Industrial Plant Engineering Elements

Thermodynamics: Is a branch of physical sciences that treat various phenomena of energy and
the related properties of matter, especially of the Laws of transformations of heat in the forms
of energy and vice versa.

Temperature: Is an indication or degree of hotness and coldness and therefor the measure of
intensity heat.

Absolute Temperature: Is the temperature measured from absolute zero.

Absolute Zero: Is the temperature at which the molecules stop moving.

Temperature Interval: Is the difference between two temperature readings from the scale, and
the change in temperature through which body is heated.

Absolute Pressure: Is the true pressure measured above perfect vacuum.

Gage pressure: is the pressure measured from the level of atmospheric pressure by most
pressure recording instrument like pressure gage and open ended manometer.

Atmospheric Pressure: Is the pressure obtained from barometric reading.

THERMODYMIC SYSTEM AND SURROUNDING

System: Is the term given to the collection of matter under consideration enclosed within
boundary.

Surrounding: Is the region outside the boundary or the space and matter external to a system.

Closed system: Is a system in which there is no transfer of matter across boundary.

Open system: Is a system in which there is a flow of matter through the boundary.

Isolated system: Is a system in which neither mass nor energy cross the boundaries and its not
influenced by the surrounding.

Nonflow process: Is a process that takes place in closed system. ( e.g. compressor)
𝟐
Non Flow Work – Is the Work in a non flow process. 𝑾𝒏 = ∫𝟏 𝑷𝒅𝒗 = 𝑷( 𝑽𝟐 − 𝑽𝟏)
Steady Flow process: Is a process that takes place in a n open system. In which the quantity of
matter within the system is constant. ( e.g. turbine/ pump).

Steady Flow Work – Is the Work in a steady flow process.

𝟐
𝑾𝒔 = (−) ∫ 𝑽𝒅𝒑 = 𝑽( 𝑷𝟏 − 𝑷𝟐)
𝟏

HEAT AND ENTROPY

Law of conservation of mass: The mass entering the system is equal to the sum of the stored
mass and the mass leaves the system.

𝒎𝟏 = 𝒎𝟐 + ∆𝒎

Heat: is a form of energy associated with the kinetic random of motion in large number of
molecules.

Sensible Heat: Is the heat needed to change the temperature of the body without changing its
phase.

𝑸𝒔 = 𝒎𝑪𝒑 ∆𝑻

Latent Heat: Is the Heat needed by the body to change it phase without changing the
temperature.

𝑸𝑳 = ±𝒎𝑳

Latent Heat of Fusion: solid to liquid ( Lf of Ice = 144 BTU/Ib)

Latent Heat of Vaporization: Liquid to gas. (Lv of water = 970 BTU/lb)

Entropy: Is the measure of randomness of the molecules of a substance.

Enthalpy: Is the heat energy transferred to a substance at a constant pressure process.

Internal Energy: Is the energy stored within the body. It is the sum of the kinetic energies of all
its constituent particles plus the sum of all the potential energies of the interaction among this
particle.

𝑯 = 𝑼 + 𝑷𝑽
LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

1st Law of Thermodynamics: Energy cannot be created nor destroyed, it can only be
transformed from one from to another.

Sum Energy Entering the system = Sum of Energy Leaving the System

𝑷𝑬𝟏 + 𝑲𝑬𝟏 + 𝑯𝟏 + 𝑸 = 𝑷𝑬𝟐 + 𝑲𝑬𝟐 + 𝑯𝟐 + 𝑾

2nd Law of Thermodynamics: Heat cannot be transferred from cold body to hot body without
an input work. It is similar state that heat cannot be converted 100% into work.

Clausius Statement applied to heat pump: It is impossible to construct a heat pump that
operates without an input work.

Kelvin- Plank statement applied to heat engine: It is impossible to construct a heat engine
which operates in a cycle and receives a given amount of heat from high temperature body and
does equal amount of work.

3rd Law of Thermodynamics: The total entropy of pure substance approaches zero as the
absolute thermodynamic temperature approaches zero. ( the third body usually thermometer).

Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics: When any two bodies are in thermal equilibrium with the
third body, they are in thermal equilibrium with each other.

Ideal Gas or Perfect Gas: Is a theoretically ideal gas which strictly follows Boyles and Charles
Law of Gases.

𝑷𝑽 = 𝒎𝑹𝑻

Relationship Between Cp,Cv,k and R

𝑪𝒑
𝑪𝒑 − 𝑪𝒗 = 𝑹 =𝒌
𝑪𝒗

𝑹
𝑪𝑽 = 𝒌−𝟏 𝑪𝒑 = (𝒌𝑹)/(𝒌 − 𝟏)

Boyles Law: In a confined gas, if the absolute temperature is held constant, the volume is
inversely proportional to the absolute pressure.
 𝑷𝟏𝑽𝟏 = 𝑷𝟐𝑽𝟐

Charles Law: In a confined gas, if the absolute pressure is held constant the volume is directly
proportional to the absolute temperature. In a confined gas, if the volume is held constant, the
absolute pressure is directly proportional to the absolute temperature.

𝑽𝟏 𝑽𝟐
=
𝑻𝟏 𝑻𝟐

General Gas Law ( Combined Gas Law of Boyles and Charles Law): Each of these laws states
how many quantity remains unchanged, but if the three quantities change simultaneously, it is
necessary to combined these law in order to determine the final condition of the gas.

𝑷𝟏𝑽𝟏 𝑷𝟐𝑽𝟐
=
𝑻𝟏 𝑻𝟐

Dalton Law of Partial pressure: The pressure exerted in a vessel by a mixture of gases is equal
to the sum of the pressures that each separate gas would exert if it alone occupied the whole
volume of the vessel.

𝑷 = 𝑷𝟏 + 𝑷𝟐 + 𝑷𝟑+. . 𝑷𝒏

Avogadros Law: At equal volume, at the same temperature and pressure condition, the gases
contain the same number of molecules.

𝒎𝟏 𝑴𝟏
=
𝒎𝟐 𝑴𝟐

THERMODYNAMIC PROCESSES

Processes: Whenever a system undergoes change, it said to have describe a process.

Reversible process: Is one in which both the system and the surrounding are returned to the
original state, otherwise it is irreversible.

Cyclic Process: A process which gives the same states and condition after the system undergoes
a series of process.

Quasi static process: Is one in which system departs from equilibrium state only infinitesimally
at every instant.
PROCESS OF IDEAL GAS

Isometric or Isochoric or Isovolumic Process: Isometric process is an internally reversible

constant volume process of a working substance.
𝑷𝟏 𝑷𝟐
- PV and T relation ( V=C) =
𝑻𝟏 𝑻𝟐
𝟐
- Non Flow work 𝑾𝒏 = ∫𝟏 𝑷𝒅𝒗 = 𝟎
𝟐
- Steady Flow 𝑾𝒔 = (−) ∫𝟏 𝑽𝒅𝒑 = 𝑽( 𝑷𝟏 − 𝑷𝟐)
- Change in Internal energy ∆𝑼 = 𝒎𝑪𝒗∆𝑻
- Change in enthalpy ∆𝑯 = 𝒎𝑪𝒑∆𝑻
- Heat Transferred 𝑸 = ∆𝑼
𝑻𝟐
- Change in Entropy ∆𝑺 = 𝒎𝑪𝒗 𝒍𝒏 (𝑻𝟏)

Isobaric Process: Is an internally reversible constant pressure process of working a working

substance.
𝑽𝟏 𝑽𝟐
- PV and T relation ( P=C) =
𝑻𝟏 𝑻𝟐
𝟐
- Non Flow work 𝑾𝒏 = ∫𝟏 𝑷𝒅𝒗 = 𝑷 ( 𝑽𝟐 − 𝑽𝟏)
- Steady Flow 𝑾𝒔 = 𝟎
- Change in Internal energy ∆𝑼 = 𝒎𝑪𝒗∆𝑻
- Change in enthalpy ∆𝑯 = 𝒎𝑪𝒑∆𝑻
- Heat Transferred 𝑸 = ∆𝑼 + 𝑾𝒏 = ∆𝑯
𝑻𝟐
- Change in Entropy ∆𝑺 = 𝒎𝑪𝒗 𝒍𝒏 (𝑻𝟏)

Isothermal process: Is an internally reversible constant temperature process of a working

substance.

- PV and T relation ( T=C) 𝑷𝟏𝑽𝟏 = 𝑷𝟐𝑽𝟐

𝟐 𝑽𝟐
- Non Flow work 𝑾𝒏 = ∫𝟏 𝑷𝒅𝒗 = 𝑷𝟏𝑽𝟏 𝒍𝒏(𝑽𝟐)
𝟐 𝑽𝟐
- Steady Flow 𝑾𝒔 = (−) ∫𝟏 𝑷𝒅𝒗 = 𝑷𝟏𝑽𝟏 𝒍𝒏(𝑽𝟐)
- Change in Internal energy ∆𝑼 = 𝟎
- Change in enthalpy ∆𝑯 = 𝟎
 - Heat Transferred 𝑸 = 𝟎
𝑽𝟐
- Change in Entropy ∆𝑺 = 𝒎𝑹 𝒍𝒏 (𝑻𝟏𝑽𝟏)

Isentropic Process: Is an internally reversible process constant entropy process of a working

substance. It is also known as reversible adiabatic process

- Pressure and Volume: 𝑷𝑽𝒌 = 𝑪 ; 𝑷𝟏𝑽𝟏𝒌 = 𝑷𝟐𝑽𝟐𝒏𝒌

𝑻𝟏 𝑽𝟐 𝒌−𝟏
- Temperature and Volume: =( )
𝑻𝟐 𝑽𝟏
𝑻𝟏 𝑽𝟐 (𝒌−𝟏)/𝒌
- Temperature and Pressure: =( )
𝑻𝟐 𝑽𝟏
𝑷𝟐𝑽𝟐−𝑷𝟏𝑽𝟏
- Non Flow Work: Wn=
𝟏−𝒌
𝑷𝟐𝑽𝟐−𝑷𝟏𝑽𝟏
- Steady Flow: k Wn = k
𝟏−𝒌
- Change in Internal Energy: ∆𝑼 = 𝒎𝑪𝒗∆𝑻
- Change in Entropy : ∆𝑯 = 𝒎𝑪𝒑∆𝑻
- Heat Transferred : 𝑸 = 𝟎
- Change in Entropy : ∆𝑺 = 𝟎

Polytropic process: Is an internally reversible process during which 𝑃𝑉 𝑛 = 𝐶. Where n is

constant.

- Pressure and Volume: 𝑷𝑽𝒏 = 𝑪 ; 𝑷𝟏𝑽𝟏𝒏 = 𝑷𝟐𝑽𝟐𝒏

𝑻𝟏 𝑽𝟐 𝒏−𝟏
- Temperature and Volume: =( )
𝑻𝟐 𝑽𝟏
𝑻𝟏 𝑽𝟐 (𝒏−𝟏)/𝒏
- Temperature and Pressure: =( )
𝑻𝟐 𝑽𝟏
𝑷𝟐𝑽𝟐−𝑷𝟏𝑽𝟏
- Non Flow Work: Wn=
𝟏−𝒏
𝑷𝟐𝑽𝟐−𝑷𝟏𝑽𝟏
- Steady Flow: n Wn = n
𝟏−𝒏
- Change in Internal Energy: ∆𝑼 = 𝒎𝑪𝒗∆𝑻
- Change in Entropy : ∆𝑯 = 𝒎𝑪𝒑∆𝑻
- Heat Transferred : 𝑸 = 𝒎𝑪𝒏∆𝑻
𝑻𝟐
Change in Entropy : ∆𝑺 = 𝒎𝑪𝒏 𝒍𝒏(𝑻𝟏)
TWO PHASE SYSTE, ( PURE – SUBSTANCE)

Pure Substance – Is a working substance that has homogenous and invariable chemical
composition even though there is a change of phase.

Working Substance: is a substance which energy can be stored or which energy can be
removed.

PURE SUBSTANCE PROPERTIES

Saturation Temperature: is the temperature at which liquid start to boil and vapor start to
condense.

Subcooled liquid: Is a liquid whose temperature is lower than the saturation temperature
corresponding to the given pressure.

Compressed Liquid: Is a liquid whose pressure is higher than the saturation pressure
corresponding to the given temperature.

Saturated Liquid: Is a liquid at the saturation temperature or pressure whose temperature is

equal to the boiling point corresponding to the given pressure. It has no vapor content.

Vapor: Is the Term given to a gaseous phase that is in contact with the liquid phase.

Saturated Vapor: Is a vapor at saturation temperature and pressure has no liquid or moisture
content.

Superheated Vapor: Is a vapor at saturation temperature and pressure has no liquid or

moisture content.

Degree Superheat: Is the difference between the actual superheated temperature and the
saturation temperature.

Degree subcooled: Is the difference between the saturation temperature and actual subcooled
temperature.

Wet Vapor: Is a mixture of saturated vapor and saturated liquid.

Quality Wet Vapor: Is the fraction or percentage by weight that is saturated vapor. It is the
ratio of mass of saturated vapor to the total mass of the mixture
 𝑥 = 𝑚𝑔/𝑚𝑡 ;

where: x quality of wet vapor ; mg mass of vapor ; mt mass of mixture ( wet vapor)

Percentage Moisture: Is the fraction or percentage by weight that is saturated liquid. It is the
ratio of the mass of saturated liquid to the total mass of the mixture.

𝑦 = 𝑚𝑓/𝑚𝑡 ;

where: y is percentage moisture ; mf mass of liquid ; mt mass of mixture ( wet vapor)

Critical Point: Is a point that represents the pressure and temperature at which liquid and
vapor can coexist in equilibrium.

PROPERTIES OF MIXTURE (WET VAPOR/ STEAM)

1. 𝑉 = 𝑉𝑓 + 𝑥 𝑉𝑓𝑔 5. 𝑉𝑓𝑔 = 𝑉𝑔 − 𝑉𝑓
2. 𝑢 = 𝑢𝑓 + 𝑥 𝑢𝑓𝑔 6. 𝑢𝑓𝑔 = 𝑢𝑔 − 𝑢𝑓
3. ℎ = ℎ𝑓 + 𝑥 ℎ𝑓𝑔 7. ℎ𝑓𝑔 = ℎ𝑔 − ℎ𝑓
4. 𝑆 = 𝑆𝑓 + 𝑥 𝑆𝑓𝑔 8. 𝑆𝑓𝑔 = 𝑆𝑔 − 𝑆𝑓

Where:
v = specific volume x = quality
u = specific internal energy f = fluid
h= specific enthalpy fg = mixture change by evaporation
s = specific entrpy y = % moisture

PROCESS INVOLVING PURE SUBSTANCE

Isometric or Isochoric or Isovolumic Process: Isometric process is an internally reversible

constant volume process of a pure substance.
𝟐
- Non Flow work 𝑾𝒏 = ∫𝟏 𝑷𝒅𝒗 = 𝟎
𝟐
- Steady Flow 𝑾𝒔 = (−) ∫𝟏 𝑽𝒅𝒑 = 𝑽( 𝑷𝟏 − 𝑷𝟐)

𝑾𝒔 = 𝑸 − ∆𝑲𝑬 − ∆𝑷𝑬 − ∆𝑯
 - Change in Internal energy ∆𝑼 = 𝒎 (𝒖𝟐 − 𝒖𝟏)
- Change in enthalpy ∆𝑯 = 𝒎 (𝒉𝟐 − 𝒉𝟏)
- Heat Transferred 𝑸 = ∆𝑼
- Change in Entropy ∆𝑺 = 𝒎 ( 𝒔𝟐 − 𝒔𝟏)

Isobaric Process: is a process at constant pressure process of a pure substance.

𝟐
- Non Flow work 𝑾𝒏 = ∫𝟏 𝑷𝒅𝒗 = 𝑷( 𝑽𝟐 − 𝑽𝟏) = 𝒎𝑷 (𝒗𝟐 − 𝒗𝟏)
- Steady Flow 𝑾𝒔 = 𝟎
- Change in Internal energy ∆𝑼 = 𝒎 (𝒖𝟐 − 𝒖𝟏)
- Change in enthalpy ∆𝑯 = 𝒎 (𝒉𝟐 − 𝒉𝟏)
- Heat Transferred 𝑸 = 𝒖𝟐 − 𝒖𝟏 + 𝑾𝒏
- Change in Entropy ∆𝑺 = 𝒎 ( 𝒔𝟐 − 𝒔𝟏)

Isothermal Process: Isothermal process is an internally reversible constant temperature process

of a pure substance.

- Non Flow work 𝑾𝒏 = 𝑸 − ∆𝑼

- Steady Flow 𝑾𝒔 = 𝑸 − ∆𝑲𝑬 − ∆𝑷𝑬 − ∆𝑯
- Change in Internal energy ∆𝑼 = 𝒎 (𝒖𝟐 − 𝒖𝟏)
- Change in enthalpy ∆𝑯 = 𝒎 (𝒉𝟐 − 𝒉𝟏)
- Heat Transferred 𝑸 = 𝑻∆𝑺 = 𝑻 (𝑺𝟏 − 𝑺𝟐)
- Change in Entropy ∆𝑺 = 𝒎 ( 𝒔𝟐 − 𝒔𝟏)

Isentropic or adiabatic Process: adiabatic process is constant entropy process of a pure

substance. It is process in which no heat is transferred.

- Non Flow work 𝑾𝒏 = −∆𝑼

- Steady Flow 𝑾𝒔 = 𝑸 − ∆𝑲𝑬 − ∆𝑷𝑬 − ∆𝑯
- Change in Internal energy ∆𝑼 = 𝒎 (𝒖𝟐 − 𝒖𝟏)
- Change in enthalpy ∆𝑯 = 𝒎 (𝒉𝟐 − 𝒉𝟏)
- Heat Transferred 𝑸 = 𝟎)
- Change in Entropy ∆𝑺 = 𝟎
Isenthalpic or throttling Process: is process in a constant enthalpy process of pure substance.
It is a process in which no work is being done and is utilized in getting the quality of steam.

ℎ2 = ℎ1 = 𝐻𝑓1 + 𝑥1𝐻𝑓𝑔1
ℎ2 = ℎ𝑔 + 𝐶𝑝∆𝑇

- Steady Flow 𝑾𝒔 = 𝟎
- Change in Internal energy ∆𝑼 = 𝒎 (𝒖𝟐 − 𝒖𝟏)
- Change in enthalpy ∆𝑯 = 𝟎
- Heat Transferred 𝑸 = 𝟎
- Change in Entropy ∆𝑺 = 𝒎 ( 𝒔𝟐 − 𝒔𝟏)
-

Polytropic Process: Is a process of reversible process during which 𝑷𝑽𝒏 = 𝑪 where n is

constant.

𝑷𝟐𝑽𝟐−𝑷𝟏𝑽𝟏
- Non Flow Work: Wn=
𝟏−𝒌
- Steady Flow: k Wn = = 𝑸 − ∆𝑲𝑬 − ∆𝑷𝑬 − ∆𝑯
- Change in Internal Energy: ∆𝑼 = 𝒎 (𝒖𝟐 − 𝒖𝟏)
- Change in enthalpy ∆𝑯 = 𝒎(𝒉 − 𝒉𝟏)
- Heat Transferred : 𝑸 = ∆𝑼 + 𝑾𝒏
- Change in Entropy : ∆𝑺 = 𝒎( 𝑺𝟐 − 𝑺𝟏)

CARNOT CYCLE

Carnot Cycle: Is the most efficient thermodynamic cycle. It consist of two isothermal and two
isentropic process.

Process 1-2 : Isentropic Expansion

Process 2-3 : Isothermal Compression

Process 3-4: Isentropic Compression

Process 4-1: Isothermal Expansion

Analysis of Carnot Cycle:

Heat added ( Qa) : Cycle efficiency

𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝑄𝑅
𝑄𝑎 = 𝑇1 ( 𝑆1 − 𝑆4) 𝑒= =1−( )
𝑄𝑎 𝑄𝑎

𝑇1−𝑇2 𝑇2
𝑄𝑎 = 𝑇1 ( 𝑆1 − 𝑆4) 𝑒= =1−( )
𝑇1 𝑇1

Heat Rejected ( QR) Heat Temperature relations

𝑄𝑅 = 𝑇2 ( 𝑆2 − 𝑆3) 𝑄𝑅/𝑄𝑎 = 𝑇2/𝑇1

𝑄𝑅 = 𝑇2 ( 𝑆1 − 𝑆4)

Net Work or Work Done

𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝑄𝑎 − 𝑄𝑅

𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 = (𝑇1 − 𝑇2) ( 𝑆1 − 𝑆2)