements for type III (i.e. based on life cycle 5.5.1 Design life and maintenance
assessment and verified by a third party)
environmental declarations of building products Within a building, there are varying expectations of
(EPDs). the ‘design life’ of its component parts, as ‘design
life’ is better described as ‘time to first significant
When choosing an approach to use, it is important to maintenance’. For the primary structural frame, the
understand their strengths and weaknesses5.7, 5.12; ‘design life’ is likely to be approximately 50 years; if
and to take into account which approaches have properly maintained, it may be expected to survive for
most credibility in the project’s sector. In many cases, an almost unlimited length of time, unless accidentally
it may be necessary to add some ‘bespoke’ issues damaged.
that are particular to the project5.13.
Within the life of the overall building the harder (or
Assessment methodologies typically grant ‘credits’ more costly) a component is to replace, the longer
for varying levels of performance when measured the specified design life will typically be. Equally, if it is
against an established set of criteria. The issues known that a component will be replaced in a fixed
relating to the granting of a particular credit in an number of years, perhaps as ‘planned maintenance’,
assessment tool may impact on the work of the it is pointless to specify a design life beyond this
structural engineer in one of three ways: period. Similar principles also apply to buildings as a
(1) Achieving a credit will directly affect the way the whole, particularly where these are for uses that are
structure is designed, for example: likely to change over time. One option is then to
– Choice of material. design just for this short life, but another is to design
– Retention of existing structural elements, e.g. to accommodate as yet unknown future uses. As
the façade. Alexander Gordon, RIBA President 1971-1973, put it:
(2) Achieving a credit may affect the way the ‘‘Long life, loose fit, low energy’’5.18 – designing for
structure is designed, for example: ‘flexibility’.
– Loads imposed by building-mounted renewable
energy devices. This implies designing for ‘adaptability’: the capacity
– Use of a high thermal mass structure as part of of a building, or some elements of it, to
the energy strategy. accommodate changes of use or occupation. To
– Requirement to use a proportion of recycled- maximise the lifespan of a structure, it may be
content materials. designed to be flexible in its use and the spaces it
(3) Achieving a credit can have no effect on the can provide, and simple in its co-ordination with
structural design, for example: services. Provision may be made in the frame design
– Preparation of a travel plan. to allow services to be changed easily. For overall
future adaptability the following would be useful:
5.4.2 Covering local socio-economic impacts – simple robust design
– a degree of redundancy in the structure
In cases where socio-economic concerns are not – an allowance for different floor loads, without being
addressed in assessment tools or methodologies, excessive
structural engineers may need to develop methods – provision of locations for future openings through
that are ‘bespoke’ for a particular project, client or floor slabs
locality. As a source for these, much academic work – provision for easy separation of elements (see
has been undertaken5.14. As well as the developing Section 8.3.2).
Manufacture
Recycling/re-use Construction
Deconstruction/ Occupancy/
renovation maintenance
Figure 5.4 A regenerative design lifecycle
A critical aspect in any LCA process is the

determination of the boundaries within which the
assessment will be carried out. LCA has led
manufacturers and service providers to consider
what happens to their goods once they have left
their control, changing the emphasis from ‘cradle
to gate’ assessment (where manufacturing and
packaging impacts are considered) to ‘cradle to
grave’ assessment (where manufacturing,
packaging, use and disposal impacts are
considered). A regenerative approach described in
Cradle to cradle: remaking the way we make
things5.20 takes this further still, focussing on
disassembling and re-using rather than disposing,
thus repeating the cycle (see Figure 5.4).
Significant reductions in both virgin material

demand and waste generation in the future can be
made by recognising the potential for
components, or even for whole buildings, to have
subsequent use. The designer can take into
account the principles of careful initial assembly
and eventual recovery of component parts during
end-of-life dismantling. Ultimately, many
components could potentially become multiple-
use ‘building blocks’ that can be assembled in
various different ways; their useful life would not
be limited by their use in the initial structure, and
they may have multiple ‘design lives’ before they
are discarded.
Figure 5.3 The Igus Factory, Germany, provides column-free The LCA process has now evolved to provide a
floor space designed for multiple uses, where movable interior reliable and standardised way of measuring
pods can be relocated throughout the building. All components environmental impacts, and the International
are unitised for easy removal and replacement including the Standards Organisation has produced a series of
cladding, so that windows and doors can be repositioned guidelines (the ISO 14040 series5.21) to enable
comparisons to be carried out between studies that
have used the same methodological basis. The EU
The idea of designing new buildings for adaptability in standard for environmental product declarations is
the future is discussed by Alexander5.19 and is EN 15804 (see Section 4.3.3).
demonstrated at the Igus Factory in Germany (see
Figure 5.3). By using LCA rather than simple construction impact
assessment, optimum solutions may be identified that
5.5.2 Life cycle assessment whilst initially more expensive (using any ‘value’
system, e.g. financial, carbon dioxide emissions, or
For any overall life expectancy, life cycle assessment resource depletion), offer longer term benefits over
(LCA) is a useful approach for assessing the practical the specified design life.
‘design life’ of the individual components that make
up a building. LCA is the process of evaluating the 5.5.3 Environmental profiles
total environmental burdens associated with a
product, process, or activity during its complete life. Useful information to assist with life cycle assessment
This involves identifying and quantifying all the is provided in the Database of Environmental Profiles
materials, energy, water and other resources used, for Construction Materials and Components
and wastes released to the environment. developed by the Building Research Establishment
(BRE), in collaboration with UK materials industries, building and materials/products utilised (including
which forms the basis of the guidance found in the manufacture, packaging and eventual breakdown or
Green guide to specification5.22, 5.23. disposal).
An environmental profile provides reliable and Although much talked about, the true carbon
independent environmental information about building footprint of buildings is seldom calculated, not least
materials and components in a standardised way by because of the complexity (and cost) of accumulating
identifying and assessing the environmental effects of the large amount of data required to do so.
building materials over their entire life cycle. This
covers extraction and processing of constituent 5.6.3 Carbon calculators
materials, associated environmental impacts of the
material during the construction and operational During the last few years, the carbon calculator has
stages of a building, and its eventual demolition and emerged as a compromised means of assessing
disposal. the environmental impact of the materials used in a
building. Combining CO2 emission data for
The provision of environmental data helps remove production of unit weights of materials with a bill of
doubts surrounding the performance of building quantities, it is a simple task to calculate the total
materials. This allows designers to demand reliable carbon dioxide emissions associated with
and comparable environmental information about constructing a building – often referred to as the
competing building materials and gives suppliers the ‘embodied carbon dioxide’, or ‘embodied carbon’
opportunity to present credible environmental for short. This process is known as ‘carbon
information about their products. This promotes fair accounting’: the process of determining the
competition and allows for relative comparison of approximate measures of embodied carbon in a
materials’ environmental impacts. building entity.
The output generated by this process is subject to a

large number of assumptions, caveats and
5.6 Embodied carbon qualifications. However, the convenience of having a
single figure for tonnes of carbon, or tonnes of
carbon per square metre of building, can help in
5.6.1 Embodied energy providing a breakdown of where embodied carbon
can be reduced.
An LCA process can be used to establish how much
energy has been used to bring a certain amount of Refer to Chapter 6 for further information on the
material into a building. This ‘embodied energy’ is the application of these principles to the re-use of
energy consumed by all of the processes associated existing buildings, and to Chapter 8 for their
with the production of a building, from the acquisition application to new structures.
of natural resources to product delivery (including the
mining and manufacturing of materials and
equipment), the transport of materials and
administrative functions. 5.7 What can structural engineers do?
Embodied energy is a significant component of the
lifecycle impact of buildings. Every building is a – Raise their awareness of the environmental impact
combination of many processed materials, each of of different materials and how they can be
which contributes to the total embodied energy. assessed.
Renovation and maintenance also add to the – Using the BRE Green guide to specification5.23 and
embodied energy over a building’s life. materials calculators, raise their own awareness,
and that of the design team members, as to which
Embodied energy content varies greatly with different construction materials and types of building
types of construction. In many cases a higher construction have low(er) environmental impact.
embodied energy level can be justified if it contributes – Raise the awareness of the impact of the choice of
to lower operating energy use. For example large materials and technologies on local content and
amounts of thermal mass, high in embodied energy, work opportunities for the local community.
can significantly reduce heating and cooling needs in – Advise clients on the growing concern for the
well-designed, well-insulated passive solar heated environmental impact of construction materials, in
buildings. planning policies and in building assessment tools.
– Advise design team members of means of
Advice on how structural engineers can contribute assessing the environmental impact of materials,
directly to the reduction of embodied carbon in including the materials calculators and the
projects can be found in the Institution’s Short guide calculation of embodied carbon.
to embodied carbon in building structures5.24. – Adopt a sustainability assessment approach and
consider issues of life cycle assessment, embodied
5.6.2 Carbon footprinting energy and carbon, and carbon footprint.
The carbon footprint of a building is a measure of the

impact in terms of the quantities of greenhouse gases
(GHG) produced that all the activities associated with 5.8 References
the building have on the environment. This
encompasses direct emissions due to the burning of
fossil fuels (including construction power 5.1 Institution of Structural Engineers. Green roofs.
consumption and transportation energy), and indirect Sustainability Briefing 6. Available at: www.istructe.org/
emissions arising from the whole lifecycle of the sustainability-briefing-notes [Accessed: 11 July 2013]
5.2 Green Roof Organisation. The GRO green roof code: 5.16 ISO 10845-1:2010: Construction procurement –
green roof code of best practice for the UK 2011. Part 1: Processes, methods and procedures. Geneva,
Available at: http://www.thegreenroofcentre.co.uk/ ISO: 2010
Library/Default/Documents/GRO%20ONLINE.pdf
[Accessed: 10 July 2013] 5.17 SATS 1286: 2011: Local goods, services and works:
measurement and verification of local content.
5.3 Institution of Structural Engineers. CHP: a guide for Technical specification. Pretoria: SABS Standards
structural engineers. Sustainability Briefing 10. Division. Available at: www.thedti.gov.za/
Available at: www.istructe.org/sustainability-briefing- industrial_development/docs/ip/technical.pdf
notes [Accessed: 11 July 2013] [Accessed: 11 September 2013]
5.4 Institution of Structural Engineers. Capital vs Lifecycle 5.18 Gordon, A. ‘Architecture: for love or money?’ RIBA
vs Whole-life Costs. Sustainability Briefing 2. Available Journal, 78(12), December 1971, pp535-540
at: www.istructe.org/sustainability-briefing-notes
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around’. The Structural Engineer, 88(4), 16 February
5.5 Department of the Environment, Transport and the 2010, pp15-17
Regions. A Better quality of life – strategy for
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London: DETR, 1999. Available at: http://collections. remaking the way we make things. London: Jonathan
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cycle assessment – Principles and framework. Geneva:
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scope definition and inventory analysis. Geneva, ISO,
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Framework for the development of indicators and a TS 14048: 2002: Environmental management – Life
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construction – Framework for methods of assessment goal and scope definition and inventory analysis.
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Vukotic, L. et al. ‘Assessing embodied energy of building

structural elements’. ICE Proceedings, Engineering Sustainability,
163(ES3), September 2010, pp147-158
Watermeyer, R. and Pham, L. ‘A Framework for the assessment

of the structural performance of 21st century buildings’.
The Structural Engineer, 89(1), 4 January 2011, pp19-25
6 Adaptation and re-use of existing buildings
6.1 The benefits of re-using existing or residences. The structures generally have
generous floor-to-ceiling storey heights and thus are
buildings able to accommodate mezzanine floors, suspended
ceilings and additional services needed for the
6.1.1 Existing record information conversion6.1.
The availability of design drawings and calculations, The benefits of re-using existing buildings go beyond
or of as-built construction drawings, is of great reducing environmental impact. The cultural heritage
advantage when making decisions as to the of a building may have to be preserved (e.g. as part of
modification of buildings for re-use. Every effort local planning restrictions), and the original style and
needs to be made to safeguard any such construction materials retained. This can be done by:
information that may be available as it can – Continuing the use of traditional materials that are
drastically reduce the cost of carrying out suitable sourced or manufactured locally, and the
survey and investigation work. Typically such employment of suitably qualified labour with the
information can most likely be found either in local skills to work with the local material, such as timber
authority record archives, from the building owner, frame construction or stone.
or from the original building designer. – Using construction materials that characterise a
certain type of building.
6.1.2 Environmental and social benefits – Using construction materials characteristic of a
particular style or architectural era.
The re-use of components of an existing building can
bring significant environmental benefits: 6.1.3 Benefits for the client
– Extension of the life of the building.
– Saving valuable resources e.g. construction There are many benefits to the client in choosing to
materials and water, as well as reducing the waste redevelop and re-use an existing building, in part or
and energy consumption involved with demolition whole. The sensitive re-use of an existing building
and new construction. may be favourably considered in the determination
– Reducing requirements for transporting resources of planning applications. Any members to be
to and from the site. removed will need to be fully assessed and
– Reducing the impact of construction processes on removed only when it is certain that there will be no
the surrounding community, including noise, detrimental effect on the structure; non-loadbearing
pollution and construction traffic. elements can be removed relatively easily and
replaced without significantly altering the structural
An example of changing the use of a building for the frame. Re-using an existing building can also bring
benefit of new use is the conversion of industrial about a reduction in construction time on-site (time
warehouses and factories, many of which are may vary depending on the level of refurbishment,
inherently structurally robust, to accommodate offices see Table 6.1).
Table 6.1 Levels of refurbishment dependent on building performance and condition

Building performance Building condition
Excellent Good Poor Very poor
Excellent Maintain Level 1 Level 2 Level 3
Good Level 1 Level 2 Level 3 Level 3
Poor Level 2 Level 3 Level 3 Level 4
Very poor Level 3 Level 3 Level 4 Level 5
Key of example degrees of refurbishment
Level 1: Minor alterations. For example: carry out health checks on building management systems and controls, revise layout to
improve daylight and flexibility, replacement of floor coverings, recommissioning of building services. Approximate time to
carry out: 1-3 months.
Level 2: Refurbishment. For example: level 1 works plus renew lighting and control system, remove false ceilings to expose thermal
mass, upgrade or replace insulation. Approximate time to carry out: 3-6 months.
Level 3: Major remediation. For example: replacement of major plant and services, floor finishes, raised floors and internal walls,
installation of external solar control. Approximate time to carry out: 2-12 months.
Level 4: Reconstruction. For example: only substructure, superstructure and floor structure retained, structural and façade
alterations, enlargement of floor areas, fitting of new cladding, possible relocation of cores and risers. Approximate time to
carry out: 6-18 months.
Level 5: Demolition. Consider demolition and rebuild. Approximate time to carry out new build (not including demolition of existing
structure): 18-24 months.
Notes
a All times given are approximations – re-use of an existing building does not guarantee reducing construction time on site.
b Table adapted from Existing buildings survival strategies 6.2 and Building adaptation 6.1.
Adaptation and re-use of existing buildings 6.2
If consulted early enough, the structural engineer is An example of building modification and re-use is
often in a good position to influence the fate of an shown in Figure 6.1.
existing building. Before a client purchases an
existing building they will need to assess its value It is imperative to consider that the structural frame of
which, in large measure, will be affected by answers the building may not be suitable to cater for the
to questions such as the following: additional load added, or other possible effects
– Will the existing building structure be able to carry the resulting from such retrofits. It is therefore important
loading imposed by the proposed new use? If not, that the building structure is thoroughly assessed
can it be suitably stiffened or strengthened? If not, before any of these are considered.
can it be replaced while retaining a building envelope?
– Will the building envelope (roof, loadbearing In refurbishing a building, for example by adding wall
masonry walls or cladding) continue to function for insulation, the original structure beneath must be
an acceptable life? If not, can it be upgraded or sufficiently ventilated to avoid condensation. This
replaced? would generate a build-up of moisture which can lead
– Will the existing building be suitable for introducing to mould growth and the eventual decay of the
modern building services, technology and new underlying structure. This is especially significant with
vertical access (lifts, stairs)? regard to ensuring the free-draining of cavity walls if
– If the building itself is not suitable for re-use, can the retrofitting of cavity wall insulation is being
the existing foundations be incorporated into the considered.
design of a new structure?
– Can the existing structure be suitably re-modelled Other technologies are available such as thermal
to provide improved internal circulation, or to imaging, which can be very useful in assessing the
allow a low-energy passive environmental design degree of thermal insulation of existing buildings, as
approach to be adopted, thus enabling the well as identifying the presence of thermal bridges
removal of existing energy-consuming between the inside and outside of the structure.
mechanical systems?
– Will excessive intervention to bring the building up to
current building regulations standards be required?
An awareness of these issues, and how they may be

successfully resolved, can enable the structural
engineer to help the client to realise considerable
value from an existing building. It also means that an
engineer, who is unaware of how existing buildings
can be re-used, may advise a client incorrectly that
an existing building cannot be developed, which can
lead to the needless loss of a valuable asset.
Demolition and new build typically only become viable

once other avenues to re-energise the current asset
have been exhausted. It is becoming increasingly
important for owners to consider what can be done
to improve the way in which a building performs its
intended purpose now, to keep up with the market of
the future6.2, 6.3.
6.2 Retrofitting existing buildings
The importance of retrofitting existing building stock

cannot be overlooked. It may prove to be more cost-
effective and carbon efficient to retrofit an existing
building than to go through a demolition and rebuild
process. This is especially significant for domestic
buildings.
If the existing structure is to be retained (i.e. the

condition of the building fabric is acceptable, but its
energy performance needs to be improved) then a
number of retrofits can be considered. These may
include but are not limited to:
– providing roof, wall and possibly floor insulation
– installing highly efficient building services
– upgrading of glazing systems
– provision of water recycling systems (rainwater
harvesting, grey water recycling)
– provision for air source or ground source energy
systems
– adoption of energy generating ‘renewable’
technologies (photovoltaic panels, wind turbines Figure 6.1 City and Islington College, UK, before and after. The redesigned façades
etc. See Appendix C for more information). resolve noise and insolation issues and allow the adoption of a natural ventilation strategy
6.3 Adaptation and re-use of existing buildings
6.3 Re-using the main loadbearing methods are used to assess old buildings, it can
structure often appear as if the building cannot satisfy current
design code criteria. More thorough analysis using
‘permissible stress’ principles may enable and justify
6.3.1 Structural elements a change in performance such as the ability to carry
increased loads.
There are three main categories of vertical
loadbearing elements in building structures. Each Figure 6.2 highlights the structural appraisal work
requires different considerations in detail, but the carried out at the Iron Market in Haiti following the
same general principles apply to all: catastrophic earthquake in 2010.
– Loadbearing masonry walls and columns,
constructed of brick or stone. (In masonry buildings
it may be difficult to meet progressive collapse
requirements without excessive intervention.) 6.4 Re-using the building envelope
– Columns in a structural frame – of timber, cast
and/or wrought iron (generally pre-1900), steel
(generally post-1900), and reinforced concrete 6.4.1 Planning considerations
(in situ or pre-cast).
– Horizontal loadbearing elements (i.e. transfer The envelope of a building provides an interface
structures) generally consist of a floor structure between the external and internal environments. The
spanning between beams of timber, cast or form of a façade, and indeed its relationship with
wrought iron, steel or reinforced concrete. The floor adjacent buildings, can affect the decision taken by a
may consist of planks of timber or concrete, local authority when planning permission is being
masonry jack arches, composite floors (metal sought as to whether the appearance of the building
decking with concrete), or reinforced concrete can be changed or must be retained. Many local
slabs. authorities can supply guidance on suitable
construction techniques and materials in a particular
Buildings also contain structural systems for carrying area. The use of locally available materials and
horizontal loads from wind or earthquakes down to construction methods is especially characterised in
foundations and, generally, providing stability. In some vernacular architecture.
cases these systems would need strengthening prior
to consideration for re-use. An example is older 6.4.2 Retention of loadbearing façades
buildings in regions subject to earthquakes, made of
unreinforced masonry or rubble walls, needing to be Buildings with external loadbearing walls which form
strengthened before they could be re-used. In the façade are common in domestic applications and
modern buildings these are likely to be dedicated in buildings constructed before the 20th century. With
shear walls or braced frames. In most buildings built older buildings especially there may be a requirement
before 1900, and indeed in many domestic properties to retain the existing façade, as it is considered to
today, wind loads are carried by vertical and non- be part of the local cultural heritage. This
vertical loadbearing elements and by the floors of requirement is usually issued by a local or national
buildings via diaphragm action. authority, and any proposed changes must be
approved by the local planning authority. As a first
6.3.2 Appraisal of existing structures option, the engineer may attempt to preserve the
original method of structural action of the building
In assessing the structural capacity of an existing fabric, keeping loadbearing elements as loadbearing
building6.4, each of the three structural systems need where possible. If this is not possible, replacing the
to be assessed, both separately and working in interior structure of a building while retaining the
conjunction with each other. The level of façade (whether loadbearing or non-loadbearing)
refurbishment required will depend on the results of may be an acceptable solution to meet these
the assessment of the building structure and its preservation requirements.
materials. There are six levels of action (refer to
Table 6.1): The main stages to undertaking façade retention are
– Maintain/do nothing (re-use the structural system as follows:
as is). – Appraisal of the existing façade, investigating how
– Minor alterations. Includes revising the internal and where the façade is connected to the adjoining
building layout to suit current needs. structure and how they can feasibly be separated.
– Refurbishment. Includes renewing internal systems – Determining the relationship of the façade with the
and preventing any further deterioration of the new build, ensuring that the new design takes into
building structure. account any limitations imposed by the façade, e.g.
– Major remediation. Includes replacement of internal location of windows. Relative movement between
structure and building services, remediating and the two structures needs to be accounted for.
fixing any decay of the structure and upgrading – Devising the temporary support structure, which
where necessary. must be able to support the façade before the
– Reconstruction. Includes altering part or all of the internal structure is deconstructed. Temporary
façade and building structure. works are often located on the outside of the
– Demolition. façade to allow greater freedom for construction
within, and must be able to withstand significant
Between maintaining the structural system as it is wind loading.
and demolishing the entire building, there are differing – Demolishing the old structure and constructing the
levels of remediation which can be identified. These new, ensuring that it is fixed correctly to the façade.
can be undertaken at a cost acceptable to the client The façade can then be retained as loadbearing or
in order to bring the building up to adequate usable the new structure can support the façade,
standards. When modern limit state analytical depending on the new design.
Figure 6.2 The Iron Market, Port au Prince, Haiti. After suffering extensive earthquake damage, modular components were salvaged
for re-use allowing the market to be restored, thus allowing a building of major cultural and historic importance to be retained
The environmental function of the old façade, in and transfers wind loads through to the main
comparison with the new internal structure, will structure. Cladding is not normally a primary structural
require investigation to ensure that it can achieve element – it is supported by the main structural frame,
acceptable levels of control in the internal and it is for this reason that structural engineers need
environment. to be concerned with the design, installation and
refurbishment of cladding systems.
The retention of loadbearing façades is a well-
established practice and further details are beyond There are several types of cladding system available
the scope of this Guide. Guidance for structural including curtain walling, rainscreen overcladding,
engineers and building contractors, including case precast concrete and sheet metal cladding; however
studies, is available6.5. Typically loadbearing façades the two most common systems (particularly for
marked for retention are of masonry construction, modern office buildings) are unitised and stick frame.
however many buildings from the 1960s approaching Unitised systems consist of several identical elements
the end of their lifespan have concrete panel-based or panels, which are hung from a supporting frame
or stone panel cladding systems which are becoming and are often standardised (a common size is 1.5m
more frequently considered for retention. Particular width by storey height). The standardisation of the
care needs to be taken when assessing precast system thus reduces waste, and components can be
concrete façades with regards to weathering effects manufactured off-site.
including carbonation, or degradation due to the use
of accelerators in the original concrete mix. Stick cladding systems consist of a grid of vertical
‘mullion’ and horizontal ‘transom’ members, which are
6.4.3 Retention of cladding systems used to support opaque or glazed sheets. These
systems are assembled in situ and due to their
A cladding system is an external envelope of a versatility can be used to clad a range of buildings, from
building which is supported by the structural frame, skyscrapers to buildings with an irregular façade shape.
In principle, both of these systems can be dismantled new building may be of similar height and extent to
with little damage to the building structure, thus the existing building due to planning restrictions,
allowing the components to be re-used in a new therefore the sum of the new foundation loads
cladding system elsewhere and for the existing compared to the existing loads may be similar, or
structure to be easily re-clad. The composite nature lighter due to more efficient design methods.
of unitised units often means that the panels are
difficult to break down into individual components, so 6.5.2 Environmental impact of foundations
a replacement of the entire panel is often necessary
when part of the unit is found to have deteriorated Carbon accounting (see Section 5.6.3) can be used
(for example, the degradation of seals leading to to compare different foundation options for new
leakage of air and water). buildings. Different foundation options are shown in
Table 6.2, relatively ranked according to the amount
Refurbishment of deteriorating cladding systems can of embodied carbon in the materials used and
often be undertaken in situ. Staining in exposed consumed during installation.
concrete or stone can ruin the appearance of the
façade and justify the cost of removing it; however, Re-using (the entirety or majority of) the existing
deliberate staining of concrete is a popular technique foundations on-site helps reduce the cost and
for breaking up the surface finish and the colouration time associated with constructing new
can enhance the appearance of the façade. foundations. Costs may be saved on material,
Discolouration can also occur on exposed steel or disposal (of old foundations) and transport.
aluminium components, as a result of the However, the assessment process of the existing
composition of chemicals found in rainwater. foundations itself takes time and cost to
Colouration rarely affects the performance of affected undertake. The costs involved with this option
components or reduces their working lifespan. arise from design, investigation and insurance (see
Section 6.6). A lack of information provided by as-
Rainscreen overcladding techniques can be used to built drawings will increase the costs further still,
install a new cladding system over the original one. and may significantly affect the decision to re-use
This can protect the original cladding from rain and the foundations. If the geometry of the new
cover any deterioration, such as spalling concrete building is different to that of the old, only a limited
blocks or corroding frames. The system may be number of the existing foundations may be able to
installed as a stick frame structure or be supported be re-used. The changes to load paths, and
by a loadbearing wall, and can provide an increased hence loads transmitted to the foundations, that
thermal performance with the inclusion of insulation the change in geometry may bring will need to be
within the system. considered to see if the existing foundations
would be able to carry the altered load.
Failure of fixing systems can have a serious
consequence on the cladding system. Failure of Except for refurbishment in small domestic buildings
adhesives in bonding fixings, or corrosion of bolts or and cases where a large proportion of the existing
brackets, could affect more than one panel and could structure is to be retained, re-using existing
lead to progressive collapse of the units in a cladding foundations (especially for new buildings) is not yet
system. common practice. The primary reasons for this are
the price of insurance and potential costs and risks
should the foundations fail – where the existing
foundations are capable of re-use, the client,
6.5 Re-using existing foundations stakeholders and insurers need reliable assurance
that the foundations are suitable for the intended
purpose. However, many assessment methods are
6.5.1 Considerations for re-use now available6.7 and the re-use of existing
foundations may always be considered in design. It is
Any changes to the loading regime, or the weight of frequently difficult to obtain warranties for existing
the materials used in the envelope or cladding, will structures and this may impact on the insurance of
result in a change of loading carried by the existing the building in the future.
foundations. An assessment of this change is
therefore likely to be needed. There are many issues that may need to be
considered to prove the viability of re-using existing
In cases where it has not been found possible to foundations, regardless of type, in addition to those
re-use the envelope or structure of an existing building, which are related to new-build projects6.8:
it may still be possible to re-use the foundations in the – The impact on surrounding buildings and their
construction of the new building. When considering foundations.
foundations for a new building it has become normal – The arrangement of existing foundations and the
practice to thread new piles between the older ones or new building requirements.
to remove all traces of former foundations and start – A quality review of the existing foundations, and
again. While this usually reduces risk, it is costly and whether they have had structural repairs during
has significant environmental impact. In many city their lifetime which could impact re-use.
centres it is also becoming increasingly difficult to find – Acceptance of re-use by the design team, client,
locations for new piles among the many generations of insurers and local regulatory authorities.
earlier ones.
Use of new foundations is covered in Section 8.4.
As more development is done on brownfield sites,
there may easily be existing foundations on the site 6.5.3 Assessment of existing foundations
that could be incorporated in the foundation design.
In city and town centres much redevelopment The nature of the structure that the foundations have
includes the demolition of an existing building. The previously supported can give an indication of the
Table 6.2 Relative impacts of options for foundations in new buildings

Re-use existing Install new foundations Install new foundations Remove existing
foundations to supplement the old (avoiding existing foundations and replace
foundations) with new foundations
Amount of carbon Low Medium High High

dioxide embodied in (Low if recycled
materials used materials are used in
(concrete and the new foundations)
reinforcement)
Amount of carbon Low Medium High Very high
dioxide generated
during installation (pile
rig energy)
Note
Adapted from CIRIA C6536.6.
type of loading that the foundations are able to with new structures: approval will need to be
support in re-use. However this indication is far from obtained from the appropriate regulatory authority.
sufficient in proving the capability of the foundations The proposed re-use of either the whole building or
for re-use. The process of assessing the capacity, certain structural elements of it must comply with
durability and suitability of existing foundations will local building regulations, so confirmation will need to
need to be undertaken with a geotechnical engineer be sought from the regulatory authority that the
and involves6.6: building would be suitable for the proposed change
– sourcing information in as-built drawings of use. The regulatory authority may also be able to
– undertaking a thorough desk study give guidance about surrounding buildings in the area
– checking any change of ground conditions and advise on any pertinent features with regard to
– carrying out field investigations their construction. It must be remembered that
– constantly monitoring for defects before and after acceptable methods of practice differ from region to
the demolition of the existing building. This can be region depending on the views of the particular
done through a series of non-destructive testing regulatory authority.
methods such as radar, ultrasonic-echo and
low-strain testing6.7 or intrusive methods such as In cases where existing foundations are to be
coring of concrete piles. re-used, the original designers and contractors are
unlikely to offer any warranty or accept liability for the
re-use of the foundations in their new guise. The
existing foundations are likely to need to be rigorously
6.6 Warranty tested to demonstrate that the new building will be
safe.
If any structural element of a building is proposed This should not be seen as precluding the possible
for re-use, the involvement of a structural engineer option of foundation re-use, as there are several
is likely to be required. As with a new-build helpful publications available that outline suitable
structure or structural element, the structural approaches to follow, including CIRIA C653 Reuse of
engineer is able to follow established appraisal foundations6.6 and Reuse of foundations for urban
procedures and carry out the necessary sites6.7.
assessment work to clarify whether the building
may be fit for use or not. Attention will need to be Another potential solution is for the client to insure
given to the ability of the structure to resist the foundations and the building separately,
increased loading, changes to the load path, or although this would clearly be likely to incur
any change to existing overall stability systems. additional costs.
The process of obtaining approval for changing the It is also worth noting that more is not necessarily
function of a building and re-using it is the same as better in the case of foundation design, as depending
upon the prevailing ground conditions the 6.5 Bussell, M. et al. The Retention of masonry facades:
introduction of new foundations in close proximity to best practice guide. CIRIA C579. London: CIRIA,
existing footings can have a seriously detrimental 2003
effect on their capacity.
6.6 Chapman, T. et al. Reuse of foundations. CIRIA C653.
London: CIRIA, 2007
6.7 What can structural engineers do? 6.7 Butcher, A.P. et al. Reuse of foundations for urban
sites: a best practice handbook. EP75. Bracknell: IHS
BRE Press, 2006
If consulted early enough, the structural engineer,
perhaps working with a building surveyor, can apply 6.8 Addis, B. Building with reclaimed components and
expert knowledge to influence the fate of an existing materials: a design guide for reuse and recycling,
building and maximise the potential for its adaptation London: Earthscan, 2006
or re-use.
In assessing the potential for re-use, the structural

engineer can: 6.9 Bibliography
– Be aware of how existing buildings can be
re-used, and be able to carry out the
appropriate analysis to assess actual Addis, W. and Schouten, J. Principles of design for
performance accurately. This avoids incorrectly deconstruction to facilitate reuse and recycling. CIRIA C607.
advising against re-use, resulting in the needless London: CIRIA, 2004
loss of a valuable asset.
– Ensure that the client (and where appropriate the Alexander, S. ‘Designing buildings for the second time
funder and the insurer) is aware of the concept of around’. The Structural Engineer, 88(4), 16 February 2010,
foundation re-use, and of the credibility of the pp15-17
assessment techniques that are available.
– Encourage the investigation of foundation re-use, Arup et al. Open space opportunities for previously developed
rather than ruling it out on the assumption that it land. CIRIA C694. London: CIRIA, 2011
will prove to be unacceptable from an insurance
point of view. Beckmann, P. Structural aspects of building conservation.
– Where appropriate, work closely with geotechnical 2nd ed. Maidenhead: McGraw Hill, 2004
engineers to incorporate existing foundations as
part of a new structure. Brand, S. How buildings learn: what happens after they’re built.
– Help accommodate modern building services and London: Phoenix, 1994
vertical access in existing buildings, by working with
a building services engineer to propose ways of Bussell, M.N. Appraisal of existing iron and steel structures.
structurally facilitating such intervention. SCI Publication 138. Ascot: SCI, 1997
– Assess the condition and strength of the existing
connections and joints in order to determine frame Bussell, M. et al. Retention of masonry facades: best practice
capacity. site handbook. C589. London: CIRIA, 2003
– Carry out the necessary investigation and
assessment work to provide reassurance that a Butcher, A.P. et al. Reuse of foundations for urban sites:
re-used structure will be sound, in the same way proceedings of the international conference, Garston,
as for a newly-designed building or structural 19-20 October 2006. EP73. Bracknell: IHS BRE Press, 2006
element, and assist in warranty and insurance
negotiations, thus helping to minimise Carroon, J. Sustainable preservation: greening existing buildings.
environmental impact and maximise value for the Hoboken, NJ: Wiley, 2010
client.
Chapman, T. et al. ‘Foundations for the Future’. ICE
Proceedings, Civil Engineering, 144(1), February 2001,
pp36-41.
6.8 References
CIOB. Special issue on eco-deconstruction. Construction
Information Quarterly, 11(3), 2009
6.1 Douglas, J. Building adaptation. 2nd ed. Oxford:
Butterworth-Heinemann, 2006 CIRIA. Structural renovation of traditional buildings. CIRIA Report
111. Rev ed. London: CIRIA, 1994
6.2 Arup. Existing buildings survival strategies: a guide for
re-energising tired assets and reducing operating Hyde, R. and other eds. Sustainable retrofitting of
costs. [s.l.]: Arup, 2009 commercial buildings: warm climates. Abingdon: Routledge,
2013
6.3 Jones Lang LaSalle. Companies go green to
enhance productivity: results of the 2010 CoreNet Institution of Structural Engineers. Aspects of cladding. London:
Global and Jones Lang LaSalle global survey on IStructE, 1995
corporate real estate and sustainability. Available at:
http://www.joneslanglasalle.eu/ResearchLevel1/ Laidler, D.W. et al. Brownfields – managing the development of
Perspective-ess-enhance-productivity.pdf [Accessed: previously developed land: a client’s guide. CIRIA C578. London:
11 July 2013] CIRIA, 2002
6.4 Institution of Structural Engineers. Appraisal of existing MacDonald, S. ed. Concrete building pathology. London:
structures. 3rd ed. London: IStructE, 2011 Blackwell Publishing, 2003
Matthews, S. Structural appraisal of existing buildings for change

of use. BRE Digest 366. 4 parts. Watford: IHS BRE Press, 2012
Rabun, J.S. and Kelso, R.M. Building evaluation for adaptive

reuse and preservation. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley, 2009
Ross, P. Appraisal and repair of timber structures. London:

Thomas Telford, 2002
Sarja, A. Integrated life cycle design of structures. London:

Spon, 2002
WRAP. Designing out waste: a design team guide for civil

engineering. Less waste, sharper design. 2010. Available at:
http://www.wrap.org.uk/sites/files/wrap/Designing_out_Waste_
landscape_opportunities.pdf [Accessed: 1 August 2013]
7 Recycling land
7.1 Contaminated land as a resource for other contamination assessment tools from one
country in another is misleading, and can only be
sustainability done by experts with full knowledge of each
guidance regime and context.
In many countries there is a legacy of land which is
contaminated by past industrial, mining or waste
disposal activities. This past use may have left
substances, which when present in sufficient 7.2 Remediation methods
quantities or concentrations are likely to cause harm
to humans, the environment, or construction
materials. Sustainability in remediation design incorporates
options which address wider issues than those found
Recycling this land for beneficial use is an important on-site, e.g. creation of jobs for the local community
opportunity for sustainable development. Doing so or consideration of local resource depletion.
can remove unacceptable risks to human health and According to CIRIA report C622 Selection of remedial
the environment. It can also minimise the taking up of treatments for contaminated land 7.1, different
greenfield or agricultural land, with the corresponding sustainability considerations can significantly influence
loss of natural diversity, food production or other a decision on whether to undertake remediation
environmentally beneficial activity. processes on-site. On-site remediation of
contaminated material was undertaken at the 2012
Recycling land may also be listed as one of the London Olympic site (see Figure 7.1).
client’s requirements (see Chapter 3). This may
involve re-using as much of the land on-site as Common remedial methods for treating contaminated
possible in order to save both disposal costs (of land land on-site are stated below7.2:
being removed) and importation costs (of bringing – Excavation: removal of contaminated solid material
additional material on to site). off-site.
– Physical containment: using covers and in-ground
There may also be sustainability gains to be realised barriers to physically contain the contaminated
through considering the appropriate treatment of ground.
contamination when designing the development – Hydraulic measures: to control the movement of
scheme. Examples are given in Table 7.1. contaminated surfaces or groundwater.
– Thermal processes: using heat to neutralise or
To ensure progress, the cost burden to individual destroy contaminants, e.g. incineration.
companies and society must be proportionate, – Physical processes: using physical processes to
manageable and economically sustainable. This is separate contaminants from host media, e.g. soil
achieved in many countries by a policy of risk washing.
assessment to guide remediation and development of – Chemical processes: using chemical reactions to
contaminated land. remove, destroy or modify contaminants, e.g.
dechlorination.
The risk assessment is carried out in each country in – Biological processes: utilising micro-organisms or
a context of the policy, environmental, social and other biological agents to neutralise contaminants.
economic conditions specific to the country. – Stabilisation/solidification processes: immobilising
Therefore, the use of trigger concentration values or contaminants to reduce their availability to targets.
Table 7.1 Sustainability opportunities on contaminated sites

Scheme for dealing with contamination Sustainability opportunity
Contamination (metals, hydrocarbons) in an area where Make clean layer a graded granular material with sealed layer on fill
gardens will be developed is dealt with by providing a below and geotextile filler layer below soil and use this as a rain water
layer of clean material 600mm deep with an overlying soil store. (Consideration will need to be given to the deep planting of
layer. larger plant species which may require a greater depth of embedment
and therefore potentially penetrate the membrane.)
Cleaning of soils on-site e.g. through soil washing, Able to re-use as much of the cleaned soil on-site as possible to
bio-remediation etc. provide structural fills and backfills. Also no need to import additional
material for this purpose on-site or organise disposal of the
contaminated material.
Large amounts of methane gas being generated in landfill. Capture gas through venting scheme and use to generate energy.
Mobile metal contamination in soft variable clay with high Lime stabilisation of clay layer stabilises contaminants and increases
moisture content. substantially the geotechnical strength and ground bearing capacity of
the clay top layer.
Piling through contaminated fill into stiff clay layer below Insert ground source heat coil in piles and recover heat, or use to cool
using driven in situ piles to avoid generating contaminated in summer to save energy in building.
arisings.
Recycling land 7.3
Figure 7.1 The London Olympic soil hospital, UK
An appropriate remedial method can be determined treatment may be appropriate where foundations are
by following a land contamination management present, but are not suitable for re-use and need to
process such as the one presented in the UK be removed before the area is stabilised.
Government Environment Agency’s guidance note
CLR 11 Model procedures for the management of Figure 7.2 shows the use of driven piles in
land contamination7.3. contaminated land.
The use of ground remediation and soil stabilisation

can substantially neutralise contaminated soils and
also improve their engineering properties, thus 7.3 What can structural engineers do?
increasing their bearing capacity. This is done by the
addition of binders – normally lime, cement, fly ash,
ground granulated blast-furnace slag (GGBS) or a – At the site selection stage of a project, the team
combination of these. The sustainability benefit of may make over-pessimistic general assumptions
using some form of ground stabilisation or about the potential impact of residual site
remediation is that it removes the need to take contamination on the foundations or structure,
contaminated soils off site. The stabilisation can be leading to unnecessary and early rejection of the
done in situ, i.e. the binder is mixed with the soil by idea of brownfield site re-use. The structural
rotovation, or the stabilisation can be carried out engineer can contribute to a better-informed
ex situ, where the soil is stockpiled and then the decision on site selection by being aware about
binder is introduced when the soil is replaced. Ex situ contamination impacts, through developing a
working knowledge of technical guidance
documentation such as CLR117.3 and Guiding
principles for land contamination7.4, as well as
technical information such as the soil guideline
values (SGVs) produced by the UK Government
Environment Agency7.5. This will help ensure that
the right expertise is available during discussions
about the re-use of contaminated land, as well as
enabling a detailed assessment of the impact of
contamination to be made, clarifying how it can be
dealt with and estimating what the costs might be.
– If a brownfield site has been selected, it is
important that the engineer gets involved as early
as possible in the development of the site
investigation.
– If this is not possible, then the engineer may try to
Figure 7.2 Neptune Street, Leeds, UK. Driven steel shell and obtain copies of any site investigation desk study
precast concrete piles were used on this riverside site in information and any initial contaminated land
preference to augered piles, in order to minimise disturbance of remediation proposals that have been prepared
contaminated material in the ground and avoid the generation of and then review any contamination risk
contaminated arisings assessments that have been made.
7.4 Recycling land
– Seek to understand residual contamination issues, Hester, R.E. and Harrison, R.M. jt eds. Assessment and
and take them into account in the foundation and reclamation of contaminated land. London: Thomas Telford,
structural design. 2001
ICE Proceedings, Ground Improvement [2008-]
7.4 References Land Quality Management Ltd et al. The LQM/CIEH generic
assessment criteria for human health risk assessment. 2nd ed.
Beeston: Land Quality Press, 2009
7.1 Rudland, D.J. and Jackson, S.D. Selection of remedial
treatments for contaminated land: a guide to good Moseley, M.P. and Kirsch, K. jt eds. Ground improvement.
practice. CIRIA C622. London: CIRIA, 2004 2nd ed. London: Spon, 2004
7.2 Strange, J. and Langdon, N. Contaminated land: Rudland, D.J. and Jackson, S.D. Selection of remedial
investigation, assessment and remediation. 2nd ed. treatments for contaminated land: a guide to good practice.
ICE Design and Practice Guide. London: Telford, 2008 CIRIA C622. London: CIRIA, 2004
7.3 Environment Agency. Model procedures for the Scivyer, C. Radon: guidance on protective measures for new
management of land contamination. CLR11. Available buildings (including supplementary advice for extensions,
at: http://www.environment-agency.gov.uk/research/ conversions and refurbishment). BR211. 4th ed. Garston:
planning/33740.aspx [Accessed: 31 July 2013] IHS BRE Press, 2007
7.4 Environment Agency. Guiding principles for land Scivyer, C. Radon protection for new large buildings. BRE Good
contamination (GPLC). Available at: http://www. Building Guide 75. Watford: IHS BRE Press, 2009
environment-agency.gov.uk/research/planning/121619.
aspx [Accessed: 23 October 2013] Skinner, H.D. et al. Brownfield sites: an integrated ground
engineering strategy. BR485. Watford: BRE Bookshop, 2005
7.5 Environment Agency. Soil guideline values. Available at:
http://www.environment-agency.gov.uk/research/ Syms, P. Previously developed land: industrial activities and
planning/33714.aspx [Accessed: 31 July 2013] contamination. 2nd ed. Oxford: Blackwell, 2004
Welburn, P. et al. Remediating and mitigating risks from volatile

organic compound (VOC) vapours from land affected by
7.5 Bibliography contamination. CIRIA C716. London: CIRIA, 2012
Wilson, S. et al. Assessing risks posed by hazardous ground

Baker, K. et al. The VOCs handbook. Investigating, assessing gases to buildings. CIRIA C665. Rev ed. London: CIRIA, 2007
and managing risks from inhalation of Volatile Organic
Compounds (VOCs) at land affected by contamination. CIRIA
C682. London: CIRIA, 2009
Barry, D.L. et al. Remedial engineering for closed landfill sites.

CIRIA C557. London: CIRIA, 2001
Billington, M.J. Using the Building Regulations: site preparation

and resistance to contaminants and moisture. Oxford:
Butterworth-Heinemann, 2007
British Cement Association. The Essential guide to stabilisation/

solidification for the remediation of brownfield land using cement
and lime. Camberley: BCA, 2004
BS 10175:2011 þ A1:2013: Investigation of potentially

contaminated sites – Code of practice. London: BSI, 2013
BSI et al. Guide to PAS 2050: how to assess the carbon

footprint of goods and services. London: BSI, 2012
BSI et al. PAS 2050: 2011: Specification for the assessment of

the life cycle greenhouse gas emissions of goods and services.
London: BSI, 2011
Charles, J.A. Building on brownfield sites: reducing the risks.

BRE Good Building Guide 59 Part 2. Watford: BRE Bookshop,
2004
Dixon, T. et al. Sustainable brownfield regeneration: liveable

places from problem spaces. Oxford: Blackwell, 2007
Environment Agency. Piling and penetrative ground improvement

methods on land affected by contamination: guidance on
pollution prevention. NC/99/73. Solihull: National Groundwater &
Contaminated Land Centre, 2001
8 Details of sustainable design
8.1 Initial design Taking the application of this principle a stage further,
a standard demountable building could be clad to
suit the local character in one area, and when it is no
8.1.1 Conceptual design longer required, dismantled and re-assembled
elsewhere and re-clad to suit its new location,
At conceptual design stage, careful consideration is preferably in locally recovered materials.
needed as to whether the design life is a ‘real’ design
life (i.e. the building is likely to be used just for that 8.1.2 Design for deconstruction
period) or a ‘notional’ design life (i.e. the building is
likely to be used in the same manner beyond the Simple steps can be taken in the design of new
design life period). This can ensure that the robustness buildings that will improve the potential end of life
and overall durability of the building matches outcomes8.1. For structural engineers the following
expectations, avoiding over- or under-performance. In may prove more successful than trying to plan for full
parallel with this, consideration needs to be given to and complete deconstruction of a conventional
whether the building is likely to be remodelled at the building structure:
end of the design life. If so, there may be benefits in – Record and provide detailed information about
ensuring that the core structure will remain serviceable materials used and the construction sequence to
for the foreseeable future, and that the elements that allow future designers to consider new design
are likely to be discarded in any remodelling are solutions.
designed just for their period of use, and no longer. – Use modular construction with a minimum number
of mechanical (e.g. bolted) connections, avoiding
At concept design stage it is possible to consider riveted and welded joints so that materials can be
how the building could be constructed to aid future easily reclaimed.
dismantling, enabling individual components to be – Plan for the re-use of compound elements, rather
recovered for re-use. Modular or demountable than single ones, to allow selective demolition
construction is an obvious consideration for such techniques.
buildings, which may be considered ‘temporary’ – Plan for recycling and re-use, with a minimum
(i.e. their use is limited), and they are unlikely to be amount of reprocessing and waste.
useful to someone else in their present form or
location after the first use. Figure 8.1 presents an It is worth noting that where the prevailing ground
example of how modular construction can be conditions make a piled solution appropriate, one of
utilised to enable quick construction, re-location the attractions of using steel bearing piles is that at the
and deconstruction. end of the building’s life these can be removed
relatively easily, and the steel recycled. This aligns with
In a similar vein is the issue of ‘bespoke’ the laudable policy of ‘touching the Earth lightly’, by
construction, i.e. structures that are designed to fulfil designing solutions that can potentially be reversed
a specific need or to present an image for the current with little or no permanent environmental impact.
client, but which may not necessarily suit potential
future users. At concept stage, the correct design
solution could automatically limit the potentially
discarded elements by permitting the bespoke 8.2 Detailed design and specification
elements to be replaced, whilst retaining as much of
the underlying structure as possible. This leads to the
increased likelihood that the structure will be suitable With more long-term structures, there are issues that
for a second design life. will need to be considered to aid the future use of the
Figure 8.1 Halley VI Research Station, Antarctica. Designed in modular sections for flexibility and quick construction (and eventual deconstruction) in an extreme
climate, the structure is movable, having been designed on hydraulic legs so that it can respond to rising snow levels and be easily relocated
8.3 Details of sustainable design
structure. One such issue is climate change 8.3 Sustainable design of elements
adaptation (see Appendix C); designing for potentially
increased loading during future use may come down
to how easy it will be to add extra capacity in the 8.3.1 Designing for re-use and recycling
future (which may need to be considered at concept
stage). However, the decision to over-design should One of the most sustainable ways of building a new
be taken with care, as over-design wastes material. construction is to re-use an existing one, therefore
For example, floors designed to commercial structural engineers may look to design structural
‘institutional’ standards are unlikely to be affected by elements that are durable and can be modified to suit
climate change, so designing tightly for these new requirements and new uses. The proposed life
elements should not compromise the future similar and use of the building need to be considered when
use of the building. designing its elements. Designing a temporary
structure as if it were a permanent one is unlikely to
The preferable route in most instances would provide a sustainable solution, as it will tend to be
appear to be to design the structure as efficiently as overdesigned.
possible, while also developing a strategy by which
the building could be strengthened or otherwise A temporary structure should be designed in such a
enhanced to increase load carrying capacity or way as to allow its elements to be dismantled simply
flexibility of use. and re-used easily, either in part or in whole. A
permanent structure may be designed for its initial
At the design stage, many decisions are made that intended use but with the possibility that its use may
may potentially limit future use. For example, change during its lifetime, or it may be dismantled,
composite construction may limit the dismantling rather than demolished, so that its elements may be
potential of a short-life structure, but conversely may re-used.
offer enhanced structural performance to enable the
building to last through many changes of use and Material life is also a critical issue in the design of
remodellings over many years. structural elements (see Chapter 9). New materials
(for example new types of cement) are being
Two important aspects that may be missed are clarity developed and old materials are again being used
on drawings about how a building is to be put in new ways. They can have less embodied
together, and the role of the original designer in energy than the standard construction materials of
helping a future dismantler to reverse the steel, concrete, timber and masonry, however new
construction process, allowing recovery of materials need to be used with care to ensure that
components for further use. maintenance problems are not being created for
the future.
Depending upon the structure being detailed, the
engineer’s drawings are the ideal place to provide Structural engineers can also try to reduce the use
instructions to help future owners to either modify or of materials by efficient design. There has been a
dismantle structures. Similarly, requiring tendency in recent years in developed countries
components to be marked up to allow them to be where labour costs are relatively high, and material
identified in the future may be a worthwhile costs relatively low, to simplify the design of
discipline to implement, both to aid the construction elements so that, for example, a slab spanning over
process and its reversal. As most steel framed several grids of different lengths may be designed
buildings are modelled by steelwork fabricators in so that the member sizes are all the same, and all
far more detail than is provided on the structural sized to the longest span of the slab. This simplifies
engineer’s drawings, it is recommended that a set the design and the labour used in construction, but
of the fabrication drawings, along with the electronic increases the use of materials. A balance needs to
‘wire frame’ model, are included in the record be struck between the saving in time and possibly
archive for the building. construction cost, and the additional material use.
The logical result of following this approach is for
Finally, a fundamentally sustainable approach is to engineers to adopt separate component built-up
optimise the use of locally available materials, systems, rather than proprietary composite
methods and capabilities. If a project is to utilise the products.
local supply chain (see Section 10.3) then it needs to
be designed to use materials that are locally available, Detailed value engineering also needs to be carried
and construction methods that are within the out working closely with the contractor, to determine
capability of local contractors and locally available the cost and material implications of different design
equipment. So, structural engineers need to consider solutions, with sustainability in mind.
any such ‘socio-economic sustainability’ construction
stage objective and design accordingly. It is vital that 8.3.2 Separability of materials
this review process is undertaken before detailed
design starts. Consideration can also be given to the ease with
which the materials used in the construction of
This approach is valid everywhere – one obvious buildings can be segregated for recycling during the
example would be to use a timber frame and demolition phase. Ideally, construction methods and
cladding in a forested or wooded area – but some of materials would be selected such that the constituent
the best examples come from developing countries, parts can be cost-effectively segregated and
because they may have more formally stated local recycled, using simple, locally available technologies.
socio-economic development needs. Examples Following this approach can have the effect of giving
include designing dam structures in rubble masonry buildings a residual financial value by virtue of their
rather than traditional concrete8.2, and designing for constituent materials. This residual ‘salvage value’
and specifying the use of manual labour rather than can be beneficially used to help offset the cost of
mechanised methods8.3, 8.4. other activities, such as site clearance or remediation.
Details of sustainable design 8.4
Adoption of this approach can be considered positive

from the point of view of sustainability, in that it helps
to reduce the permanent environmental impacts
associated with the sourcing of virgin materials.
8.4 Foundations
8.4.1 Shallow foundations
Raft foundations can be reduced in depth by post-

tensioning. This is worth considering if the depth to
foundation formation level is determined by the
required size and proportions of the foundation, and
not by the bearing capacity of the ground.
However, in the case of a foundation needing to be

deeper to be able to found on strata with adequate
bearing capacity, a section of weaker material such
as lean mix mass concrete has less embodied CO2
than the equivalent in higher strength concrete8.5,
hence a thicker section of the weaker material may
be used. This will still achieve a lower embodied
carbon content than a shallower section of high
strength concrete.
The structural engineer can highlight these differing

approaches and decide which to choose by
considering each case on its own merits.
8.4.2 Deep foundations
For minimum impact on the environment,

displacement type piles can be used which
produce little or no arisings. Standard
displacement piles are driven piles, but these are
difficult to place in some soil types and have the
disadvantage that the installation produces
considerable vibration and noise. Other forms of
displacement piles include rotary displacement
piles which are augered into the ground so that the
problems with vibration are reduced.
Pile driving using high-frequency vibration is of

particular interest, as it enables piles to be placed
with minimum disturbance to the surrounding area.
Another type of displacement pile, which produces

less vibration, is the top-driven steel tube pile. Piles
are forced into the ground using a rig which is
securely fixed to the top of the adjacent piles and
uses the tension capacity of the adjacent piles to
provide a vertical reaction against which to jack
further piles into position. Very little vibration and very
little spoil is generated by this method. Figure 8.2 Removable foundations at the Baden Powell
Outdoor Centre, UK
8.4.3 Temporary/removable foundations
Consideration may also be given to the use of

proprietary removable low-displacement piling 8.4.4 Basements
systems such as steel screw-auger piles. These can
be especially beneficial in areas of environmental Basement excavations inevitably produce spoil, but
sensitivity, where it may be necessary to provide can provide many benefits. For example, excavation
temporary structures which will subsequently be increases the density of land use without having to
removed, leaving little or no trace. Figure 8.2 shows a build higher, and facilitates the control and
project in which the foundations used can be maintenance of steady-state environmental conditions
removed at the end of the building’s life. within the basement spaces.
8.5 Structural frame Methodology to calculate the embodied carbon of

materials8.6.
8.5.1 Embodied and operational energy The conclusion to be drawn from this figure is that
embodied energy is not currently significant in the
Sustainable design of the structural frame requires lifecycle of a building, compared to the operational
the following: energy. However as operation and design evolves
– Co-ordination with the services engineer and towards ‘zero carbon’, the energy consumption
architect to provide a building that consumes little during building use will be greatly reduced such that
energy. the embodied energy in the materials used in the
– Durable design with the minimum required use of building will become a more significant source of
material. carbon within the building lifecycle.
– Consideration of the embodied energy/CO2 in the
material used. 8.5.2 Over-design
– Consideration to be given to the possible re-use of
elements. Over-design can happen for various reasons:
– To simplify or speed up the design process.
Except for the case of a temporary building with a – To simplify or speed up the construction process.
short lifespan, the energy consumed by a building – Intentional or unintentional over-specification.
during its service life has typically been of the order – Lack of certainty or over-cautiousness on the part
of ten times the energy used in its construction and of the client in defining the brief.
in the manufacture of its components. However – To standardise connections and member sizes to
there is a progressive shift towards the reduction of take commercial advantage of repetition of
operational energy and consequently a larger component manufacture.
proportion of energy is now attributed to material
extraction and production. So, designing a low A certain amount of rationalisation can be helpful in
energy use building is more effective in reducing the producing a more sustainable construction, since the
overall regenerative use of energy than just amount of waste can be reduced as standard sizes
concentrating on the embodied energy of the and standard products can be used throughout the
materials used in the building itself. The same can building. However, it is worth considering how much
be said for the overall carbon dioxide emissions. additional material is being used in the design over
that which is necessary. For example, two or three
Figure 8.3 illustrates the proportion of embodied to different standard designs could be adopted rather
operational CO2 that could typically be expected in a than one.
building project. This is presented through three
scenarios. In each case operational energy data is 8.5.3 Temporary buildings
based on actual building performance measurements
and includes both regulated and unregulated energy Temporary buildings may be designed to be easily
demand. These are combined in the model with a dismantled and re-used either in their complete form,
hypothetical profile for the decarbonisation of the UK or as component elements. This needs to be
energy grid over a 60 year study period. acknowledged from the outset, as the type of
element and material may be affected. Consideration
Scenario 1 represents the typical perspective of can be given to the use of lightweight panels that can
current buildings, whereas Scenarios 2 and 3 be re-used. The embodied energy in the structure
represent future buildings where it is assumed that becomes more significant in overall terms as the
high operational impacts are unlikely to be acceptable lifespan of the building reduces. Just because a
– hence why operational CO2 diminishes as a building has a short-term life in one location does not
proportion. In summary, Figure 8.3 shows that in the mean that it has to have a short overall lifespan.
future the total embodied CO2 may be up to 40% of
the whole-life profile, with structure representing 8.5.4 Off-site construction
roughly half. The embodied CO2 of structure ranges
from 9-19% of the total 60 year profile. Off-site construction offers several different options
(e.g. precast or preassembled frames, panellised
Figures relating to the range of embodied CO2 that units, volumetric assemblies) and, whilst limited by
can be expected in a variety of different building lorry capacity, can be used to improve the
types have been published by the Royal Institution of workmanship of construction, together with the
Chartered Surveyors (RICS) in the report health and safety benefits to the site operatives.
Scenario 1: Current design practice
Scenario 2: Future low operational energy use building

with design not addressing embodied carbon of materials
Embodied structure
Scenario 3: Future low operational energy use building with
Embodied non-structure
structural engineer addressing embodied carbon of materials
Operational 60 year life
0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%
Figure 8.3 Energy lifecycle of a building
Peak temperature Up to 6–8ºC difference

delayed by up to between peak external
six hours and internal temperature
30°C
Internal temperature
with high thermal mass
Internal temperature
with low thermal mass
15°C External temperature
Day Night Day
Figure 8.4 Stabilising effect of thermal mass on internal temperature
Since work is carried out in a more controlled buildings such as schools and offices, this means
environment, normally in a factory, the quality control that the peak temperature inside the building will
tends to be significantly better than the work carried occur after the occupants have left for the day, and
out on-site. The more closely controllable therefore even the reduced peak internal temperature
workmanship of off-site construction can also will not need to be catered for within the cooling
improve the long-term performance of the building, requirements of the building.
particularly its air-tightness, which is an important
aspect when considering the long-term energy In order for thermal mass to work beneficially, the
requirements. energy absorbed during daytime operations needs to
be rejected during the following cool night-time
Whilst off-site construction has many benefits, its use period, such that the thermal mass can once again
could lead to a reduced use of local labour and a absorb energy the following day. For a high thermal
possible increase in transportation costs. See mass material like concrete, the optimal thickness
Section 10.4.3 for discussion on how off-site required to provide energy storage benefits is
construction can be used to reduce the amount of 100mm8.9.
waste produced in a project.
As 90% of the heat transfer between the material and
the ambient air is via radiation, rather than convection
or conduction, the high thermal mass material needs
8.6 Structural floors to be exposed to the ambient air. It is therefore
important that the structural design is closely
integrated with both the building services engineer’s
8.6.1 Thermal mass heating and cooling strategy and the architect’s
requirements for finishes and visual appearance.
Floors are usually the most effective elements for the Suspended ceilings cut off this beneficial effect from
provision of thermal mass, which can be used to the structure. Many of the most effective, low energy
minimise peak heating and cooling demands, thus buildings built recently have taken advantage of the
reducing the capacity of the mechanical plant to be thermal mass properties of the building fabric and
provided and so helping in the provision of a ‘low have featured exposed slab soffits.
energy’ building.
The use of the slab soffits as the finished ceiling also
The principle of thermal mass is well known and there reduces the material use of the building as a whole.
are a number of guides on the subject8.7-8.9. Thermal The suspended ceiling material is not used and the
mass is the ability of the fabric of a building to absorb overall floor to floor heights in the building may be
energy when the ambient temperature is higher than able to be reduced, thus minimising the enclosed
the temperature of the fabric of the building. This volume and the cost of façade finishes and interior
energy is then released into the space when the partitioning (see Figure 8.5).
ambient temperature is lower. High thermal mass
materials have a greater capacity to store energy than There are various options for the use of the slab as
low thermal mass materials, so they can, if used an energy store. These include8.9:
correctly, provide a moderating effect to the – Natural ventilation, exposed flat soffit (cooling
temperature of the building. This means that the capacity 15-20W/m2).
heating and cooling services do not have to react so – Natural ventilation, exposed coffered soffit (cooling
quickly to changes in ambient temperature. capacity 20-25W/m2).
– Under-floor ventilation, exposed flat soffit (cooling
Figure 8.48.8 shows how the utilisation of thermal capacity 20-30W/m2).
mass can affect the temperature of a building – Under-floor ventilation, exposed coffered soffit
throughout the day. As can be seen from Figure 8.4, (cooling capacity 25-35W/m2).
the peak temperatures can be reduced by as much – Natural ventilation, permeable ceilings (for use in
as 6-88C on a warm day, and can be delayed by up refurbishment, cooling capacity approximately
to six hours in higher thermal mass buildings. In 10W/m2).
The approach taken to fenestration can have a

significant impact on the sustainability performance of
a building. Windows are important, as with the
correct configuration and orientation they can permit
solar gain during the winter months when the
additional heat in the building is welcome, and enable
natural ventilation if the internal spatial layout of the
building is configured appropriately. Windows also
allow natural daylight to be used for illumination,
reducing the need for artificial lighting.
Solar gain during the summer months constitutes a

significant proportion of the cooling load to be met by
the building’s mechanical systems. As a result many
buildings have solar shading (‘brise-soleil’) attached
Figure 8.5 Doncaster College, UK. Lights and services are to the façade (to the south elevation in the northern
freely suspended below a precast concrete floor system to hemisphere, to the north elevation in the southern
enable air flow across the exposed soffit, thereby taking hemisphere) to cut out high angle rays from the sun
advantage of the floor’s thermal mass to help reduce peak that are present in summer.
cooling loads
New glass types or films (including low emissivity
glass and coatings) have also been developed that let
through most of the visible light spectrum, but reflect
– Exposed hollowcore slabs with mechanical back infra-red and ultraviolet energy. This ensures
ventilation (cooling capacity 40-60W/m2). that radiant heat is kept inside the building in winter,
– Water-cooled slabs with exposed soffits (cooling and heat from the sun in summer is reflected back
capacity 60-80W/m2). externally.
8.6.2 Reduction in material use 8.7.2 Loadbearing façades
Over the years, various innovative approaches have Utilising loadbearing façades becomes a more
been tried to reduce the material required for the attractive option as the building elevations become
structure. These include: more solid. Loadbearing masonry, concrete panels,
– plastic design of steel structural frames self-supporting cladding systems or panelised
– post-tensioned/prestressed hollow core concrete systems of steel or timber can be used. Loadbearing
slabs façades can take the place of a skeletal peripheral
– composite steel/concrete design structure clad in curtain walling. Using the same
– cell-form or castellated steel sections element to carry out a number of different functions
– permanent void formers in reinforced concrete can be an efficient way of minimising the use of
slabs material in a building.
– timber I-beam joists.
Using loadbearing façades has major aesthetic and
These all have the benefit of reducing the material construction implications. Co-ordination with the
needed to span the same distance under the same architect is required to ensure a continuous load path
load as the equivalent previous solution. is maintained through the façade. The façade will also
need to be built concurrently with the construction of
the internal structure, as it provides one of the key
supporting elements. This can have an important
8.7 Envelope impact on the construction programme.
8.7.3 Natural ventilation

8.7.1 Environmental control aspects
Frequently, where the floor slab is used as a high
The envelope of a building, its roof and walls, is the thermal mass element to provide a thermal balancing
element through which most heat loss occurs. It is capability, some form of natural ventilation is also
also the element where heat gain in summer mostly used. Warm air generated by the heat emitted by the
occurs. It is therefore a very important part of the occupants of the building, the activities they carry out
design of a building for low energy and environmental or the equipment they use, is purged during the night
impact. using night-time ventilation. Cool night air is
introduced into the building, allowing the high thermal
Insulation and air permeability of the envelope of a mass elements to transfer heat to the cooler ambient
building can be improved with higher grades of air. This requires that the façades feature grilles or
insulation for the walls and roof, and the provision of operable fenestration, and that it is possible for the
double and triple glazing for windows. It is difficult to windows to be open through the night.
achieve the same U-value (a value defining levels of
heat loss) with a glazed façade as with a solid wall of There are security implications to this, as building
massive construction, and therefore it might be that owners do not want to leave windows open in an
the need to control the energy balance in buildings unoccupied building. The façade therefore has to be
more closely will lead to a reduction in the amount of designed to allow the free passage of air, but not of
glazing used in building envelopes. Fully glazed intruders. A practical solution to this is to use louvres.
façades may become more difficult to achieve within
the requirements for thermal performance in more In winter operating mode, the warm air being
stringent building regulations. discharged from the building can be passed through
a heat reclaim system (heat exchangers), enabling 8.8.2 Unanticipated loading conditions
incoming fresh cool air to be pre-heated and thereby
minimising the overall loss of energy from the building The provision of renewable technologies within
to the outside atmosphere. buildings can have loading consequences which
need to be considered. For free-standing PV arrays
The efficiency of the natural ventilation process can and wind turbines on roofs, additional vertical, lateral
be improved by enabling cross-ventilation through the and overturning forces may be applied, and the
building, or stack ventilation, if the building layout can supporting structure needs to be checked for its
feature tall, unencumbered spaces that allow the adequacy to resist any such forces. The self-weight
provision of cool make-up air at low level and the of the system is typically used to counter overturning
discharge of warm air at high level8.10. Cross forces, and sliding forces are generally resisted by
ventilation relies on pressure differentials between two friction between the stand base and the roof with
sides of a room or building. Stack ventilation involves fixings into the roof structure as appropriate8.11.
cooler air being introduced into the building at a low
level, being warmed by occupancy gains within the Wind loading can cause problems for PV and solar
building and this warmer, less dense air rising up thermal systems8.11. If the systems are mounted on
through the building due to buoyancy effects. Stack or above the roof (as opposed to being part of an
ventilation principles can be used beneficially in integrated roof panel system) then an airflow
buildings with an open central core feature such as resistance can be created underneath the panels.
an atrium. This can occur where the gap between the
installation and the roof is 50mm or greater. The
Natural ventilation may be controlled through fan dynamic wind pressure for these installations can be
assistance, where fans are integrated within the established using the principles given in
natural ventilation system to control the airflow EN 1991-1-48.12.
throughout the building.
Mounted systems also create static and dynamic
The use of a natural ventilation system often means loads, which are transmitted to the building structure.
that the building will not be airtight, and therefore With integrated PV roof systems, the loading is less
means that the system may not be suitable in than an equivalent concrete tile roof covering. If the
extreme hot, cold or humid climates8.9. Limitations integrated system is to replace existing tiles, then a
can be overcome to some extent by utilising mixed- decrease from the original loading is often realised.
mode ventilation systems, where natural and Nett uplift conditions may therefore arise, and should
mechanical systems are combined to provide the be considered in such cases. PV systems can also
appropriate level of ventilation. The systems may act be attached to the walls of a building, in which case
at different times of day, or in different areas of the the engineer can carry out a pull-off test to
building. determine the condition of the wall and ensure it is
suitable for this use8.13. In the case of a cavity wall
being used in this way, the condition and adequacy of
the wall ties can also be an important consideration.
8.8 Renewable technologies
Great care must be taken when considering the
attachment of drag-creating equipment (e.g. wind
8.8.1 Definitions turbines) to relatively fragile elements of a building
structure such as masonry gable walls. Additional
‘Renewable’ energy generation technologies can be bracing or tying systems may be required to ensure
defined as those systems that produce useable that the structure is not subjected to loads for which
energy without using non-replaceable fossil fuels to it was not designed.
operate. These include, amongst others:
– Wind turbines, which generate electrical power With PV panel and solar thermal systems attention
using wind energy as the renewable source. must be given to snow loading. For systems that are
– Photovoltaic (PV) panel arrays, which generate raised above the rooftop any residual heat from the
electrical power using solar radiation as the building may be slow to reach the panels, thus any
renewable source. overlying snow may take longer to melt. While the
– Solar thermal systems, which harvest and effects of snow may not precariously increase the
concentrate heat using solar radiation as the overall loading in the supporting structure, snow
renewable source. slides can result from sudden thaw conditions. This
– Ground source heat pumps (GSHP), using can be dangerous if the snow slides off the roof
geothermal energy as the renewable source. en masse onto an adjacent lower lying rooftop or
– Air source heat pumps (ASHP), using ambient air onto pedestrians below.
temperature differentials as the renewable source.
In seismically active areas any additional loads added
To be commercially viable, all such systems need to on roofs, whether from flat or free-standing
be able to produce more energy than they consume technologies, must be carefully considered. Systems
in order to operate. From a true sustainability must be fixed securely and in such a way as to
perspective they should also demonstrate a nett prevent them from falling off the roof or through an
environmental benefit, where the total environmental opening in the roof surface. In the case of flat PV
impact suffered through the manufacture, panel arrays, providing seismic ‘gaps’ between the
installation and operation of the systems is array and roof edges can help prevent the system
outweighed by the positive benefit of the energy from failing8.14.
that they generate.
The addition of technological equipment to the roof or
Further information on such systems can be found in walls of a building is also likely to add load and
Appendix C. involve some form of maintenance access
requirement. The engineer may need to check that 8.4 Construction Industry Development Board.
the building structure is adequate to allow safe Labour-based methods and technologies for
access in the way envisaged by the supplier, installer employment intensive construction works; a CIDB
or operator. guide to best practice, 2005. http://www.cidb.org.za/
Documents/KC/cidb_Publications/Prac_Docs/other_
prac_docs/prac_docs_labour_based_methods.pdf
[Accessed: 12 September 2013]
8.9 What can structural engineers do?
8.5 MPA – The Concrete Centre. Embodied CO2. Available
at: http://www.concretecentre.com/sustainability/energy_
Structural engineers can apply expert knowledge, efficiency/embodied_c02.aspx [Accessed: 31 July 2013]
working closely with the overall project team, to
influence the sustainable design of a building at both 8.6 RICS. Methodology to calculate the embodied carbon
the conceptual and the detail design stages. They can: of materials. RICS Information Paper 32/2012. London:
– Bring their expertise into discussions with the whole RICS, 2012. Available at: http://www.ice.org.uk/ICE_
design team, to review all the design interactions Web_Portal/media/northeast/Methodology_embodied_
holistically, before starting specialist design. carbon_materials_final—1st-edition.pdf [Accessed:
– Review and agree specifically on measures and 11 October 2013]
performance targets to design for mitigation of, and
adaptation to, climate change. 8.7 Sustainability Victoria. Thermal mass: Info fact sheet.
– Consciously raise, discuss and evaluate local socio- Available at: http://www.sustainability.vic.gov.au/
economic impacts. resources/documents/Thermal_mass.pdf [Accessed:
– Seek to minimise the amounts of material used, 31 July 2013]
and their environmental impacts.
– Avoid decisions that may potentially limit future 8.8 The Concrete Centre. Thermal mass explained.
adaptability or flexibility for re-use. Thermal mass: what it is and how it’s used.
– Provide clarification on drawings about how a Camberley: The Concrete Centre, 2012
building is to be assembled (possibly including
instructions about how it could be dismantled) and 8.9 The Concrete Centre. Thermal mass: a concrete
requiring components to be marked up to allow solution for the changing climate. Camberley: The
them to be identified. Concrete Centre, 2005
– Consider ‘socio-economic sustainability’
construction stage objectives early and design 8.10 Wood, A. and Salib, R. Natural ventilation in high-rise
accordingly, to optimise the use of locally available office buildings. CTBUH Technical Guides. Abingdon:
materials, methods and capabilities. Routledge, 2013
In designing for deconstruction, structural engineers 8.11 Blackmore, P. Wind loads on roof-based photovoltaic
can8.1: systems. BRE Digest 489. Watford: BRE Bookshop,
– Use tools such as a demolition audit, code of 2004
practice or the ICE Demolition Protocol to form an
assessment for design for deconstruction. 8.12 BS EN 1991-1-4: 2005 þ A1: 2010: Eurocode 1:
– Identify ‘lost cost’ actions which may significantly Actions on structures – Part 1-4: General actions –
increase the value of building components at the wind actions. London: BSI, 2010 [Incorporating
end of their useful life in the building. These may be corrigenda July 2009 and January 2010]
presented to the client and design team as a part
of the sustainable design process. 8.13 BRE Scotland and Waterman Group. Risk assessment
– Use standardisation and removable fixings of structural impacts on buildings of solar hot water
wherever possible and appropriate in design. collectors and photovoltaic tiles and panels. Available
– Plan for the re-use of composite elements. at: http://www.scotland.gov.uk/Resource/Doc/217736/
– Provide information about the materials and 0097116.pdf [Accessed: 31 July 2013]
construction sequence for future designers to
incorporate flexibility into future building design 8.14 Walters, M. and Baker, J. ‘Seismic considerations and
solutions. evaluation approach for ‘‘isolated’’ rooftop PV arrays’,
SEAOC 2012 Convention proceedings. Available at:
http://www.stanford.edu/~bakerjw/Publications/
Walters_et_al_(2012)_Rooftop_PV,_SEAOC.pdf
8.10 References [Accessed: 31 July 2013]
8.1 Institution of Structural Engineers. Design for

deconstruction. Sustainability Briefing 15. Available at: 8.11 Bibliography
www.istructe.org/sustainability-briefing-notes
Addis, W. and Schouten, J. Principles of design for
8.2 Harpham T. et al. ‘Commonwealth scholarships: deconstruction to facilitate reuse and recycling. CIRIA C607.
poverty and sustainable development: links to London: CIRIA, 2004
advanced academic study’. The Structural Engineer,
85(16), 21 August 2007, pp21-25 Austin, J.A. ‘Over-design: fact or fiction?’. The Structural
Engineer, 76(2), 20 August 1998, pp17-21
8.3 Watermeyer, R.B. ‘Socio-economic responsibilities: the
challenge facing structural engineers’. The Bokalders, V. and Block, M. The Whole building handbook: how
Structural Engineer, 77(17), 7 September 1999, to design healthy, efficient, and sustainable buildings. London:
pp22-28 Earthscan, 2010
Braungart, M. and McDonough. W. Cradle to cradle: remaking

the way we make things. London: Jonathan Cape, 2008
Calkins, M. Materials for sustainable sites: a complete guide to

the evaluation, selection, and use of sustainable construction
materials. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley, 2009
Clark, D.H. What colour is your building? Measuring and

reducing the energy and carbon footprint of buildings. London:
Goodchild, C.H. et al. Economic concrete frame elements to

Eurocode 2: a pre-scheme handbook for the rapid sizing and
selection of reinforced concrete frame elements in multi-storey
buildings designed to Eurocode 2. Camberley: The Concrete
Centre, 2009
Hall, K. The Green building bible. Vol 1. 4th ed. Llandysul:

Green Building Press, 2008
Hall, M.R. ed. Materials for energy efficiency and thermal

comfort in buildings. Cambridge: Woodhead, 2010
Hicks, S.J. et al. Comparative structure cost of modern

commercial buildings. SCI Publication 137. 2nd ed. Ascot: SCI,
2004
Hurley, J.W. et al. Deconstruction and reuse of construction

materials. BR418. London: CRC, 2001
Mumovic, D. and Santamouris, M. jt eds. A Handbook of

sustainable building design and engineering: an integrated
approach to energy, health and operational performance.
Nicholls, R. The Green building bible. Vol 2. 4th ed. Llandysul:

Green Building Press, 2008
Olympic Delivery Authority. Learning Legacy website. Available

at: http://learninglegacy.independent.gov.uk [Accessed: 31 July
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Pelsmakers, S. The Environmental design pocketbook. London:

Roaf, S. et al. Closing the loop: benchmarks for sustainable

buildings. London: RIBA Enterprises, 2004
WRAP. Designing out waste: a design team guide for civil

engineering. Less waste, sharper design. 2010. Available at:
http://www.wrap.org.uk/sites/files/wrap/Designing_out_Waste_
landscape_opportunities.pdf [Accessed: 1 August 2013]
9 Choice of materials and technologies
9.1 Introduction It is useful to distinguish between the following terms:

– Reclamation: the care, sorting and storage during/
after dismantling or demolition, to make materials
The choices as to which structural materials to use are available for re-use or recycling.
made at the early design stage and are traditionally – Re-use: re-using building components (for example,
made on the basis of structural form, loadbearing bricks) in the same manner as they were originally
capacity and economy. Sustainability considerations used, but in a new structure. This may involve
make the choice more complex. ‘Cradle to grave’ transport, but not re-processing/re-manufacturing.
environmental impacts of materials (including their – Recycling: using a previously used material in a
embodied energy and carbon9.1-9.3), the minimisation re-made ‘new’ form (for example, reinforced
of waste, the required shape of the structure and the concrete using crushed concrete as aggregate and
beneficial effects of the structural fabric to building recycled steel for reinforcement). This will involve
energy in-use have all become important factors in the re-processing/manufacturing and transport. Most
choice of structural materials and technologies to be common structural materials have the potential to
used. To optimise socio-economic benefits at the be fully or partially recycled in content.
construction stage, material and technology choices
will need to take into account local availability and the The materials which can be reclaimed for re-use or
capabilities to work with them. recycling are limited by how structures have been
constructed, the durability of the material in its
The lifespan of different building materials may be previous use, the demolition process, and demand
considered with their embodied energy. A steel for the reclaimed material.
structure, with a high initial carbon footprint, designed
to last 60 years may (over its operational lifespan) The trend towards the re-use and recycling of
have less total embodied energy than a timber structural materials is growing; the success of this
structure designed to be recycled and rebuilt every approach will be influenced strongly by how new
20 years. Similarly, it is interesting to consider structures are designed, and the ease of future
whether rope bridges in South America that were dismantling and demolition. Structural engineers can
replaced at regular intervals were more sustainable make a significant contribution by designing
than masonry bridges in Europe that might have structures that can be easily dismantled, and
been erected a thousand years ago. This conflict in encouraging reclamation when involved in demolition.
choice between adopting a low energy/high Engineers can also consider re-used components
maintenance option, or a high energy/low and recycled materials when designing and specifying
maintenance approach, is typical of the dichotomies their projects.
encountered when designing to achieve sustainability.
Engineering judgement and careful consideration of The decision to re-use, or use recycled materials
each case on its own merits are needed to resolve needs to be made very early in the design process,
such issues. based on a combined availability, feasibility and
costing exercise to determine the suitability of the
This need for wider consideration of material choice approach. This will need to take into account factors
has also broadened the interest in other less such as the reliable availability of supply (both in
commonly-used structural materials. Within an overall quantity and quality), as well as the likely means of
sustainability approach, climate change mitigation introducing such materials into the works. This work
demands that engineers minimise the carbon can be extensive and time consuming, however
emissions embodied in the materials they use. More guidance on the likelihood of the feasible and viable
detail is given in Appendix C. re-use and reclamation of structural elements and
materials/components is available9.5. Figure 9.19.6
shows the hierarchy of material use in the Directive
2008/98/EC on waste.
9.2 Re-use and recycling
‘‘The dominant reason for re-using or re-cycling 9.3 Common structural materials
materials and goods is to reduce our society’s impact
on the environment – the world we live in.’’ – The
Ecology of building materials, 20099.4 9.3.1 Concrete
The sustainability drivers for reclaiming, re-using and 9.3.1.1 Concrete as a sustainable material
recycling materials are the need to: There are two major considerations to be made when
– reduce the depletion of non-renewable resources using concrete as a sustainable structural material:
(minerals, fossil fuels) the constituent materials that are used in the
– reduce pollution and greenhouse gas emissions by manufacture of concrete as a material, and the
reducing the impact of manufacturing processes physical performance of concrete in its solid state.
and transportation Concrete as a material in its solid state has a high
– minimise degradation of the natural environment thermal mass that allows the concrete structure
and landscape within a building to be utilised as a heat sink. It is
– reduce waste. necessary for the concrete material to be left
Choice of materials and technologies 9.3
Most desirable Least desirable
Other recovery/
Prevention Re-use Recycle Safe disposal
energy recovery
Avoidance of Recovery and direct Recovery and Other forms of Disposal of

excessive materials re-use of a remanufacture of a recovery may be non-recoverable
via efficient design component in an material into a possible e.g. materials with a
philosophy e.g. via application of equal component of equal burning, minimum negative
structural repetition quality or value to quality to the source composting impact on human
the source e.g. a e.g. structural steel health or the
brick reused as a melted and environment
brick reformed into
structural steel
Figure 9.1 Material use hierarchy as agreed by the EU in Directive 2008/98/EC
exposed within the building to ensure an efficient Cement content can also be lowered by the partial
heating and cooling cycle (see Section 8.6.1). Precast replacement of cement by ground granulated blast
pre-stressed concrete slabs and sections can also furnace slag (GGBS). As for PFA, this both reduces
contribute sufficient thermal mass to be used in the environmental impact of cement production and
passively designed schemes. the landfill and disposal of this by-product. The
addition of a suitable proportion of GGBS within a
9.3.1.2 Cement replacement concrete mix reduces the risk of early thermal
Traditionally the manufacture of cement requires the cracking, lowers permeability of the concrete to
burning of primary aggregates such as limestone and water, improves durability in aggressive environments,
other materials at a very high temperature. Any and can enhance the long-term strength of the
reduction in the cement content of concrete will yield concrete.
a sustainable benefit by reducing energy usage and
greenhouse gas emissions, and the excavation of 9.3.1.3 Novel or new cement products
primary aggregates. Figure 9.2 shows an example of Novel or new cements typically have some or all of
using replacement material for a proportion of the the following characteristics9.7:
cement in the concrete mix, resulting in a more – They embody less energy than Portland cements,
sustainable outcome. even those blended with fly ash or GGBS.
– They are manufactured using a novel process that
The common practice of blending cement with ideally utilises waste-derived fuels and raw
pulverised fuel ash (PFA), or adding a proportion of materials.
this pozzolanic material to a concrete mix, reduces – They can be expected to reduce both waste and
environmental impact by reducing the amount of emissions, in particular carbon dioxide.
cement utilised. At the same time recycling the ash
by-product created by coal-fired power generation The three more interesting novel cement types, which
would reduce the landfill disposal of large quantities are either already in production in some parts of the
of that material. The use of PFA also improves the world or under development, and can fulfil the above
workability of wet concrete, reduces shrinkage and characteristics to varying degrees, are9.7:
creep, and improves long term strength and – Alkali-activated cements including geopolymeric
durability. cements.
– Low energy calcium sulfoaluminate (CSA)-belite
cements.
– Cements based on magnesium oxide derived from
carbonates or silicates.
For a fuller discussion of the scientific and societal

issues involved in developing new cements, see
Gartner9.8.
There are two main barriers to the development of

novel cements: the availability of raw materials with
the necessary global distribution and volumes; and
confirmation of their fitness for purpose, in particular
their long term durability and reliability for structural
use.
It is likely that novel cements will first be used in non-

Figure 9.2 The Angel Building, London. Exposed concrete, structural applications because of the less onerous
used as part of the building’s passive cooling system, with requirement for proving long-term performance. They
material replacement for 36% of the cement within the concrete are also more likely to be used in precast products
mix because of the known demand that permits
9.3 Choice of materials and technologies
dedicated batching, the ensured knowledge and skill Consideration of recycled materials within concrete
of the workforce involved in the manufacturing includes the addition of finely crushed glass9.11. The
process, and the consistency of the curing procedure material acts as a ‘micro-filler’ within the concrete
which is carried out under controlled factory matrix and increases workability and flow properties,
conditions. thus reducing the need to add plasticisers. There
have also been found to be associated improvements
Efficient material design can also be achieved by in long-term strength and an enhanced resistance to
using exposed concrete as a durable architectural abrasion and freeze/thaw attack. However, the use of
finish that does not need regular replacement or crushed glass as a replacement for larger particle
decoration. The choice of concrete for the structure aggregate induces a risk of encouraging a deleterious
may also be beneficial when considering issues such expansive alkali-silica reaction.
as acoustic separation, fire separation and ensuring
security and robustness. PFA and GGBS can both be used to make
lightweight concretes for use in in situ concrete
9.3.1.4 Recycled aggregates structures, and are also used for the manufacture of
The traditional use of quarried or dredged aggregate concrete blocks.
(known as primary aggregate) has made heavy
impacts on the environment, leading to the initiative Further information9.12 and advice from WRAP9.13
to use recycled materials as aggregates while also regarding aggregate use is available. Guidance on
beneficially reducing the amount of material sent to use of admixtures is also available9.14.
landfill. The recycled materials are either re-processed
construction materials such as concrete, brick or 9.3.1.5 Reinforcement and ancillary items
other demolition waste (known as recycled The majority of reinforcing bar available to the market
aggregates), or by-products of other non- in the UK for use in reinforced concrete is made
construction related industries such as PFA, entirely from recycled steel9.15 and can be recovered
metallurgical slags, china clay, slate and sand during the ultimate demolition process for further
(naturally recycled) which are known as secondary recycling. Due account should be taken of the high
aggregates. energy costs associated with the recycling of
reinforcing steel (though still lower than that of virgin
Recycled aggregates can be sourced from demolition steel) when considering the embodied energy and
contractors’ sites or from specialist suppliers working carbon of reinforced concrete.
from processing centres. Quality is highly dependent
on the separation process used in recycling, and on Both steel and polypropylene fibres can be used to
the type and quality of the original material. Material reinforce concrete elements to increase ductility and
can be recycled either on-site at source, or remote resist tensile forces. Both reinforcing materials can be
from source; obvious environmental and cost benefits manufactured using recycled material.
can be achieved from reduced transport costs and
impacts if recycled aggregate can be produced on- Many polymer-based products are used in reinforced
site. Typically recycled aggregate has to be sourced concrete such as plastic spacers and waterproof
within approximately 30 miles of the site if the membranes, void formers and joint fillers. Many of
reductions in costs are to achieve a real benefit9.9. these can be made from recycled materials, including
plastics, recycled polystyrene, post-consumer paper
Sustainably sourced aggregates can be used either or post-industrial wood waste.
as a sole material i.e. as structural fill, or as a
sustainable constituent into other materials such as 9.3.2 Structural steel
concrete. When using them it is important to ensure
that the particular characteristics of the proposed 9.3.2.1 Steel as a sustainable material
material are used and balanced with the Traditionally steel manufacturing required a substantial
environmental conditions of the site, to ensure the amount of energy and natural mineral resources (iron
adequate performance of the element designed. ore, coal and limestone). However steel manufacture
has advanced and the re-use and recycling of steel is
When selecting aggregates for use in construction, now common. According to the World Steel
the structural engineer will need to consider: Association approximately one third of the world’s
– the physical and chemical composition of the site global steel production is produced from recycled
sub-soil and ground water conditions ‘scrap’ steel. The recycling of steel is efficient, as the
– the physical and chemical condition of the newly-manufactured product has the same properties
proposed fill material as the original, and structural steel can be recycled
– necessary construction methods any number of times without degradation of its
– performance requirements as a structural element properties.
– the source and consistency of material used.
9.3.2.2 Standard sections with known properties
Recycled aggregate, including recycled concrete The inherent robustness of steel, and the
aggregate (RCA), is suitable for use as a replacement engineering approach taken to protect against
for coarse aggregate. WRAP states that for most corrosion, means that structural steel generally has
designated concretes, if up to 20% of the coarse a long operational life. This characteristic, coupled
aggregate in a mix is replaced by recycled aggregate with the rolling of the material into standard sections
or RCA this will have an almost negligible effect on (universal beam and column sections, sheet pile
the properties of the concrete9.10. Up to 100% of sections etc.) and the availability of these standard
recycled aggregate or RCA can be used as a sections in a variety of different strength grades,
replacement for coarse aggregate if the specification gives the structural engineer the potential to utilise
allows higher proportions to be used; however, this second hand steel sections during the construction
will result in a reduction in the water-cement ratio of new works. Common examples of such re-use
and, if using RCA, increased drying shrinkage. include the removal and re-driving of steel sheet
to carry loads. Masonry can also be used within

buildings to provide thermal mass, thus aiding
passive environmental design. Demolition waste from
masonry structures can be easily downcycled as a
secondary aggregate, however it is important to
assess the physical characteristics of the material
against its specific use. Particular attention needs to
be paid to the risk of introducing contamination in the
form of gypsum products (commonly used as an
interior decorative finish) if the recycled aggregate is
to be used within a concrete mix.
9.3.3.2 Brickwork
In order to minimise carbon emissions and reduce
the impact of the energy-intensive manufacturing
process on the environment, the brick industry is
introducing recycled material into brick products. This
material can take the form of recycled waste from the
brick manufacturing process itself, or from other
industries: colliery spoil, dredged silt and sewage
sludge are all waste materials that have been used in
brick manufacture.
The inherent durability of brick is well known and it is

common for brick to yield a design life of over 100
years, hence the embodied carbon in bricks can be
spread over a relatively long lifespan. This can yield a
much reduced environmental impact if the brick is
reclaimed and re-used.
The large scale historic use of brick in buildings

presents huge opportunities for the re-use of bricks.
The opportunity depends heavily on the ease with
which individual units can be reclaimed and cleaned
as part of the demolition process. Older brickwork
laid using lime mortar is more easily cleaned, as a
result of the softer nature and lower adhesion of the
mortar to the brick. Modern cementitious mortars in
comparison tend to have stronger adhesion to the
brick and are therefore likely to be more difficult to
clean off without damage9.16. When reclaimed and
properly cleaned, batches of bricks can easily be
sampled and tested for their water absorption and
Figure 9.3 The London Olympic Basketball Arena, UK. The individual compressive strength, thus providing the
temporary steel frame is demountable and is designed to be designer with a good assessment of the properties
transported and erected for re-use elsewhere after initial use on which designs can be based for their re-use. It
should be noted that reclaimed bricks can show
very large variation in quality and consistency of
piles as temporary works in cofferdams, or the use firing, especially those which were manufactured
of reclaimed steel beams in a domestic extension. in situ. It is advisable to take a conservative
Re-use is also facilitated by the ease of approach to their strength characteristics.
re-fabrication and mechanical jointing. Figure 9.3
shows how a steel structural frame can be utilised When designing masonry structures and specifying
to facilitate deconstruction for re-use. both brick and mortar, the structural engineer will
need to consider the ease of reclamation, cleaning
The re-use of reclaimed structural steel sections and re-use of the bricks at the end of the lifespan of
yields a double environmental benefit, as it saves the structure.
both the energy used to re-melt and recycle that
section of steel, as well as saving the energy that 9.3.3.3 Concrete blockwork
would have been needed to make the sections from It is common practice for concrete blocks to be
virgin steel. The environmental benefits of this manufactured using a proportion of secondary
approach are self-evident, and can justifiably be taken aggregates, commonly GGBS or PFA9.5. When
into account under the Materials and Resources assessing the environmental impact of the use of
categories of assessment methodologies such as concrete blocks it is important to take into account
BREEAM or LEED, when these are being used to the proportion of recycled aggregate used within
carry out sustainability assessments. the product specified. Concrete blocks are less
likely to be reclaimed and re-used than bricks, as a
9.3.3 Masonry result of the common use of cementitious mortar to
bed the blocks together, the increased likelihood of
9.3.3.1 Masonry as a sustainable material damage as a result of the mortar being close in
The ability of masonry, as a loadbearing element, to strength to (or even stronger than) the blocks
carry both vertical and lateral loads (albeit with some themselves, and the enhanced risk of damage
restrictions) allows the engineer to utilise the structure when cleaning.
Figure 9.4 Mapungubwe Interpretation Centre, South Africa. Unemployed local residents were trained to construct the vaulted masonry design, which is also
surfaced in local rubble stone
9.3.3.4 Natural stone when specifying timber particular consideration needs

Fresh natural stone, other than that selected from to be given to its source. Designers are able to
quarry waste, is associated with a resource and specify timber or timber products sourced from
energy intensive quarrying process. However the accredited sustainable sources under schemes such
production of recycled natural stone suitable for as the Forest Stewardship Council (FSC), the
masonry work from quarry waste is more sustainable. Canadian Standards Association (CSA) standard for
Such supplies match the varied regional types of Sustainable Forest Management and the Finnish
natural stone which may be available. Consequently National Certification scheme. Where it is not possible
their availability tends to be regionally-varied, to utilise timber from such sources, designers may
reflecting local variations in the type, quality and consider specifying timber from suppliers who
historic use of stone. implement a formal Environmental Purchasing Policy
or similar.
Traditional use of stone masonry in some areas can
encourage its reclamation and re-use in the Timber preservatives are used where raw timber
construction of buildings, to match historic regional would decay if untreated. This greatly extends the life
characteristics. An example of the use of local of the timber with relatively low initial environmental
masonry material is shown in Figure 9.4. impact, and also spreads the environmental impact
over a longer in-service period. However the use of
9.3.4 Timber and wood products in situ applied preservatives needs careful
consideration, in order to minimise their environmental
9.3.4.1 Timber as a sustainable material effect. Factory application is preferred as this
Timber is effectively a ‘carbon store’ as a result of the minimises the amount of preservative chemicals used
carbon dioxide absorbed during the biological growth and the likelihood of local contamination through
process, which is then ‘sequestered’ in the timber for spillage or overspraying.
its design life. This argues that the use of structural
timber in lieu of another structural material not only The environmental impact of timber can be greatly
saves the carbon stored within the timber, but also reduced by its reclamation and re-use. Opportunities
saves the carbon associated with the manufacture of for re-use include:
the alternative9.17. – The re-grading and re-use of salvaged timber
members as structural elements (time-aged
The use of timber from non-sustainable sources can hardwood timber commonly demonstrates superior
lead to deforestation and the resultant environmental structural properties when compared to newly-
damage associated with mass deforestation, so sourced timber).
– The re-use of former structural members (e.g.

wood studs) as carcassing, or for other non-
loadbearing uses such as studwork.
– The re-use of salvaged timber for shuttering and
formwork.
Overall, the harvesting and processing of timber is

usually low in energy use, though the process of
kiln-drying of raw timber can have a substantial
energy impact. The recycling of timber is common by
initially grinding it into wood chip, which is then
turned into usable wood products such as chipboard
or medium-density fibreboard (MDF).
9.3.4.2 Acetylated timber

The process of treating raw timber with acetic acid is
known as ‘acetylation’ and has been known about for
many years. While processing timber in this way adds
time and cost at the manufacturing stage, the
process changes the chemical composition of the
timber fibre with the result that the strength,
dimensional stability and durability properties can be
significantly improved. This introduces the possibility
of specifying timber in a variety of applications that
would otherwise be unrealistic. An example of this is
the use of acetylated timber in the construction of the
main span of the Akkerwinde highway bridge in the
Netherlands (see Figure 9.5).
9.3.4.3 Laminated veneer and oriented strand timber products

Recent years have seen the development and
growth in popularity of a variety of engineered
timber products, which take advantage of the low
energy content of timber as the base material while
improving the structural characteristics and reliability
of the end product. Among these are laminated
veneer lumber (LVL) and oriented strand board
(OSB).
LVL uses similar manufacturing processes to glued

laminated timber (glulam) but uses shorter, smaller
sized strips of timber. These strips are machined to
accurate dimensional tolerances and then glued
together side by side and in layers as required, in
order to build up the required overall dimensions of Figure 9.5 The Akkerwinde Bridge in Sneek, the Netherlands
the section. The inherent variability in properties and is built primarily of acetylated timber
risk of flaws in any particular timber element is
thereby substantially eliminated, both through the
initial screening and machining processes, and also 9.3.4.4 ‘Beetle-killed’ timber
due to the multiplicity of elements that are used to The effect of the changing climate has been clearly
build up an individual section. The process also offers demonstrated in the dead forests of western North
the advantage of being able to manufacture large- America, particularly British Columbia, where an
scale timber components, either as bulk sections or estimated 710 million cubic metres of roundwood has
as panel products. been killed by the pine beetle9.18. Since lodgepole
pine is the backbone of the structural spruce-pine-fir
OSB uses fragmented timber veneer, which is laid timber market, much work has been done to recover
orthogonally in layers and then glued together in a as much usable timber as possible. All graded wood
hydraulic press to form standard-sized boards. The from beetle-killed forests meets the stringent
process typically uses polymer glues, which structural requirements set by national grading
become water-resistant when cured. The variation systems. The recovered wood can be used in
in orientation of the veneer fragments provides a structural and architectural applications without any
good degree of isotropic behaviour across the change of assembly practice or end machining. The
length and breadth of the panel. Main advantages material can also successfully be used in glulam
over plywood boards lie in the lower overall cost timbers and other engineered products. The wood is
due to the less selective restrictions on veneer often discoloured in the outer sapwood area;
quality and availability, and a reduced tendency to however this stain, imparted by a fungus carried by
delaminate in wet conditions. OSB is therefore the beetles, has no structural impact on the
commonly used for structural sheathing performance of graded timber. Indeed, this unique
applications. quality has been much sought after in its own right,
often chosen for aesthetic reasons due to the blue
Figure 9.6 highlights the use of laminated timber to coloured stain. Figure 9.7 shows an example of
create the roof supporting members at the John beetle-killed timber in use in the Richmond Olympic
Hope Gateway building in Edinburgh, Scotland. Oval in Canada.
Figure 9.6 The Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh’s John Hope Gateway, Scotland, makes extensive use of sustainable materials,
including timber sourced from the RBGE’s own gardens
Figure 9.7 The Richmond Olympic Oval, Canada, utilises beetle-killed timber in the roof
9.4 Non-mainstream structural materials used across the globe. In the 19th century straw
bales were commonly used in the construction of
housing across the wheat belt of the USA.
9.4.1 Straw
9.4.1.2 Straw bales
9.4.1.1 Straw as a sustainable material Straw has a very low embodied energy, is a good
Straw9.19, grass and reeds have been used as insulator, is fire resistant when tightly compressed
building materials throughout history, and are still within a ‘bale’, and is capable of withstanding a
substantial vertical load when stacked9.20. Though

straw is inherently resistant to rot (hence the
reason for the burning-off of straw stubble in
agriculture), high moisture content within the bales
can encourage fungi and lead to de-composition.
The recommendation is to ensure that moisture
content of bales used in construction is limited to
15% of the total weight of the bale. Vermin or
insect infestation is a common concern, however
infestation is less common than that associated
with timber and can be eliminated by good
construction detailing, particularly of external and
internal finishes.
Straw bales can be used as a pure loadbearing

material, by stacking the bales using stretcher bond
and tying them vertically using timber dowels or
discrete steel bars to form a vertical wall. They can Figure 9.8 Potala Palace, Lhasa, Tibet
also be used as an infill within a structural frame,
commonly timber.
Table 9.1 Compressive strength of different types of
Straw bales used in loadbearing walls should have a earth construction
minimum dry density of 110kg/m3, and be bound with
very tight strings of polypropylene or baling twine, Material Compressive strength
positioned at least 100mm from the edges of the (N/mm2)
bale9.20. The maximum compressive stress is low, and Compressed earth block 2-10
loading should be applied concentrically. The elastic
modulus of straw bales is highly variable. Although the Rammed earth 1-5
compressive deflection associated with loadbearing Cob/adobe 0.5-1.5
straw bale walls is substantial (circa 50mm to 75mm
per storey9.21), it is important to take account of this
and design the details and finishes normally
associated with such buildings to accommodate this compressive strengths of different types of earth
movement without the need for precision. The render construction are shown in Table 9.19.17. The low
on straw bale walls plays a significant part in improving compressive strength of earth has meant that earth
the structural stiffness of the wall, while acting as a elements tend to be designed as non-loadbearing
barrier against fire and decay. elements where mass is a major characteristic of the
form required. Tensile strength is virtually zero.
Bales can be used to provide an infill between vertical
loadbearing members; it is common practice to join 9.4.2.2 Compressed earth block
the bales together using timber dowels inserted Compressed earth block (CEB) uses techniques of a
between bales. Whilst the timber frame in such cases familiar nature to both the clay brick and concrete
provides load carrying capacity, the bales should be block manufacturing industries, in that a
of the same quality as those used in loadbearing homogeneous mixture of earth, clay, fine aggregate
construction, and should be tied to each other and and occasionally a small amount of cement is
the loadbearing frame. compressed mechanically in moulds to create dense,
regular-shaped masonry units. These can then be
9.4.2 Earth used with a clay slurry or cementitious mortar to build
walls of a similar nature to those constructed using
9.4.2.1 Earth as a sustainable material clay brick or concrete block.
Earth9.22 has been used as a structural material for
many centuries; examples of longstanding earth The mould presses may be lorry-mounted and so can
structures include the Potala Palace in Lhasa, Tibet be moved from site to site, thus making the maximum
(see Figure 9.8) on which construction was started in use of locally-sourced materials and reducing the need
the 17th century. for bulk transportation to a minimum.
As an engineering material, it is typically an The intense energy use associated with firing clay
amalgamation of sub-soils including sands and bricks or manufacturing cement products is
gravels, silts and clays. Sometimes cement or lime is obviated, however the overall weathering
added to improve cohesion within the material. capabilities of the blocks are reduced. The
limitations of this can be substantially overcome by
Earth is a naturally occurring material with a very low the use of surface protection such as waterproof
embodied energy that can be used to construct render systems.
building elements which have a high thermal mass,
and so can be utilised as an energy store. Earth 9.4.2.3 Rammed earth construction
also has the ability to balance relative humidity This is a technique used to produce monolithic
within a range of between 40% and 60%, which elements, normally walls. Moist, loose earth is
can be beneficial in reducing fungal and bacterial compacted in layers between formwork. The
growth. Earth buildings are easily demolished and constituent composition of the earth used, and its
recycled. moisture content, is critical to the success of this
method. The particle interlock within the
The compressive strength of earth is low and is highly compacted material is important for its structural
dependent on the construction technique used. The performance, so grading of the material is
important. Vertical compressive load and good 9.5 What can structural engineers do?
particle interlock improves the shear resistance of
the material.
Structural engineers can play a bigger part in the
Bonding agents such as lime or cement can be design of sustainable buildings by:
added to the mix to improve cohesion. Material – Considering the environmental impacts of the
treated in this way is known as stabilised rammed structural materials proposed; these choices also
earth. Very few examples of rammed earth walls as depend on the form, economy and structural
loadbearing elements exist in the UK, however integrity of their structural solutions, and need to be
rammed earth has been used for loadbearing wall considered during their design.
elements in buildings up to six storeys high in Europe – Designing structures that can be easily dismantled,
and the Middle East. and specifying and encouraging material
reclamation when involved in demolition.
9.4.2.4 Cob – Designing and specifying for the use of re-used and
Cob is another historically used construction method, recycled materials in projects.
in which straw is mixed with earth and water is – Considering the use of local supply chains for
added. The straw is mashed into the soil mix until the construction, choosing materials and technologies
material achieves a uniform, workable consistency. that are locally available.
This material can then be laid down in layers,
sometimes using shutters to form free-standing mass In order to do this effectively, the environmental
walls. impacts of structural materials (including the re-use of
recycled and reclaimed materials) needs to be
Rain erosion of cob walls is a major issue. This is discussed with the client and other members of the
often overcome by building the walls with horizontal design team early, during the briefing and conceptual
‘drip’ projections at periodic intervals (usually design stages of the project.
between around 900mm and 1200mm centres
vertically). These prevent ‘sheet flow’ of rainwater
down the wall surface, which would otherwise result
in significant erosion. 9.6 References
9.4.2.5 Adobe
Adobe consists of sun-dried earth blocks that can 9.1 Hammond, G. et al. Embodied carbon; the Inventory of
be made from most types of sub-soils, using clay Carbon and Energy (ICE). BG 10/2011. Bracknell:
as a binder to the mix. Over-drying of the mix can BSRIA, 2011
result in cracking of the units. The blocks are laid
with a mud and lime mortar. Mud bricks have the 9.2 Institution of Structural Engineers. A simple guide to
advantage of being simple to make, and are estimating the embodied carbon for a structure.
therefore appropriate for manufacture by unskilled London: IStructE, 2011
labour. They can be produced in large quantities or
in small batches, as and when time permits. The 9.3 Smith, B.P. ‘Whole-life carbon footprinting’. The
quality can be checked, and any suspect bricks Structural Engineer, 86(6), 18 March 2008 pp15-16
rejected, before they are built into a wall. Earth
blocks can be made more durable by the addition 9.4 Berge, B. et al. The Ecology of building materials.
of a small amount of lime. Oxford: Architectural Press, 2009
9.5 Addis, B. Building with reclaimed components and

Bitumen emulsion stabilised adobe blocks and mortar
materials: a design guide for reuse and recycling,
may be used for single storey houses, schools, clinics
and offices (see BESA building system in South Africa
which has an Open Agrément issued by Agrément 9.6 Institution of Structural Engineers. The Reuse of
South Africa9.23). structural components and materials. Sustainability
Briefing 13. Available at: www.istructe.org/
9.4.3 Rubble masonry concrete sustainability-briefing-notes [Accessed: 31 July 2013]
The term ‘rubble masonry concrete’ (RMC) 9.7 Taylor, M.G. Novel cements: low energy, low carbon
differentiates between dressed and rubble stone cements. MPA Cement fact sheet 12. Available at:
and indicates the nature of the product of the http://cement.mineralproducts.org/documents/FS_12_
hand-built masonry work as a concrete. RMC is a Novel_cements_low_energy_low_carbon_cements.pdf
matrix comprising large stones, or plums, in a [Accessed: 31 July 2013]
mortar binder. To minimise cost and optimise
structural properties, it is necessary to ensure the 9.8 Gartner, E. ‘Industrially interesting approaches to ‘low-
maximum realistic rock or stone content. In terms CO2’ cements’. Cement and Concrete Research, 34(9)
of its basic constituent materials proportions, RMC H.F.W. Taylor Commemorative Issue, September 2004,
is similar in nature to a dry mix concrete, or roller pp1489-1498
compacted concrete (RCC), comprising
approximately 55% large aggregate (by mass), 9.9 Institution of Structural Engineers. Recycled and
5.5% to 7% cement, 6% to 7% water and 30% to secondary aggregates in concrete. Sustainability
35% sand. The greatest difference can be seen in Briefing 11. Available at: www.istructe.org/
the fact that the large aggregate portion of RMC sustainability-briefing-notes [Accessed: 31 July 2013]
comprises particles generally of 50 to 300mm in
dimension. 9.10 WRAP. Performance related approach to use of recycled
aggregates. 2007. Available at: http://www2.wrap.org.
RMC has been used successfully in South Africa to uk/downloads/Dundee_University_Technical_Report_
construct arch dams and arch bridges9.24. Final.fde99b2d.4025.pdf [Accessed: 31 July 2013]
9.11 ‘Recycled glass: Research information digest 2’. 9.7 Bibliography

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[Accessed: 31 July 2013] Anderson, J. et al. The Green guide to specification: an
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recycled aggregates. 2007. Available at: http:// Press/Wiley-Blackwell, 2009
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[Accessed: 31 July 2013] Bevan, R. and Woolley, T. Hemp lime construction: a guide to
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construction materials 2011. London: BCO, 2011
9.15 Corus. Sustainable steel construction – The design and
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at: http://www.corusconstruction.com/file_source/ practice of sustainable architectural design. 2nd ed. London:
StaticFiles/Construction/Library/ Earthscan, 2011
sustainable%20steel%20construction.pdf [Accessed:
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the evaluation, selection, and use of sustainable construction
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9.17 Forde, M. ed. ICE Manual of construction materials.
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London: Telford, 2009
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and Ireland. Rev ed. Totnes: Green Books, 2009
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sustainable architecture. 3rd ed. Basel: Birkhauser, 2013
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prac_docs_labour_based_methods.pdf [Accessed:
12 September 2013]
10 Construction stage
10.1 Sustainability during construction Sustainable sourcing is increasingly becoming a

requirement within construction projects. Certification
processes can help reassure clients and other project
During construction, it is important to ensure that the participants with regard to the source and traceability
full planning and design intent, including all the of materials and products, of how workers are
sustainability initiatives, are not lost in implementation. treated within the supply chain, and that the
For example, having evaluated alternatives and environmental impacts of any waste and materials
chosen a system with environmental and used in the manufacturing process are being actively
maintenance benefits, it would be counter-productive minimised. As structural engineers play a major part
to fail to ensure that it was correctly installed, and in in the specification of construction materials, they can
so doing, risk premature failure long before the help to ensure that materials and components are
expected design life expires. sourced responsibly and sustainably.
It is also worth remembering that every attempt Responsible sourcing is being driven by several
should be made to get it ‘right first time’, as although factors, which include:
replacement of defective work during construction – Assuring external participants that the companies
may have little impact on the overall project, any involved in construction projects can meet
materials which are removed and replaced have a increasingly important corporate and social
design life of zero years. responsibilities.
– Ensuring that products are traceable throughout the
Construction is also the time when design initiatives supply chain.
such as the specification for installation to facilitate – Minimising risk to reputation by reducing any
future dismantling for re-use, including marking of instances of non-conformance with legislation.
components, should be put into practice. Equally
important is ensuring that the explanation of this is Assessment methodology credits may be awarded
included in the Operations and Maintenance manual for specifying and using materials that are responsibly
and the Health and Safety file. sourced (see Appendix B).
In addition to the active management of site ISO 2193010.2 provides principles and requirements
construction to achieve the sustainability intent, four for environmental product declarations (EPDs) of
very important sustainability contributions at this building products.
stage are:
– sustainable sourcing of materials, components and Figure 10.110.3 summarises responsible sourcing
equipment processes (as covered by BES 6001 Responsible
– sustainable procurement, including socio-economic sourcing of construction products10.4).
objectives in supply chain contractor selection,
training and development 10.2.2 Treatment of workers
– the design and effective execution of a Site Waste
Management Plan The Social Charter within the legislative framework of
– transportation of goods to site. the EU provides social and legal protection against
social exclusion and discrimination. To demonstrate
Table 10.110.1 shows the carbon impacts of using responsible sourcing outside of the EU, organisations
different modes of transport to deliver goods to site. have to ensure that their supply chain operates to the
minimum standards sanctioned by the International
Table 10.1 Carbon emissions for different modes of Labour Organisation (ILO)10.5.
transport
Mode Indexed to bulk shipping ¼ 1 10.2.3 Material traceability
Air – short-haul international 466 Material traceability is a vital part of responsible

Road – average of all HGVs 37 sourcing10.3. The specifier/purchaser needs to be
able to identify the source of the key components,
Rail 9 and therefore the conditions under which the base
Shipping – container 5 materials were extracted or harvested. A ‘chain of
custody’ approach is essential in proving that
Shipping – bulk carrier 1
materials are verifiable throughout the entire supply
chain. While this ensures that all materials used are
credible and their origins can be traced, it is equally
important to know that any ‘added value’ steps in the
10.2 Sustainable sourcing supply chain are equally committed to improving their
sustainable performance. Certification to recognised
management systems and performance reporting
10.2.1 The demand for responsible sourcing helps ensure that consistent values are present along
the supply chain.
This section explains the vital role of the structural
engineer in specifying sustainable materials and BRE has produced the standard BES 6001
products, and sourcing them at construction stage. Responsible sourcing of construction products10.4 to
Construction stage 10.3
Responsible sourcing
Material Ethical Extraction/harvesting, manufacturing,

processing and supply
Traceability Legal compliance
Supply chain management
Employment rights
Quality management
Health and safety
Environmental management
Investment in
employees Greenhouse gas emissions
Working with local Resource use

communities
Waste management
Water extraction
Transport impacts
Figure 10.1 Activities of the supply chain covered by BES 6001
provide a framework for the activities associated with (as far as is possible) the funds expended on the
responsible sourcing (see Figure 10.1), along with a project within the community.
systematic delivery approach to managing – Including training and experience requirements in
performances on site. This is used in conjunction with the project contract to develop technical,
ISO 9001 (quality management), ISO 14001 administrative, commercial and managerial skills in
(environmental management) and BS OHSAS 18001 the community, particularly to develop local small
(health and safety management). This approach has specialist contractors.
allowed for equivalence between different materials
so that equal and fair comparisons between The formal acknowledgement of such needs, and so
construction products can be carried out. Four levels the extent to which such approaches are adopted,
of performance can be awarded by the standard, varies greatly between countries and regions. In
ranging from ‘pass’ to ‘excellent’. This standard can developed countries, these needs may often not be
also be used in conjunction with others, for example recognised nationally. Indeed, in the EU the focus has
BS 8902 Responsible sourcing sector certification been on equalising business opportunities for
schemes for construction products10.6, to help companies from all countries in the EU across
develop and support responsible sourcing within a national boundaries, so favouring local companies
project. might be construed as illegal, depending on the exact
procurement terms used. However, in the USA,
positive action to favour local ‘minority and women-
owned business enterprises’ (MWBEs) is quite
10.3 Sustainable procurement common at state and city level10.10. Guidance on
best practice for social responsibility can be found in
ISO 2600010.11.
Beyond observing the most basic human rights
issues for the treatment of workers, construction Among developing areas, Africa provides ingenious
gives much wider opportunities to meet local, examples, particularly in KwaZulu Natal in South
regional and even national socio-economic Africa. The three projects listed below10.12 epitomise
sustainability objectives for construction10.7. the way in which socio-economic benefits can be
Standards for sustainable procurement are available delivered, not as an ‘add-on’, but because they also
to help with this, for example BS 8903 Principles and solve technical and resource problems:
framework for procuring sustainably10.8. – Moses Mabhida Stadium, Durban: solving a ‘lack of
resources’ problem by including major specialist
Practical opportunities which can be delivered small contractor development and training
through procurement/contract strategies include10.9: programmes in the main contract, in building the
– Choosing materials, technologies and construction stadium for the Football World Cup, 2010
methods which are available from, and known in, (see Figure 10.2).
the local supply chain. – eThwekini water mains renewal, Durban: adoption
– Using local contractors and suppliers in of hand–dig techniques to avoid structural
procurement to create local jobs, develop damage to buried utilities in congested road areas,
contractors from within the community, and retain but also enabling the maximum employment of
10.4 Construction stage
design has a clear and significant impact on the

viability and cost of a project.
Whilst the focus is on reducing waste sent to landfill

through recovery and recycling during construction
operations, there is the opportunity to commence site
waste management planning and waste minimisation
during design. This gains not only reduced disposal
costs, but also the implied 10 to 20 times greater
cost savings through reducing the need to purchase
excess materials.
10.4.2 Planning for waste on site
In planning the sequencing and implementation of a

project, consideration should be given at an early
stage in design to how the site is to be organised
Figure 10.2 Moses Mabhida Stadium, Durban, South Africa. Resolving socio-economic during construction, taking into account the
issues through small contractor development and training programmes operations of the contractor and sub-contractors.
The following points need to be considered in
under-employed local labour and the designing to reduce waste on-site:
entrepreneurial growth of small local contractors. – Where will waste materials be stored?
– Rural roads maintenance, KwaZulu: protection of – To what extent will waste materials be segregated
the structure and performance of steep rural roads, for recycling?
subjected to heavy and frequent rainfall and mud – How much space can be made available for
flows, by employing local very poor ‘head of recycling on site?
household’ women as individual part-time road – Can sufficient space be allocated on site for the
surface and drainage clearance contractors. delivery and storage of materials to minimise risk of
damage before use (and therefore reduce any
In developed countries as well as developing ones, it consequent waste that would be created)?
may be an important sustainability objective to
provide local jobs, and use local suppliers and Consideration as to whether the provision of
contractors, to keep wealth in the local community as additional space for these operations, even if only
much as possible. Structural engineers need to temporarily, could significantly reduce the cost of the
understand the potential of construction projects to project.
assist in delivering socio-economic benefits, consider
how this might be done on each project, and use As structural engineers are often responsible for the
their skill, knowledge and creativity to help optimise design choices that lead to the raising of these
this. questions, they are in a good position to take the
opportunity to flag up these issues and address them
early, so that the outcomes can be influenced to
improve the management of waste on site.
10.4 Waste management
10.4.3 Utilising off-site construction and prefabrication
10.4.1 The true cost of waste Off-site construction or prefabrication can help
reduce the volume of waste generated on site. The
In the UK, duty of care legislation enforces the legal manufacture of materials and components in a
responsibility of all operatives on site to ensure that all controlled environment can improve process control,
waste generated on site is stored, transported, thus leading to a reduction in waste production10.15.
treated and disposed of without harming the
environment10.13. It also requires that waste Controlling the flow of materials ensures that over-
contractors are licensed and are using appropriately ordering of material quantities can be minimised. The
licensed disposal sites. This is unlikely to impact on understanding that factories housing off-site
structural engineers unless they have a responsibility manufacturing typically specialise in a particular form
to oversee operations of waste disposal on site. of construction (such as lightweight steel or timber
However, structural engineers have significant control panel products) means that surplus raw materials can
over waste minimisation during design, and it is be immediately recycled, internally or externally for the
therefore necessary for them to understand the same or a different project, rather than thrown away
implications of waste within the construction process. in skips as is typical on many sites. It also raises the
opportunity to use parts of the same stock sheet to
According to the UK-based Waste Resources and manufacture components for different projects at the
Action Programme WRAP, the cost of waste disposal same time. This opportunity does not exist on site,
on a typical project is 0.2% – 2% of construction where surplus off-cut material often unavoidably
value10.14. It should be remembered that waste does becomes waste. Off-site manufacture can therefore
not simply consist of the contents of skips; it also lead to a much higher recovery and recycling rate
covers materials that may be removed by contractors than on site operations.
such as excavation materials, earthworks and
hazardous waste. However, the cost of disposal of Transit packaging and site programming are key
materials is much lower than the cost of their issues in off-site construction. Consideration should
purchase, so the true cost of ‘waste’ may be as be given as to whether the disposal of the temporary
much as 10% of the project value10.3. It is clear from protection for the prefabricated components would
this that the reduction of waste as an objective during create a more significant amount of waste than if
Construction stage 10.5
fabrication had taken place on site. Re-usable carried through during construction. They can:
protection is a possible solution to this. The – Understand the potential of construction
sequencing of receiving prefabricated components on procurement and contracts to assist in delivering
site requires thought as to whether there is sufficient socio-economic benefits, and optimise these on
space on site to allow for vehicular access, off- each project.
loading of components and storing them on site. – Continue to use the sustainability performance
targets and principles set, in any on-site detailed
10.4.4 Materials sourcing design.
– Contribute to the construction stage on-going
There are further considerations: pack sizes, length sustainability assessment of the project.
and widths of boards, length of delivery period, and – Assist procurement staff in applying responsible
whether the materials are locally obtained or have to and sustainable sourcing of materials and
travel large distances to get to site. These are components, as specified during contract
considerations that are rarely taken into account by preparation.
designers when specifying components, however – Assist site managers in planning and executing the
they are of significant importance. There is a Site Waste Management Plan.
temptation to over-order materials when they are in – Ensure that design decisions for future dismantling
limited supply ‘just in case’. Conversely where of components are facilitated by marking
materials are freely available, especially if they are components, and including instructions in facility
locally sourced, contractors are more likely to be management Operation and Maintenance manuals.
willing to ‘buy tight’ in the knowledge that additional
materials or components can be easily sourced with
less risk of delay to the project. The following
equation10.3 acts as an aide memoire: 10.6 References
Accurate quantities þ Over-ordering
¼ Building þ Skips 10.1 WRAP. Cutting embodied carbon in construction
projects. Available at: http://www.wrap.org.uk/sites/
Over-ordering increases the amount of waste in files/wrap/FINAL%20PRO095-009%20Embodied%
construction, so reducing the temptation to over- 20Carbon%20Annex.pdf [Accessed: 1 August 2013]
order can also reduce waste. In an increasingly
carbon-sensitive climate, it is worth remembering 10.2 ISO 21930: 2007: Sustainability in building
that anything manufactured simply to be thrown construction – Environmental declaration of building
away effectively wastes carbon, so low-carbon products. Geneva: ISO, 2007
construction can be supported by a minimisation of
waste. 10.3 Institution of Structural Engineers. Responsible
sourcing. Sustainability Briefing 9. Available at:
10.4.5 End of life deconstruction www.istructe.org/sustainability-briefing-notes
[Accessed: 1 August 2013]
Given the development of new materials and
techniques, it is possible that almost any structure 10.4 Young, S. Responsible sourcing of construction
could have its useful life extended indefinitely. With products: framework standard for the responsible
the possible exception of historically important sourcing of construction products (BES 6001). BRE
structures, there comes a point of diminishing returns Information Paper IP6/09. Watford: IHS BRE Press, 2009
where the effort expended in repairing a structure is
greater than that of starting again, even when 10.5 ILO. Conventions and recommendations. Available at:
counted in terms of sustainability as well as cost. http://www.ilo.org/global/standards/introduction-to-
international-labour-standards/conventions-and-
At this point, structural engineers can take a role in recommendations/lang–en/index.htm [Accessed:
advising on the deconstruction process to maximise 1 August 2013]
the recovery of usable components and materials,
ensuring that wherever possible, they are available for 10.6 BS 8902: 2009: Responsible sourcing sector
re-use rather than being discarded as worthless. certification schemes for construction products –
Tools such as the ICE Demolition Protocol10.16 and Specification. London: BSI, 2009
demolition audits may be utilised. In carrying out this
role it is worth remembering that this is a valuable 10.7 Watermeyer, R.B. ‘Socio-economic responsibilities: the
exercise, as recovery of materials for re-use not only challenge facing structural engineers’. The Structural
extends the original products’ useful life, but also Engineer, 77(17), 7 September 1999, pp22-28
avoids the need to make more, with all the
implications of this in terms of raw materials, energy 10.8 BS 8903: 2010: Principles and framework for
and carbon emissions. The amount of waste sent to procuring sustainably – Guide. London: BSI, 2010
landfill is also reduced.
10.9 Watermeyer, R. Job creation in public sector
engineering and construction: why, what & how?
Commonwealth Engineer’s Council 50th anniversary
10.5 What can structural engineers do? conference, 1997. Available at: http://www.ssinc.co.za/
Files/Doc/RBWPapers/T4-1.pdf [Accessed: 1 August
2013]
Although structural engineers are not always
members of site technical and supervision teams 10.10 See, for example, for New York State: Empire State
during construction, they need to remain involved to Department Division of Minority and Women’s Business
ensure that the sustainability choices and Development website. Available at: http://www.esd.ny.
assessments made during planning and design are gov/MWBE.html [Accessed: 1 August 2013]
10.7 Construction stage
10.11 ISO 26000: 2010: Guidance on social responsibility. Staib, G. et al. Components and systems. Modular construction:
Geneva: ISO, 2010 design, structure, new technologies. Basel: Birkhauser, 2008
10.12 Information provided by Ron Watermayer, the ICE PA’s TRADA. Sustainable timber sourcing: certified timber products.
Scheme and see these websites: KwaZulu-Natal Wood Information Sheet WIS 2/3-58. High Wycombe: TRADA
Department of Transport. The creation of sustainable Technology Ltd, 2007
job opportunities for poor rural families through the
maintenance of rural roads. Available at: http://www. WRAP. Designing out waste: a design team guide for civil
kzntransport.gov.za/programmes/zibambele/index.htm engineering. Less waste, sharper design. 2010. Available at:
and Management of Social Transformations (MOST). http://www.wrap.org.uk/sites/files/wrap/Designing_out_Waste_
Soweto: mobilising the Community. http://www. landscape_opportunities.pdf [Accessed: 1 August 2013]
unesco.org/most/africa16.htm [Accessed: 1 August
2013]
10.13 Charles, P. and Wadams, G. Environmental good

practice on site – pocket book. CIRIA C715. London:
CIRIA, 2012
10.14 WRAP. Guide to cost saving and client cost saving

strategies. Available at: http://www.wrap.org.uk/sites/
files/wrap/W676%20Guide%20to%20cost%20saving%
20and%20client%20cost-saving%20strategies%
20FINAL1.pdf [Accessed: 1 August 2013]
10.15 Stirling, C. Off-site construction: an introduction. BRE

Good Building Guide 56. London: BRE Bookshop,
2003
10.16 Institution of Civil Engineers. Demolition protocol 2008.

Available at: http://www.ice.org.uk/Information-
resources/Document-Library/Demolition-Protocol-2008
10.7 Bibliography
Action Sustainability et al. Guide to sustainable procurement in

construction. CIRIA C695. London: CIRIA, 2011
Audus, I. et al. Environmental good practice on site. CIRIA

C692. London: CIRIA, 2010
Berry, C. The sustainable procurement guide: procuring

sustainably using BS 8903. London: BSI, 2011
BRE Trust et al. Saving money, resources and carbon through

SMARTWaste. FB48. Watford: IHS BRE Press, 2012
Charles, P. and Connolly, S. jt eds. Environmental good practice

on site. CIRIA C650. 2nd ed. London: CIRIA, 2005
fib. Prefabrication for affordable housing: state-of-art report

prepared by Task Group 6.7. fib Bulletin 60. Lausanne: fib,
2011
Gaze, C. et al. Modern methods of construction (MMC) in

housing: planning for manufactured housing. BRE Information
Paper IP3/07 Part 2. Watford: IHS BRE Press, 2007
Gibb, A. and Pendlebury, M. Offsite project toolkit: release 2.0.

CIRIA C631. London: CIRIA, 2005
Hairstans, R. Off-site and modern methods of timber

construction: a sustainable approach. High Wycombe: TRADA
Technology Ltd, 2010
McCarthy, G. ‘Steel use in offsite construction’. The Structural

Engineer, 86(21), 4 November 2008, pp20-22
Smith, R.E. Prefab architecture: a guide to modular design and

construction. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley, 2010
Appendix A How structural engineers can contribute to the
sustainability of a project
A.1 How structural engineers can This appendix lists the various actions that may be
undertaken at the various stages of a project, based
contribute to the sustainability of a on the RIBA Plan of WorkA.1 (which is comparable
project with other national work stages such as the ACE
Schedule of servicesA.2, see Table A.1) and their
corresponding value to clients (see Table A.2).
The most important issue is to establish why the
client wants a sustainable project (see Chapter 3). In Table A.2, rows highlighted in green indicate a
This may include reasons such as getting planning primary input from the structural engineer. Other rows
permission, satisfying requirements for funding or indicate more general advice from a structural
demonstrating their corporate social responsibility. engineer.
Table A.1 Comparison of national project work stages
Stage of project RIBA 2013 stage ACE 2009 work stage French work stage Russian work stage American work stage
Preparation 0 Strategic definition G2.1 Appraisal stage ESQ Etudes d’esquisse K Konseptsiya Briefing
(strategic
assessment)
1 Preparation and brief G2.2 Strategic briefing APS Etudes d’avant- SD Schematic design
(project appraisal, stage projet sommaire
site appraisal and
briefing)
Design 2 Concept design G2.3 Outline proposals P Proekt
(outline proposals stage
and construction
strategy)
3 Developed design G2.4 Detailed proposals APD Etudes d’avant- E Expertisa DD Detail design
(detail proposals, stage projet definitif
planning application
and cost alignment)
Pre-construction 4 Technical design G2.5 Final proposals R Rabotchi proekt
(final proposals and stage
product information
checking) G2.6 Production
information stage
G2.7 Tender
documentation
and tender action
stage
Construction 5 Construction G2.8 Mobilisation, PRO Etudes de projet K Konstruktsiya Construction
(mobilisation and construction and
construction to completion stage ACT Assistance pour la
practical completion) passation des
contrats de traveux
EXE Etudes d’exécution
DET Direction de
l’exécution des
travaux
OPC Ordonnancement,
coordination et
pilotage du chantier
6 Handover and close AOR Assistance lors des
out (practical opérations de
completion handover) réception
Post-practical 7 In use (post- DIA Diagnostique Warranty period
completion occupancy
evaluation)
A.1 Appendix A
Table A.2 Input from the structural engineer and value to the client
Input from the structural engineer Value to the client Stage of project
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
A Selection of materials to minimise environmental impact
1 General advice to project team on – Maximising opportunities for X X X
materials selection to reduce enhancing project
environmental impact, meet policy sustainability.
requirements, satisfy criteria for credits
in an environmental assessment tool
including responsible sourcing,
embodied carbon, etc.
2 Advise project team on building – Achieving a given assessment X X X X
materials and construction of floors, tool rating at lowest cost.
walls, roof etc. favoured in the Green – Help the client (and project
guide to specificationA.3 or needed to team) to undertake cost/benefit
gain credits using an environmental analyses of various options and
assessment tool (see Appendix B). choices.
3 Advise on responsible sourcing of – Maximising opportunities for X X X X X
construction materials, including enhancing project
accreditation schemes (such as FSCA.4), sustainability.
minimising distances transported,
satisfying criteria for credits in an
environmental assessment tool.
4 Advise on feasibility, properties, use, – Maximising opportunities for X X X X X
and specification of concrete with enhancing project
recycled content (e.g. recycled sustainability; reducing the
aggregate) or cement replacements embodied carbon/energy of the
(e.g. use of GGBS/PFA). building.
5 Advise the project team on structural – Ensuring the maximum X X X X
use of ‘green’ construction materials, potential for using ‘green
recycled materials (RCA, GGBS, PFA, materials’ is realised.
etc.), reclaimed materials and products – Help the client (and project
(timber, steel), recycled-content team) to undertake cost/benefit
materials and products. analyses of various options and
choices.
6 Advise on non-structural use of ‘green’ – Ensuring the maximum X X X
construction materials e.g. recycled potential for using ‘green
plastic, recycled black top (for roads), materials’ is realised.
etc.
7 Identification of materials recommended – Ensuring construction meets X X X X
to be avoided in construction e.g. environmental performance
materials with unacceptable global requirements.
warming potential or ozone depletion – Help the client (and project
potential (which are linked to team) to undertake cost/benefit
environmental assessment tool credits) analyses of various options and
as well as PVC, expanded polystyrene, choices.
peat, etc.
8 Advise on the embodied carbon (or CO2 – Provide the client with X X X X
or energy) of different structural quantitative evidence of an
systems and materials, including life absolute value of
cycle assessment. environmental impact and
relative values of different
systems or alternative designs.
– Help the client (and project
team) to undertake cost/benefit
analyses of various options and
choices.
9 Specifications for structural materials – Ensuring that suppliers and X X
and components to meet environmental contractors meet the client’s
criteria and performance targets, for sustainability and
inclusion in tender documentation. environmental objectives.
Contribute to evaluation of tenders – Help the client (and project
against environmental criteria. team) to undertake cost/benefit
choices.
Appendix A A.1
Table A.2 Continued

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
B Reduction of waste – through demolition, design and construction
1 General advice to client and project – Opportunities to add value to X X X
team on appraisal of existing structures existing buildings/avoid new
and opportunities for re-using whole construction.
buildings, or major parts of buildings
(vertical structure, horizontal structure,
roof, façade retention, foundations and
piles).
2 Advice on demolition and excavation – Maximising opportunities for X X
regarding opportunities for balancing cut enhancing project
and fill, use of ICE Demolition sustainability.
ProtocolA.5, pre-demolition audits, etc.
3 Advice on reclamation and re-use of – Maximising opportunities for X X X
components and materials from enhancing project
demolition, and use of recycled sustainability.
materials (see ICE Demolition
ProtocolA.5).
4 General advice on using recycled – Ensuring the maximum X X X X X
content materials and products in new potential for using ‘green
construction for both structural and materials’ is realised; meeting
non-structural purposes. certain planning policies.
5 Advice on ‘design for deconstruction’. – Maximising opportunities for X X X
enhancing project sustainability
and meeting certain planning
policies.
6 Advice on ‘designing out waste’ and – Maximising opportunities for X X
other construction waste reduction enhancing project
measures, including off-site sustainability.
manufacture and industrialised building – Help the client (and project
systems. team) to undertake cost/benefit
choices.
7 Detailed advice on achieving high – Maximising opportunities for X X X
recycled-content in structural elements enhancing project
of new construction. Design using sustainability.
recycled content materials. – Helping meet planning policies
Note that this consists mainly of and gain planning permission.
cement replacement, aggregates, – Ensuring the maximum
re-use of steel or timber beams etc. potential for using ‘green
materials’ is realised; meeting
certain planning policies.
C Overall sustainable design and construction
1 Input of specialist advice on – Maximising opportunities for X X X X X
construction processes and methods of enhancing project
manufacture to minimise environmental sustainability.
impact, including potential benefits of
off-site manufacture and prefabrication.
2 Advice on life-cycle assessment issues – Help the client (and project X X X
(both environmental impact and costs) team) to undertake cost/benefit
for construction materials, including analyses of various options and
durability; and the choice between long- choices.
life and short-life structures. – Delivering cost-effective
buildings and meeting LCA
requirements of chosen
environmental assessment tool
(see Appendix B).
3 General advice on implications of the – Ensuring construction meets X X X
Considerate Constructors SchemeA.6, planning policy, project
Construction Environmental environmental objectives and
Management Plans and Site Waste requirements of chosen
Management PlansA.7. environmental assessment tool
(see Appendix B).
A.1 Appendix A
Table A.2 Continued

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
C Overall sustainable design and construction (continued )
4 Advice regarding design of buildings for – Opportunities to increase the X X X X
future flexibility (different users or uses), value of a building.
and of future adaptability (modification – Help the client (and project
of structure and fabric to suit new users team) to undertake cost/benefit
or uses). analyses of various options and
choices.
5 Contribute to development of low- – Achieving a more efficient and X X X
energy buildings using high or low sustainable building.
thermal mass (as appropriate), and – Help the client (and project
‘clean’ exposed soffits (to enhance team) to undertake cost/benefit
natural ventilation). analyses of various options and
choices.
6 Advise about impact of building – Achieve more efficient and X X X
integrated renewable energy sources on cost-effective design solutions.
design/construction of structure and
foundations.
7 Structural design to re-use existing – Opportunities to add value to X X X
structures – whole buildings, or major existing buildings/avoid new
parts of buildings (vertical structure, construction.
horizontal structure, roof, façade
retention, foundations and piles).
8 Advise on the potential for reducing – Ensuring the maximum X X
environmental impact by designing potential for using optimisation
‘minimum-weight structures’ and of materials use.
structures of maximum efficiency. – Help the client (and project
choices.
9 Contribution to progress reports – Helping ensure delivery of the X X X X X
concerning meeting sustainability/ environmental objectives and
environmental objectives and demonstrating that
performance (set down early in project). environmental/sustainability
objectives and performance
targets are being/have been
met.
D Policies, planning and client’s needs
1 Identify opportunities in the project for – Helps client demonstrate the X X X X X
meeting the aspirations of the client’s project is delivering on various
sustainability or environmental policy. commitments made; can be
reported in annual report/on
website.
2 Advice on policy drivers for using – Maximising opportunities for X X X
‘green’ construction materials and enhancing project
reclaimed/recycled materials. sustainability.
3 Advice on how structural engineering – Help ensure project meets X X X X X
issues can contribute to social and broad sustainability objectives
economic sustainability (local jobs, including providing input to
training, reduced maintenance, longer client’s Global Reporting
life, reduced costs, stimulate local InitiativeA.9, FTSE4Good
industry, CDM RegulationsA.8, health IndexA.10, Corporate Social
and safety). Responsibility.
4 Advise client/project team on how best – Increase likelihood of X X X
to incorporate sustainability and environmental objectives being
environmental objectives regarding delivered in the finished
structure and materials in the project building(s).
brief.
5 Contribution to planning application – Helping the client gain outline X X
documents (sustainability statement, or detailed planning
materials strategy) submitted for outline, permission.
reserved matters or detailed planning Note that this is probably the
application to demonstrate compliance most significant benefit for the
with/exceeding policy requirements. client.
Appendix A A.2
Table A.2 Continued

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
D Policies, planning and client’s needs (continued )
6 Advice on setting targets objectives and – Achieving environmental X X X X
targets for environmental objectives, objectives that are
both generally and for a particular commercially viable.
building. – Help the client (and project
choices.
7 General guidance on ‘green’ – Help demonstrate client’s X X X X
procurement. sustainability commitment and
performance, e.g. for Global
Reporting InitiativeA.9,
FTSE4Good IndexA.10,
Corporate Social Responsibility.
8 Advice/assistance with public exhibition – Helping the client demonstrate X X
during consultation to demonstrate the commitment to sustainability,
sustainable/environmental qualities of and gain planning permission.
the project/building.
9 Assistance with publicising and gaining – Help demonstrate client’s X X X
recognition for a project’s green sustainability commitment and
credentials and environmental performance, e.g. Global
achievements (recognition of project’s Reporting InitiativeA.9,
achievements, sustainability awards, FTSE4Good IndexA.10,
papers, conferences, case studies for Corporate Social Responsibility.
books, etc.)
10 Updating of project information – Receive up-to-date information X X X
(including ‘as constructed’ information, in response to on-going client
Operation and Maintenance manuals feedback and developments.
and demolition procedures).
For references to environmental assessment tools A.8 The Construction (Design and Management)
further information can be found in Appendix B. Regulations 2007 (SI 2007/320). Available at: http://
www.legislation.gov.uk/uksi/2007/320/pdfs/uksi_
20070320_en.pdf [Accessed: 1 August 2013]
A.2 References A.9 Global Reporting Initiative website. Available at: https://
www.globalreporting.org [Accessed: 1 August 2013]
A.1 RIBA Plan of Work 2013 website. Available at: http:// A.10 FTSE4Good Index Series website. Available at: http://
www.ribaplanofwork.com [Accessed: 1 August 2013] www.ftse.co.uk/Indices/FTSE4Good_Index_Series
A.2 ACE. ACE Schedule of Services – Part G(d). Civil and
structural engineering, lead consultant. For use with
ACE Agreement 1 – design. London: ACE, 2009
A.3 Anderson, J. et al. The Green guide to specification:

an environmental profiling system for building materials
and components. BR501. 4th ed. Watford/Chichester:
IHS BRE Press/Wiley-Blackwell, 2009
A.4 Forestry Stewardship Council website. Available at:

https://ic.fsc.org [Accessed: 1 August 2013]
A.5 Institution of Civil Engineers. Demolition protocol 2008.

Available at: http://www.ice.org.uk/Information-
resources/Document-Library/Demolition-Protocol-2008
A.6 Considerate Constructors Scheme website. Available

at: http://www.ccscheme.org.uk [Accessed: 1 August
2013]
A.7 WRAP. Site Waste Management Plans website.

Available at: http://www.wrap.org.uk/content/site-
waste-management-plans-1 [Accessed: 8 August
2013]
Appendix B Sustainability assessment methodologies
B.1 Global assessment tools instance, how to compare building elements and
materials in terms of life cycle assessment (LCA),
embodied energy and carbon (see the Institution’s
There are numerous assessment tools in use for Sustainability Briefing Note 3 What is embodied
measuring the sustainability of building structures. carbon?B.25 ), and carbon footprint.
Many countries have their own methodology,
although some of these have also been exported This appendix provides an outline description of three
globally. A list of the key assessment tools in use of the more significant building sustainability
around the world are listed below: assessment methodologies currently in global use:
– BREEAMB.1 (UK) – has also been exported BREEAM 2011, LEED 2013 and GREENSTAR v3
internationally to Canada, the USA, Dubai and (2011).
Qatar as well as across parts of Europe
– Code for Sustainable Homes, CSHB.2 (UK) –
residential buildings only
– DGNBB.3 (Germany)
– HQEB.4 (France) B.2 BREEAM 2011 for new construction:
– VERDE (Spain) non-domestic building
– MINERGIEB.5 (Switzerland)
– LEEDB.6 (USA)
– Green GlobesB.7 (Canada and USA) This is the latest version of the environmental
– NABERSB.8 and GREENSTARB.9 (Australia) assessment tool first developed by the UK Building
– CASBEEB.10 (Japan and Asia) Research Establishment in 1990. BREEAM schemes
– HK BEAM PlusB.11 (Hong Kong) exist for the UK, Germany, the Netherlands, Norway,
– BCA Green MarkB.12 (Singapore) Spain and Sweden. They can also be used
– BERDEB.13 (Philippines) internationallyB.26 but only if there is no National
– Green Star SAB.14 (South Africa) Scheme Operator, or where schemes developed by
– Estidama: Pearl Rating SystemB.15 (Abu Dhabi and the National Scheme Operator are not appropriate for
UAE) the building assessment.
– TREESB.16 (Thailand)
– GreenshipB.17 (Indonesia) Five BREEAM ratings can be achieved – Pass, Good,
– GRIHAB.18 (India) Very Good, Excellent, and Outstanding.
– AQUAB.19 (Brazil)
– Three Star System (China)B.20 BREEAM 2011 addresses 48 environmental issues
– EEWH (Taiwan)B.21 credits (see Table B.1) which are grouped under the
following main headings:
Additional assessment tools developed by the – Management: Man
Institution of Civil Engineers (CEEQUALB.22, which – Health and well-being: Hea
has a UK and international based approach) and the – Energy: Ene
Construction Industry Council (DQIB.23) are also – Transport: Tra
available for various construction projects. Other – Water: Wat
schemes are also available that have a global – Materials: Mat
application, such as PassivhausB.24. – Waste: Wst
– Land use and ecology: LE
Some aspects of such assessments are particularly – Pollution: Pol
the responsibility of the structural engineer; for – Innovation: Inn
Table B.1 Example credits from BREEAM 2011

Credit Name Issue/intent Input from structural engineer
Man 01 Sustainable The integration of BREEAM into the design process Advice to the client and design team
8 credits available procurement and its use for performance specification. on how the structural engineer
Any one of the available eight credits is mandatory. contributes to this process.
Man 03 Construction Impact of construction process including use of Awareness of how choice of
5 credits available site impacts energy and water, fuel use and pollution arising from materials and construction will affect
transport of materials and waste, use of responsibly these impacts.
sourced timber.
Man 05 Life cycle cost Selection of construction materials based on life Awareness of how choice of
3 credits available and service cycle assessment of environmental impacts. materials and construction will affect
life planning life cycle impacts and maintenance.
Hea 02 Indoor air Control of internal environment including how it may Awareness of potential VOC (e.g.
Number of available quality be affected by emissions such as volatile organic formaldehyde) emissions from glulam
credits dependent compounds (VOCs) from materials. and other timber-based products.
on building type
Appendix B B.2
Table B.1 Continued

Hea 05 Acoustic Noise ingress into buildings is influenced by the Advice regarding options for
Number of available performance materials and construction of the building envelope materials and construction.
credits dependent (roof, external walls, windows, façade, etc.)
on building type Acoustic separation between rooms is influenced by
the materials and construction of walls and floors.
Ene 1 Reduction of Energy performance of buildings depends on the Advice regarding options for
15 credits available CO2 emissions thermal performance of the building envelope (roof, materials and construction and how
external walls, windows, façade, etc.), as well as the structure and envelope may thus
floors and ground floor slab. This may include both affect the energy performance of the
thermal conductivity and thermal mass. building.
Ene 4 Low and zero This credit is generally achieved by use of building Awareness of how such technologies
5 credits available carbon integrated renewable energy sources – solar thermal need to be fixed to the structure, the
technologies panels, photovoltaic panels, ground-source heat static and dynamic loads they may
pumps, thermal piles, building mounted wind impose, and the need for
turbines, and by various ‘free cooling’ strategies maintenance access.
such as night-time cooling, earth pipes and Awareness of thermal mass
labyrinths. requirements of free cooling
strategies.
Mat 01 Life cycle To encourage the use of construction materials with Awareness of the content of the BRE
Number of available impacts a low environmental impact (including embodied Green guide to specification and its
credits dependent carbon) over the full life cycle of the building. use of Ecopoints, and the use of the
on building type BREEAM Mat 01 Calculator.
Advice on how the choice of
materials and construction will affect
environmental impact, including
embodied carbon.
Mat 03 Responsible To encourage the specification of responsibly- Advice on material certification
3 credits available sourcing of sourced materials for key building elements, as schemes such as Forest Stewardship
materials demonstrated by third-party certification schemes. Council (FSC) for timber,
All timber used on the project is sourced in specification of recycled materials,
accordance with the UK Government’s Timber and use of the BREEAM Mat 03
Procurement Policy. Calculator.
Mat 04 Insulation To encourage the use of thermal insulation which Awareness of the environmental
2 credits available has a low embodied environmental impact relative to impact of insulation materials
its thermal properties and has been responsibly (though not a structural material,
sourced. insulation is often integral to
structural elements of buildings).
Mat 05 Designing for To encourage adequate protection of exposed Advice on choice of materials and
1 credit available robustness elements of the building and landscape to maximise type of construction to minimise
durability and minimise maintenance and replacement. damage by people, trolleys, vehicles,
This credit does not relate to structural stability. etc.
Wst 01 Construction To promote resource efficiency via the effective To identify opportunities for re-using
4 credits available waste management and reduction of construction waste, on-site demolition arisings, materials
management and to divert demolition arisings and construction recycled after demolition and
waste from landfill sites. building elements reclaimed after
deconstruction.
To advise on choice of materials and
type of construction that can reduce
on-site generation of waste.
Wst 02 Recycled To encourage the use of recycled and secondary Advice on opportunities for using
1 credit available aggregates aggregates, thereby reducing the demand for virgin recycled aggregates and for sourcing
material and enhancing material efficiency in them near to the construction site.
construction.
LE 01 Site selection To encourage the use of previously developed and/or General advice on issues regarding
2 credits available contaminated land and avoid land which has not ground contamination and
been previously disturbed. remediation and potential need for
further specialist advice.
Pol 05 Noise To reduce the likelihood of noise from the new Advice on the noise attenuation
1 credit available attenuation development affecting nearby noise-sensitive properties of different types of
buildings. construction for the building envelope.
Notes
a The credits listed above are only those which impact on the work of the structural engineer to a significant degree.
b Specialist guidance from a BREEAM-accredited professional is essential to ensure the full requirements of each credit are met.
B.3 Appendix B
B.3 LEED Green Building rating system v4 B.4 GREENSTAR offices v3 (2011)
(2013)
GREENSTAR is the environmental assessment tool
LEED (Leadership in Energy and Environmental developed by the Green Building Council of Australia
Design) v4 (2013) is the latest version of the and first used in 2004. It is an adaptation of the
environmental assessment tool first developed by the earlier National Australian Built Environment Rating
US Green Building Council in 1998. System (NABERS).
Four LEED ratings are achievable – Certified, Silver, Six levels of GREENSTAR rating are achievable, from
Gold and Platinum. There are 55 main credits (see one to six stars. There are 64 main credits (see
Table B.2) which are grouped under the following Table B.3) which are grouped under the following
headings: headings:
– Location and transportation: LT – Management: Man
– Sustainable sites: SS – Indoor environment Quality: IEQ
– Water efficiency: WE – Energy: Ene
– Energy and atmosphere: EA – Transport: Tra
– Materials and resources: MR – Water: Wat
– Indoor environmental quality: EQ – Materials: Mat
– Innovation in design: ID – Land use and ecology: Eco
– Regional priority: RP – Emissions: Emi
– Innovation: Inn
Table B.2 Example credits from LEED v4 (2013)

LTc3 High priority site To encourage project location in areas General advice on issues regarding ground
2 points available with development constraints and contamination and remediation and potential
promote the health of the surrounding need for further specialist advice.
area.
SSc5 Heat island To minimise effects on microclimates Advice on roofing materials and construction,
2 points available reduction and human and wildlife habitats by including high albedo (reflective) surfaces and
reducing heat islands. vegetated (green) roofs.
EAp2 Minimum energy To reduce the environmental and Advice regarding options for materials and
Requirement performance economic harms of excessive energy construction and how the structure and
use by achieving a minimum level of envelope may thus affect the energy
energy efficiency for the building and its performance of the building.
systems.
EAc2 Optimize energy As EA Prerequisite 2, above. As EA Prerequisite 2, above.
18 points available performance
EAc5 Renewable energy To reduce the environmental and Awareness of how such technologies need to
3 points available production economic harms associated with fossil be fixed to the structure, the static and
fuel energy by increasing self-supply of dynamic loads they may impose, and the
renewable energy. need for maintenance access.
MRc1 Building life-cycle To encourage adaptive reuse and Advice regarding assessing the structural
5 points available impact reduction optimize the environmental performance performance of all elements of existing
of products and materials. buildings and proposing methods of retaining
them (in whole or in part), if necessary, by
enhancing capacity, stability, fire safety, etc.
and adaptation to include new façades, roof,
building services, lifts, stairs, etc.
Advice on incorporating salvaged, refurbished
or re-used materials in the building structure.
MRp2 Construction and To reduce construction and demolition To identify opportunities for re-using on-site
Requirement demolition waste waste disposed of in landfills and demolition arisings, materials recycled after
management incineration facilities and recovering, demolition and building elements reclaimed
planning reusing, and recycling materials. after deconstruction.
MRc5 Construction and To advise on choice of materials and type of
2 points available demolition waste construction that can reduce on-site
management generation of waste.
MRc3 Building product To encourage the use of products and Advice on incorporating recycled-content
2 points available disclosure and materials for which life cycle information materials and products in structural elements
optimization – is available and that have of the building.
sourcing of raw environmentally, economically, and Advice on sources of structural materials and
materials socially preferable life cycle impacts. To products sourced and manufactured locally.
reward project teams for selecting Advice on the use of wood from responsible
products verified to have been extracted sources, both in the permanent structure and
or sourced in a responsible manner. temporary works and formwork.
Appendix B B.4
Table B.2 Continued

EQc2 Low-emitting To reduce concentrations of chemical Awareness of adhesives and sealants related
3 points available materials contaminants that can damage air to structures that emit harmful amounts of
quality, human health, productivity, and volatile organic compounds (VOCs).
the environment. Awareness of the following that emit (or
whose use may involve products that emit)
harmful amounts of VOCs:
– Adhesives and sealants related to
structures.
– Paints and coatings related to structures
(e.g. glulam varnishes).
– Flooring systems (timber, coatings, sealants
etc.).
– Timber and wood fire (especially
formaldehydes).
EQc5 Thermal comfort To promote occupants’ productivity, Awareness of how thermal mass contributes
1 point available comfort, and well-being by providing to environmental control strategies.
quality thermal comfort.
Notes
b Specialist guidance from a LEED Accredited Professional (AP) is advisable to ensure the full requirements of each credit are met.
c The number of points available for each credit listed are based on new construction.
Table B.3 Example credits from GREENSTAR v3 (2011)

Man 7 Waste To encourage management practices that To identify opportunities for re-using on-
2 points available management minimise the amount of construction waste site demolition arisings, materials recycled
going to disposal. after demolition and building elements
reclaimed after deconstruction.
To advise on choice of materials and type
of construction that can reduce on-site
generation of waste.
IEQ 9 Thermal comfort To encourage and recognise buildings that Advice regarding options for materials and
2 points available achieve a high level of thermal comfort. construction and how the structure and
envelope may thus affect the energy
performance of the building.
IEQ 13 Volatile Organic To encourage and recognise specification of Awareness of materials and finishes
3 points available Compounds interior finishes that minimise the related to structures that emit harmful
contribution and levels of volatile organic amounts of VOCs (e.g. various paints and
compounds (VOCs) in buildings. varnishes).
IEQ 14 Formaldehyde To encourage and recognise the specification Awareness of timber and wood fibre
1 point available minimisation of products with low formaldehyde emission products whose use may involve products
levels. that emit harmful amounts of VOCs
(especially formaldehydes).
Ene Conditional To encourage and recognise designs that Advice regarding options for materials and
Requirement requirement minimise the greenhouse gas emissions construction and how the structure and
associated with operational energy envelope may thus affect the energy
consumption, and maximise potential performance of the building, especially the
operational energy efficiency of the base use of thermal mass in the energy
building. strategy.
Ene 1 Greenhouse gas To encourage and recognise designs that As above.
20 points emissions minimise greenhouse gas emissions
available associated with operational energy
consumption.
Ene 5 Peak energy To encourage and recognise designs that As above.
2 points available demand reduction reduce peak demand on energy supply
infrastructure.
B.5 Appendix B
Table B.3 Continued

Mat 2 Building reuse To encourage the total or partial re-use of Advice regarding assessing the structural
6 points available existing buildings (excl. foundations). performance of all elements of existing
buildings and proposing methods of
retaining them (in whole or in part), if
necessary, by enhancing capacity,
stability, fire safety, etc.
Advice, regarding adaptation to include
new façades, roof, building services, lifts,
stairs, etc.
Mat 3 Reused materials To encourage the use of reclaimed / recycled Advice on incorporating salvaged
1 point available materials in construction. refurbished or re-used materials in the
building structure.
Mat 5 Concrete To reduce the use of cement by use of Advice on the structural and non-
3 points available cement replacement products or oversize structural use of concrete made with
aggregates; to encourage the use of recycled cement replacements and recycled
and secondary aggregates. aggregates.
Mat 6 Steel To encourage the use of reclaimed steel or Advice on the sourcing and use of
2 points available recycled-content steel. reclaimed steel elements.
Mat 8 Timber To encourage the use of responsibly-sourced Guidance on the sourcing and re-use of
2 points available timber, either reclaimed or from certified timber elements, and sources of certified
forests. timber and timber products.
Mat 9 Design for To encourage the design and assembly of Advice on the design of structural frames,
1 point available disassembly structural frames, roofing and façade / roofs and façades that can be easily
cladding systems that can be easily disassembled.
disassembled for re-use or recycling.
Mat 10 Dematerialisation To encourage the significant reduction of Advice on design and construction of
1 point available quantities of building materials used. structural frames substantially lighter than
normal practice.
Eco 1 Topsoil To encourage and recognise construction Awareness of this when designing
1 point available practices that preserve the ecological building foundations and structures.
integrity of topsoil.
Eco 2 Reuse of land To encourage and recognise the re-use of Advice on construction of foundations and
1 point available land that has previously been developed. structures in/on brownfield land.
Eco 3 Reclaimed To encourage and recognise developments General advice on issues regarding
2 points available contaminated land that reclaim contaminated land that ground contamination and remediation
otherwise would not have been developed. and potential need for further specialist
advice.
Notes
b The number of points available for individual credits listed above applies to GREENSTAR Office Design v3 and Office As Built v3.
B.5 References B.5 MINERGIE website. Available at: http://www.minergie.

ch/home_en.html [Accessed: 8 August 2013]
B.1 BREEAM website. Available at: http://www.breeam.org B.6 LEED website. Available at: http://www.usgbc.org/leed
[Accessed: 8 August 2013] [Accessed: 8 August 2013]
B.2 Department for Communities and Local Government. B.7 Green Globes website. Available at: http://www.
Policy: Improving the energy efficiency of buildings greenglobes.com/default.asp [Accessed: 8 August
and using planning to protect the environment. 2013]ˇ
Available at: https://www.gov.uk/government/policies/
improving-the-energy-efficiency-of-buildings-and- B.8 NABERS website. Available at: http://www.nabers.gov.
using-planning-to-protect-the-environment/ au/public/WebPages/Home.aspx [Accessed: 9 August
supporting-pages/code-for-sustainable-homes 2013]
B.9 Green Star website. Available at: http://www.gbca.org.
B.3 DGNB System website. Available at: http://www.dgnb- au/green-star [Accessed: 9 August 2013]
system.de/en [Accessed: 8 August 2013]
B.10 CASBEE website. Available at: http://www.ibec.or.jp/
B.4 L’Association HQE website. Available at: http://assohqe. CASBEE/english [Accessed: 9 August 2013]
org/hqe [Accessed: 8 August 2013]
Appendix B B.5
B.11 BEAM website. Available at: http://www.beamsociety.

org.hk/en_beam_assessment_project_1.php
B.12 Building and Construction Authority Green Mark

scheme website. Available at: http://www.bca.gov.sg/
greenmark/green_mark_buildings.html [Accessed:
9 August 2013]
B.13 BERDE website. Available at: http://berdeonline.org

B.14 Green Star SA Rating System website. http://www.

gbcsa.org.za/rating-tools/green-star-sa-rating-system
B.15 Pearl Rating System website. Available at: http://

estidama.org/pearl-rating-system-v10.aspx?lang=en-
US [Accessed: 9 August 2013]
B.16 TREES Rating System. Available: http://www.tgbi.or.th/

trees.php [Accessed: 9 August 2013]
B.17 GREENSHIP Rating Tools. Available at: http://www.

gbcindonesia.org/2012-08-01-03-25-31/2012-08-
02-03-43-34/rating-tools [Accessed: 9 August
2013]
B.18 Association for Development and Research of

Sustainable Habitats website. Available at: http://www.
grihaindia.org [Accessed: 9 August 2013]
B.19 Processo AQUA website. Available at: http://www.

vanzolini.org.br/hotsite-104.asp?cod_site=104
B.20 Ministry of Construction Green Building Evaluation

Standard – The ‘‘Three Star’’ System. Available at:
http://chinagreenbuildings.blogspot.co.uk/2009/02/
ministry-of-construction-green-building.html [Accessed:
30 August 2013]
B.21 EEWH Assessment System for Building Renovation.

Available at: http://twgbqanda.com/english/e_tgbr.
php?Type=2&menu=e_tgbr_class&pic_dir_list=0
B.22 CEEQUAL website. Available at: http://www.ceequal.

com [Accessed: 9 August 2013]
B.23 Design Quality Indicator website. Available at: http://

www.dqi.org.uk/website/default.aspa [Accessed:
9 August 2013]
B.24 Passivhaus website. Available at: http://www.

passivhaus.org.uk [Accessed: 30 August 2013]
B.25 Institution of Structural Engineers. What is embodied

carbon? Sustainability Briefing 3. Available at:
B.26 BREEAM International website. Available at: http://

www.breeam.org/podpage.jsp?id=367 [Accessed:
9 August 2013]
Appendix C Climate change
C.1 Climate change science and methods. However, the assumptions and choices
that are made are a source of modelling uncertainty,
responses and it is important to understand and take account of
these uncertainties in decision making. Uncertainty is
The need for action not unique to climate, and other future social,
Within the environmental aspects of sustainability, economic and environmental changes can also be
climate change presents the greatest challenge. If not important for the appraisal of decision options within
addressed on a global level, climate change is likely an overall framework of sustainable development.
to make the world of 2100 drastically altered from
that of todayC.1, and the most vulnerable populations Country scale impacts and responses
around the world are likely to suffer the greatest Regional and local climate impacts may vary greatly
impact. from global averages. For local application, many
countries have developed their own more detailed
Responses to reversing the effects of climate change predictions, with a denser grid to give local data for
are of two kinds: design. These may cover wind speeds, rainfall
– Mitigation: reducing environmental impacts to intensity, snow and temperature. These may provide
minimise greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and the a new probabilistic set of predictions, and may
effects of climate change in the first place. require designers to adopt a different approach to
– Adaptation: changing to deal with the impacts of choosing design criteria. These need to be taken into
climate change as it happens. account when predicting the performance of
buildings in the future, even though they have yet to
Clearly it would be self-defeating to adapt to climate be adopted in approved design guidance.
change with systems that might exacerbate it – any
effective approach has to avoid this. Engineers Current climate impacts and near future impacts are
should consider designing buildings now, to adapt to better understood than those that may affect us in
future climate change without needing a the longer term, although extreme events can still be
consequential increase later in GHG emissions – say difficult to predict with certainty. However, even these
from the need to introduce air conditioning – that models are based on low resolution modelling
would only exacerbate climate change further. A (normally 25km) and, although a good indication of
typical example of this is designing for comfortable future regional trends, are still unable to identify clear
internal environments without air-conditioning, local trends.
notwithstanding taking account of the higher average
summer temperatures that may be encountered in As an example, it is predicted that in the UK the
the future. following typical changes to weather patterns may
occurC.3:
To adapt in a sustainable manner, decisions need to – warmer, wetter winters
be based on risk analysis, an understanding of the – hotter, drier summers
vulnerabilities, and an examination of the knock-on – extreme rainfall events happening more frequently
effects, costs and benefits on other buildings, than currently
organisations and the natural environment. In building – rising sea levels
resilience, engineering and design solutions need to – possible intensification of urban heat island effects
avoid being locked into particular approaches, to be – increased wind speed.
flexible enough to deal with changing challenges and
additional unforeseeable factors. Impacts such as these may have an effect
everywhere, but may impact most on hospitals, care
Predictions facilities and residential properties where extreme
Current assumptions on the most probable global high temperatures are a risk to life safety and not just
scenarios are contained in the Fourth Assessment issues of comfort.
Report from the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change (IPCC)C.2. The report concluded that ‘‘most
of the observed increase in global average
temperatures since the mid-20th century is very likely C.2 Location
due to the observed increase in anthropogenic (man-
made) greenhouse gas concentrations’’. The IPCC’s
term ‘‘very likely’’ represents a likelihood of at least Site choice
90%. However, a draft of the Fifth IPCC Assessment It is often not possible to directly influence the choice
Report hints that this term is to be revised to ‘‘virtually of site for projects. However, it can have an
certain’’ – a 99% likelihood that the rise in global enormous impact on the long-term scale of risk from
temperatures is anthropogenic. the impact of climate change influenced weather
events. The impact of storm and tidal events has
The IPCC uses a series of standard scenarios, been highlighted by a number of global disasters that
explored through climate models, to create probable have heightened public awareness of the issue but
climate projections and future climate scenarios. not necessarily provided a realistic assessment of the
Climate models and probable projections and risks involved. A measured approach to risk
scenarios are aimed at allowing users to make more assessment and compliance with the current
robust decisions based on current understanding and planning guidance should be applied. It should be
Appendix C C.3
noted that changes in commercial risk assessments guidance on these requirements is not currently
may impact the value of properties in the future that available to the designer.
are within areas considered vulnerable.
Residential buildings may pose a higher overall risk
Site layout than commercial buildings as these are inhabited for
Site wide planning is most likely outside the scope a greater period of time and may not have the same
and influence of the structural engineer. However an degree of construction control as major projects. It is
awareness of the topic can help when integrating important that an engineered approach to design is
mitigation and adaptation details into buildings. taken. Damage from storm events is often caused by
flying projectiles and so attention may be given to
Flooding buildability and the robustness of elements attached
Sea levels are expected to rise by the end of the to buildings. The approach to cladding, cladding
centuryC.1. If these rises are coupled with increased fixing, or small support structures may follow a similar
storm surges and high tides they may produce more robust approach.
extreme high water levels with consequential flooding.
Local flooding, from increased rain intensity and In hotter climates there are no historic records of
runoff, may also be an issue. significantly higher wind speeds for large scale frontal
storms that are typically experienced in the UK.
Detailing and co-ordination of building services with Although there is no strict trend currently identified,
the structure may also change if flood risk resilience is increased temperatures may lead to increased energy
designed into the building from the outset. Traditional and moisture in the atmosphere and this could lead
methods of routing services may change, e.g. chases to more convective storms (e.g. tornadoes) in the
down from ceilings rather than up from floors. futureC.1.
Buildings must also avoid obstructing flood flows and The determination of the likelihood of these is a very
make surrounding flooding worse. In particular, this specialist topic and engineers may seek additional
means not building (or at least not at ground level – advice from climate scientists on this matter if it is of
building on stilts might be possible) in flood plains. concern. Future updates to wind load codes may well
refine the approach if trends do emerge but currently
Urban Heat Island (UHI) effect a robust and diligent application of current wind loads
Cities and towns can be much hotter than the is more appropriate than speculation on possible
countryside due to heat island impacts. With climate higher speeds.
change, towns and cities may become even hotter as
heat is absorbed and re-emitted from more Ground movements
absorbent hard surfaces. Designing to reduce urban Excessive wet or dry periods can lead to changes in
heat island impact is already part of planning soil behaviour and therefore impact the foundations
guidance and the main reason why green or brown of buildings. The long-term impact on the
roofs and less hard-standing for landscaping is performance of building foundations in identified
becoming a more common element in new city climate scenarios can be considered. Similarly longer
design. wetter seasons may saturate the ground and lead to
flooding, especially if associated with cooler ground
temperatures.
C.3 Building design There are no hard-and-fast rules on this, and expert
geotechnical advice may need to be sought where
this is considered to be a major risk.
Design live loads
Loading criteria determine the scale of structural Materials
solutions. Lower loads would therefore help reduce Simple efficiency of structure may help both reduce
the use of materials and the energy (and hence CO2 resource depletion and save energy by lowering the
emissions) associated with the manufacture of consumption of manufactured materials. Efficiency
materials. This approach may at the same time limit during construction would have a similar impact by
the options for future adaptability and reduce the reducing waste and transportation impacts. These
possibility for longer use. aims though are no more than the engineer’s
traditional role in producing economic and efficient
Any approach reducing loads must use due care to structures. It is misleading to suggest that being
satisfy appropriate national Building Regulations. efficient is somehow a new design aspiration for
Where possible the structural engineer may identify sustainability.
where loads can be safely limited or how they might
even be increased to provide for additional future However, it is necessary to be clear that this
flexibility. Ultimately the choice of either of these paths efficiency is based on a like-for-like reduction and not
will require the exercise of engineering judgement in simply including lower volumes of higher impact
light of the requirements of the project, and need to materials to reduce the volume of materials but not
be discussed with the client in terms to be clear on the overall embodied energy.
whether it may impact on the commercial value of the
development. There are many new tools and guidance available
that can help the structural engineer to make more
Wind loads informed choices of materials and systems to lower
Some climate change modelsC.1, C.4 predict increased the material impacts of structures. It should be noted
frequency of extreme weather events and possible that some of these, e.g. the BRE Green guide
increased wind speeds. Changes to future weather ratingsC.5, deal with a ‘basket’ of environmental
patterns may alter the specific design requirements issues and not solely embodied energy or embodied
for whole buildings and elements but specific carbon dioxide.
C.4 Appendix C
Where more detailed analysis of the whole building is suffer from severe over-heating and consequential
required, more specialist advice may be sought on health problems. To mitigate these impacts, a range
ratings and measurement of embodied impacts. of approaches can be taken. These include using
However, the structural engineer may consider the elevated design temperatures and appropriate glazed
environmental impacts inherent in the selection of percentages or forms to reduce internal heat gains.
overall structural systems.
When reviewing buildings for refurbishment the same
Thermal mass approach may be used to ensure the building is able
Structural engineers can establish how the building to cope with these temperatures.
structure can be used as an active part of the overall
energy strategy and cooling system.
Thermal mass can be increased to provide a time lag C.5 Energy generation
duration of months, not just days. Buried and partially
buried buildings and heat spacing systems can
deliberately slow the heat flow so that the heat is Building integrated renewable energy
effectively stored for a season. The location and size Energy transmission is not completely efficient.
of the thermal mass in the building envelope changes Resources are expended by transporting energy from
the building’s thermal behaviour and must be tailored location to location, whether by losses in electricity
to suit the conditions of the building location, shape, generation, resistance in electric transmission grids,
use and climate. Incorrectly placed it may not help or transportation of gas/fuel oil/coal.
the building’s thermal responses and may even
amplify problems. If the energy is generated/collected in the same
location as it is used, this minimises transmission
The design of thermal mass must be undertaken with losses and reliance on external infrastructure. The
a full understanding of the overall cooling strategy applicability of any renewable energy system to a
and life cycle impacts of the materials required. building depends on local conditions. Whilst these
Thermal mass is not effective, for instance, with the may not in themselves be the primary responsibility of
use of most typical air-conditioning systems or when the structural engineer, their support and working
ceiling systems are used. Advice can be found in the efficiency can be influenced by the structural system
Concrete Centre’s guide Thermal mass explained C.6 and should therefore be understood by the engineer.
which provides a general introduction to the building Details of renewable systems and the structural
physics and systems available. engineer’s involvement are shown in Table C.1.
Envelope design Further details on these technologies can be found in

The use of the building envelope to keep buildings Renewable energyC.8.
comfortable without the need for supplementary
cooling or heating is a primary method of cutting
energy use. Specialist façade design can look at the
arrangement, size and performance of the façade C.6 Interactions with other urban utilities
systems and its impact on daylight and internal and infrastructure
comfort.
Building Regulations in the UK, specified in Part LC.7, Drainage

have increased the minimum performance of building Building roofs and surrounding impermeable areas
designs; they may continue to increase and therefore need effective drainage. They directly increase rainfall
require greater thermal efficiency of the façade. These run-off into drainage channels, streams and rivers,
requirements may influence the style of façade and can worsen flooding. A range of measures can
systems and therefore the methods and materials be taken to reduce or eliminate run-off, and
used. Structural engineers, if not engaged with the increasingly, using these may be a requirement for
façade design itself, can help with accommodating planning permission. They include using ‘green roofs’
the systems economically. to hold water, and using Sustainable Urban Drainage
Systems (SUDS) to reduce and store peak run-off. In
the UK useful information is available from CIRIA
(Susdrain)C.9, the Chartered Institution of Water and
C.4 Ventilation and cooling Environmental ManagementC.10 and the Environment
AgencyC.11.
The requirement to reduce operational energy Water

Reduction of the energy required to heat or cool a Climate change is also predicted to increase water
building using the fabric, orientation and form of the scarcityC.12. In areas developing ‘water stress’,
building is the highest priority for design. Increased buildings may be expected to minimise water use,
average temperature and changes to humidity levels and utilise alternative resources such as rainwater
may accelerate rotting of timber and change the harvesting and water re-use. Engineers may consult
ventilation/condensation behaviour of insulation layers local environmental agenciesC.13, regulatorsC.14, and
and ventilated roof spaces. Increased average water utilities for information.
temperatures may accelerate degradation of building
polymers including membranes. Mobility and transport
Transport to and from buildings accounts for a
Overheating substantial part of overall carbon emissions. Location
Where buildings have not been designed for of buildings near to transport nodes that allow easy
escalated temperatures or where the façade includes use of public transport or cycling may help to lower
large areas of south-facing glass, buildings could the overall impact of the use of the building.
Appendix C C.7
Table C.1 Renewable systems and the structural engineer’s input

Renewable system System considerations What structural engineers can do
Solar thermal (hot Pipes can be placed inside the outer surface of the Advise on the fixing and capacity of roofs to carry
water) systems envelope, if that outer surface has high thermal the system.
absorption and transmission.
Photovoltaics Efficiency depends on the amount of insolation, Advise on the fixing and capacity of roofs to carry
and the area of building envelope available facing the system.
the most efficient direction for capturing the
insolation.
Wind turbines Efficiency depends on reliability and average wind Advise on the basic modelling of wind flows
speeds at the building location and the size of the around the building to provide information on
turbine. Building integrated systems are placed viability, the effect of vibrations on building frame
beyond the building envelope, commonly on roof and fixings or foundations of systems.
ridge lines and tops of high buildings, to maximise
the wind speed and allow for rotation in horizontal
axis turbines.
Ground source heat System is difficult to retrofit since ‘building’ pipes Be aware that ‘ground’ pipes may interfere with
pumps of the closed circuit are often built into ground foundations if placed underneath the building
floor. This requires heat pump equipment, a large footprint, and advise on the potential for differential
surface area for the ‘ground’ pipes and an settlement between building and surroundings if
insulated building. ‘ground’ pipes are placed outside the building.
Geothermal Can be used in limited geographical locations to Advise as to suitability of local ground conditions
provide renewable energy. for efficient operation of geothermal installations.
Biogas and sustainably Available supply of such fuels is still limited, even Advise on structural design of installation.
sourced biomass if the total is increasing.
Small-scale Can be used in limited geographical locations to Advise on structural design of installation.
hydroelectric provide renewable energy.
C.7 Commercial impacts of climate C.5 Anderson, J. et al. The Green guide to specification:
change an environmental profiling system for building materials
and components. BR501. 4th ed. Watford/Chichester:
IHS BRE Press/Wiley-Blackwell, 2009
In addition to the technical issues that have been
noted, there are potential commercial impacts C.6 The Concrete Centre. Thermal mass explained.
caused by climate change on the value of buildings. Thermal mass: what it is and how it’s used.
The adoption of design for future climate change Camberley: The Concrete Centre, 2012
can therefore be seen as a risk reduction exercise.
There may be a large variation in these impacts and C.7 HM Government. UK Building Regulations 2010.
possibly no current specific guidance. An example Conservation of fuel and power. Approved Document
of this is an impact on the EPBD (Energy L1A: Conservation of fuel and power (New dwellings);
Performance of Buildings Directive) building rating if Approved Document L1B: Conservation of fuel and
only minimum energy efficiency performance has power (Existing dwellings); Approved Document L2A:
been met. Conservation of fuel and power (New buildings other
than dwellings); Approved Document L2B:
Conservation of fuel and power (Existing buildings
other than dwellings). Available at: http://www.
C.8 References planningportal.gov.uk/buildingregulations/
approveddocuments/partl/approved [Accessed:
30 August 2013]
C.1 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Managing
the risks of extreme events and disasters to advance C.8 Boyle, G. Renewable energy: power for a sustainable
climate change adaptation. 2012. Available at: http:// future. 3rd ed. Oxford: OUP, 2012
ipcc-wg2.gov/SREX [Accessed: 9 August 2013]
C.9 Susdrain website. Available at: http://www.susdrain.org
C.2 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. IPCC [Accessed: 9 August 2013]
Fourth Assessment Report: climate change 2007.
Available at: http://www.ipcc.ch/publications_and_data/ C.10 Chartered Institution of Water and Environmental
publications_and_data_reports.shtml [Accessed: Management website. Available at: http://www.ciwem.
9 August 2013] org [Accessed: 9 August 2013]
C.3 What is UKCP09? Available at: http:// C.11 Environment Agency planning resources website.
ukclimateprojections.defra.gov.uk [Accessed: 9 August Available at: http://www.environment-agency.gov.uk/
2013] research/planning/33368.aspx [Accessed: 9 August
2013]
C.4 Institution of Structural Engineers. Climate change and
wind speeds. Sustainability Briefing 19. Available at: C.12 Pacific Institute and United Nations Global Compact.
www.istructe.org/sustainability-briefing-notes Climate change and the global water crisis: what
[Accessed: 9 August 2013] businesses need to know and do. 2009. Available at:
C.9 Appendix C
http://www.unglobalcompact.org/docs/issues_doc/
Environment/ceo_water_mandate/UNGC-PI_climate-
water_whitepaper_FINAL.pdf [Accessed: 9 August
2013]
C.13 Environment Agency offices webpage. Available at:

http://www.environment-agency.gov.uk/contactus/
36324.aspx [Accessed: 9 August 2013]
C.14 OFWAT website. Available at: http://www.ofwat.gov.uk

C.9 Bibliography
Gething, W. and Puckett, K. Design for climate change. London:

Nethercot, D.A. ‘Climate change: the structural engineers’

response’. The Structural Engineer, 81(7), 7 January 2003,
pp24-28
Roaf, S. et al. Adapting buildings and cities for climate change:

a 21st century survival guide. Oxford: Architectural Press/
Elsevier, 2005
Smith, P.F. Building for a changing climate: the challenge for

construction, planning and energy. London: Earthscan, 2010
Stern, N. The Economics of climate change: the Stern review.

Cambridge: CUP, 2007
Szokolay, S.V. Introduction to architectural science – the basis of

sustainable design. 2nd ed. London: Architectural Press, 2008
[3rd edition due 2014]
Vivian, S. et al. Climate change risks in building: an

introduction. CIRIA C638. London: CIRIA, 2005
Glossary
Term Definition
Agenda 21 Agenda 21 is a voluntarily-implemented sustainable development action plan, drawn up following the
Rio de Janeiro United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED), held in 1992. It has
since been amended and re-confirmed by its signatories at subsequent UN environmental and climate
change conferences. It lists actions that can be implemented by the UN, national governments and other
organisations at local, national and global levels. The ‘21’ refers to the 21st century, during which it was
created.
Brise-soleil English-language derivative of French term ‘pare-soleil ’; plural ‘brise-soleil ’. A variety of permanent sun-
shading features, either fixed or operable, mounted on the outside of a building to provide shading to
windows or glazed areas. Their most common purpose is to prevent excessive solar gain through highly-
glazed façades, thus reducing heat build-up in the building during the summer. Brise-soleil may be louvred
in order to shield the building from high-angle sun in the summer months, while also allowing a degree of
passive solar heating from low-angle sun in the winter. They may also be used to prevent glare problems
due to direct incident sunlight, however a balance needs to be struck in their design as to how much shade
is provided and how much natural daylight is admitted.
Brownfield site Previously used or derelict industrial or commercial land, available for re-use. The re-development of such
sites will usually involve initial contamination survey work, possibly followed by remediation measures. Some
assessment methodologies may grant credits for the use of brownfield sites in order to encourage their use,
rather than using virgin ‘greenfield’ sites.
Carbon accounting The process undertaken to measure the amount of carbon dioxide (or its equivalents) that is anticipated to
be released to atmosphere as a result of a project being undertaken. Carbon accounting is increasingly
being used in parallel to traditional monetary accounting, in recognition of the fact that environmental
impacts need to be taken into account as well as financial considerations.
Embodied carbon The carbon dioxide released when a product is manufactured, transported to a project site and installed.
Embodied carbon calculations consider the entire project, and take into account issues such as site
disturbance, landscape restoration and ecosystem installation, the scale of the development and the base
materials used in the construction.
Embodied energy The total primary energy consumed during resource extraction, transportation, manufacturing and fabrication
of a product. Embodied energy is usually calculated as the energy used within the boundaries of ‘cradle-to-
gate’ (factory gate) or ‘cradle-to-site’ (site of use), in order to distinguish it from operational energy – the
energy used in operation or use of the product. Embodied carbon is calculated within the same boundaries,
but refers to the carbon dioxide emitted by the use of the primary energy source.
Global Reporting GRI is a global network-based not-for-profit organisation that aims to encourage social, environmental and
Initiative (GRI) economic sustainability. It has produced a holistic sustainability reporting framework, which it promotes for
use by companies and other organisations globally.
Global warming A measure of the potential of a gas to absorb and re-radiate solar (thermal) energy. GWP depends on the
potential (GWP) molecular structure of the gas and its active lifespan within the atmosphere. GWP is measured relative to
the equivalent mass of carbon dioxide over a given timescale. Carbon dioxide is used as the benchmark
greenhouse gas, and is defined as having a GWP of 1 over all time periods.
Green Building National organisations, whose mission is to encourage and facilitate the global transformation of
Councils construction towards sustainability. There are currently over ninety national Green Building Councils, forming
a global network known as the World Green Building Council.
Greenhouse gases Gases present in the Earth’s atmosphere that absorb solar radiation within the infrared region of the
(GHGs) spectrum, reducing the rate of release of energy back into space, thereby leading to global temperature
increase. This energy entrapment process is known as the ‘greenhouse’ effect. The principal greenhouse
gases are considered to be water vapour, carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide and ozone.
Institution of Civil Document first published in 2003 by the Institution of Civil Engineers, which proposes possible approaches
Engineers Demolition for maximising the efficient use of materials associated with demolition and construction activities. It
Protocol includes a decision-making framework which emphasises the need to re-use, then recycle, with disposal to
landfill as a last resort.
Life cycle analysis A holistic technique, also known as life cycle assessment or ‘cradle-to-grave’ analysis, to assess the full
(LCA) range of impacts associated with all stages of a process – from raw material gathering, through material
processing, manufacture, distribution, operation, repair and maintenance, and disposal or recycling. The
objective of LCA is to provide an overall or long-term view of a project or process, thus helping to avoid the
making of inappropriate decisions based on short-term criteria only. LCA typically involves the compilation of
an inventory of energy and material inputs and discharges into the environment. The impacts associated
with the identified inputs and discharges can then be evaluated and the outcomes interpreted, thereby
providing a better-informed basis on which to make decisions.
vi The Institution of Structural Engineers Building for a sustainable future: An engineer’s guide
Term Definition
Solar gain The increase in temperature within an enclosed space, caused by incident solar radiation. Typically, short
wavelength solar radiation will enter a building through glazed areas of the façade and be absorbed by the
internal fabric. This energy then re-radiates at longer wavelengths and cannot escape through the building
envelope, thus leading to a rise in internal temperature. This effect can be used beneficially in cold
climates, as it will help reduce the energy required for internal space heating. Conversely, it can be
detrimental in hot climates, through increasing the amount of energy needed to comfort cool the building.
Sustainability A document commonly required by planning authorities and produced by project teams in support of
statement planning applications, in order to demonstrate that agreed local sustainability objectives will be met. A
sustainability statement will typically aim to demonstrate that a particular development will support or help
to regenerate the local economy; reinforce local neighbourhoods and communities; provide a range of
transport options and inclusive access to the development; protect and enhance the local natural
environment and resources, and do this through the integration of high quality design and construction.
Triple bottom line The triple bottom line is a measure of the sustainability of a project or undertaking, which takes into
account the three dimensions of social, environmental and economic performance. These three dimensions
are also occasionally referred to as the ‘three Ps’, namely People, Planet and Profit.
Zero carbon A building may be said to be ‘zero carbon’, to have a ‘zero carbon footprint’, or to be ‘carbon neutral’, if it
results in no additional carbon dioxide or carbon dioxide equivalent emissions being discharged to
atmosphere due to its initial construction and subsequent operation. In reality, this is extremely difficult to
achieve. As a result, the term ‘zero carbon’ tends to be used more loosely to mean that no additional
carbon dioxide emissions are created as a result of the building’s operation only.
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Building for a sustainable future:

Table 1.1 The fundamental differences between the ‘green’

Continuing along the path towards enhanced

List of tables v 5.6 Embodied carbon 19

9 Choice of materials and technologies 42

Appendix A How structural engineers can contribute to

Appendix B Sustainability assessment

Appendix C Climate change 68

1.1 What is sustainability? visualise economic, social and environmental

Figure 1.1 The triple bottom line of sustainability

This document highlights specifically what structural

Although it is environmental sustainability which first

This Guide deals with aspects of sustainability only,

RIBA 2013 stage

2 Develop energy-efficiency requirements

3 Select materials for low

Ensure that waste minimisation Directly re-use

6 Check that manuals describe efficient Relevant design documents

Confirm client/tenant is familiar with energy-efficient

7 Carry out yearly audits and

Figure 1.2 Sustainable building design – critical stages

1.1 World Commission on Environment and Development.

1.2 Institution of Structural Engineers. What is

1.3 James, S. and Lahti, T. The Natural step for

1.4 Stern, N. The Economics of climate change: the Stern

1.5 Dresner, S. The Principles of sustainability. 2nd ed.

1.6 Watermeyer, R.B. ‘Poverty reduction responses to the

1.7 Institution of Structural Engineers. How to carry out a

The structural engineer may be able to help meet

Particular attention needs to be given to the potential

Issues of functionality, health, safety, security, comfort

During construction, structural engineers can meet

Typically these need to be addressed in the context

Figure 2.2 shows the Ayensudo kindergarten, based on

By achieving a balance of environmental, social and

2.4 Climate change impacts

Within an overall sustainability approach, the design

Advice on this will continuously develop and

2.5 Hierarchy of the sustainable approach

In summary, the sustainable approach may be

Bull, J.W. ed. ICE manual of structural design: buildings.

3.1 The client and sustainable – Undertake a cost-benefit analysis of various

Table 3.1 Drivers towards sustainable construction

Table 3.2 Example target criteria for building development

3.4 References 3.16 IStructE Structural Awards website. Available at:

4.1 Planning policies 2002/91/EC4.2 to require all EU countries to develop

CEN/TC 350 is part of the European Committee

Two of these standards which are of particular 4.4 International policies

Potential for re-use, recovery

Operational energy use

Operational water use

4.7 ISO 14040: 2006: Environmental management – Life

4.8 ISO 21931-1:2010: Sustainability in building

4.9 FIDIC. Project sustainability management guidelines.

4.10 IPD. IPD environment code: measuring the

5.1 Holistic design

Chapter 2 discussed the complexity of the issues that

From the point of view of environmental

For socio-economic sustainability, engineers may

Economically and financially, the team need to check

One feature of adopting a holistic approach as

would have to pay for extensive survey work to be

The stored data in the BIM model can also help in