Fuel cells:

A fuel cell produces clean energy through a chemical reaction of hydrogen and oxygen. Fuel cells
are extremely unique and can be quite powerful if used correctly. They are similar to batteries but
do not require recharge or replacement.
In general terms, a fuel cell converts hydrogen and oxygen into water through a chemical reaction,
which creates electricity. The electricity then converts into power for an item. However, there
are plenty of other types of fuel cells which utilize different fuels such as methanol or alkaline to
create different types of power. The benefits of utilizing fuel cells are vast:
 They can improve our environment since they do not give off pollutants.
 They can be more efficient than combustion engines (A.K.A a typical car engine).
 There are many types which means many opportunities for cleaner power.
 They are versatile enough to power small to large items.
 They can be combined with other energy technologies.

Difference between fuel cells and galvanic cells:

S. No. Galvanic cell Fuel cells

1. Chemical energy of the spontaneous Converts the energy from the combustion of
redox reaction is converted into the fuels such as H2, CO, CH4 etc. directly into
electrical energy. the electrical energy
2. It is not a continuous source of energy It is a continuous source of energy
3. It is not pollution free It is pollution free
4. The supply of the reactants are not There is a continuous supply of the reactants
continuous

Hydrogen oxygen fuel cell: A fuel cell is a lot like a battery. It has two electrodes where the
reactions take place and an electrolyte which carries the charged particles from one electrode to
the other. In order for a fuel cell to work, it needs hydrogen (H2) and oxygen (O2). The hydrogen
enters the fuel cell at the anode. A chemical reaction strips the hydrogen molecules of their
electrons and the atoms become ionized to form H+. The electrons travel through wires to provide
a current to do work. The oxygen enters at the cathode, usually from the air. The oxygen picks up
the electrons that have completed their circuit. The oxygen then combines with the ionized
hydrogen atoms (H+), and water (H2O) is formed as the waste product which exits the fuel cell.
The electrolyte plays an essential role as well. It only allows the appropriate ions to pass between
the anode and cathode. If other ions were allowed to flow between the anode and cathode, the
chemical reactions within the cell would be disrupted.

The reaction in a single fuel cell typically produces only about 0.7 volts. Therefore, fuel cells are
usually stacked or connected in some way to form a fuel cell system that can be used in cars,
generators, or other products that require power.

The reactions involved in a fuel cell are as follows:

Anode side (an oxidation reaction):

2H2 => 4H++ 4e-

Cathode side (a reduction reaction):

O2 + 4H+ + 4e- => 2H2O

Net reaction (the "redox" reaction):

2H2 + O2 => 2H2O
Methanol-oxygen fuel cells:

It consists of anodic and cathodic compartments. Both the compartments contain platinum
electrode. Methanol containing H2SO4 is passed through anodic compartment. Oxygen is passed
through cathodic compartment. Electrolyte consists of sulphuric acid. A membrane is provided
which prevents the diffusion of Methanol into the cathode.

Reactions:
At anode: CH3OH + H2O → CO2 + 6H+ + 6e-
At cathode: 3/2 O2 + 6H+ + 6e- → 3H2O

Classification of fuel cells:

Fuel cells are classified primarily by the kind of electrolyte they employ. This classification
determines the kind of electro-chemical reactions that take place in the cell, the kind of catalysts
required, the temperature range in which the cell operates, the fuel required, and other factors.
These characteristics, in turn, affect the applications for which these cells are most suitable. There
are several types of fuel cells currently under development, each with its own advantages,
limitations, and potential applications. Learn more about the following types of fuel cells.

 Polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cells

 Direct methanol fuel cells
 Alkaline fuel cells
 Phosphoric acid fuel cells
 Molten carbonate fuel cells
  Solid oxide fuel cells
 Reversible fuel cells

Alkaline fuel cells:

Alkaline fuel cells (AFCs) were one of the first fuel cell technologies developed, and they were
the first type widely used in the U.S. space program to produce electrical energy and water on-
board spacecraft. These fuel cells use a solution of potassium hydroxide in water as the electrolyte
and can use a variety of non-precious metals as a catalyst at the anode and cathode. In recent years,
novel AFCs that use a polymer membrane as the electrolyte have been developed. These fuel cells
are closely related to conventional PEM fuel cells, except that they use an alkaline membrane
instead of an acid membrane. The high performance of AFCs is due to the rate at which electro-
chemical reactions take place in the cell. They have also demonstrated efficiencies above 60% in
space applications.

A key challenge for this fuel cell type is that it is susceptible to poisoning by carbon dioxide (CO2).
In fact, even the small amount of CO2 in the air can dramatically affect cell performance and
durability due to carbonate formation. Alkaline cells with liquid electrolytes can be run in a
recirculating mode, which allows for electrolyte regeneration to help reduce the effects of
carbonate formation in the electrolyte, but the recirculating mode introduces issues with shunt
currents. The liquid electrolyte systems also suffer from additional concerns including wettability,
increased corrosion, and difficulties handling differential pressures. Alkaline membrane fuel cells
(AMFCs) address these concerns and have lower susceptibility to CO2 poisoning than liquid-
electrolyte AFCs do. However, CO2 still affects performance, and performance and durability of
the AMFCs still lag that of PEMFCs. AMFCs are being considered for applications in the W to
kW scale. Challenges for AMFCs include tolerance to carbon dioxide, membrane conductivity and
durability, higher temperature operation, water management, power density, and anode
electrocatalysis.

Characteristics of Lithium primary cells:

Lithium is the lightest of metals and it floats on water. It also has the greatest electrochemical
potential which makes it one of the most reactive of metals. These properties give Lithium the
potential to achieve very high energy and power densities permitting batteries with very long
useful life and small cell packages.

Because Lithium reacts violently with water, as well as nitrogen in air, this requires sealed cells.
High-rate lithium cells build up temperature and pressure if they are short circuited or abused.
Thus, the cell design needs to include safety vents, which release the pressure or rupture to
prevent uncontrolled explosion.

Typical chemistries are Lithium Manganese dioxide, lithium Sulphur dioxide, Lithium Thionyl
Chloride (see below) and Lithium Oxygen (see below) but other variants are available.

Available cell voltages range between 3 and 4 Volts

Cell packaging includes coin cell and cylindrical packages.

Thin film cells based on ceramic or flexible substrates are also available.

Advantages

High energy density, double that of premium alkaline batteries

Low weight
High cell voltage

Flat discharge characteristic

Low self-discharge

Very long shelf life

Very long operating life (15 to 20 years for lithium thionyl chloride)

Wide operating temperature range ( -60 ° C to +85 ° C for lithium sulfur dioxide)

Excellent durability

Small cell size

Li-MnO2 battery:

When battery discharges potential, the following reactions occur at respective electrodes.

The cell reactions for the system are

Anode: Li Li+ + e-

Cathode: MnO2 + Li+ + e- LiMnO2

The overall reaction Li + MnO2 LiMnO2

The voltage produced by the cell is 3.5V.

Applications: Used as long -term memory backup, safety and security devices, cameras, lighting
equipment and many consumer electronic devices.

Solid polymer electrolyte fuel cells:

Of various fuel cell systems considered, the polymer electrolyte fuel cell technology seems to be
most suitable for terrestrial transportation applications. This is thanks to low temperature of
operation (hence, fast cold start), perfect CO2 tolerance by the electrolyte and a combination of
high-power density and high energy conversion efficiency. Key barriers for the development of
this fuel cell technology for terrestrial applications, considered very high just 5-10 years ago, have
been successfully overcome. As a result, automotive and fuel cell manufacturing industries have
initiated significant technology validation programs and demonstrations which include fuel cell
powered vehicles, stationary power generation systems and battery replacement devices. Market
entry of PEFCs through the latter applications may actually precede implementation of such fuel
cells in vehicular power systems, in large part because of less stringent demands on systems cost.

Solid oxide fuel cells:

A solid oxide fuel cell (or SOFC) is an electrochemical conversion device that produces
electricity directly from oxidizing a fuel. Fuel cells are characterized by their electrolyte material;
the SOFC has a solid oxide or ceramic electrolyte. Advantages of this class of fuel cells include
high efficiency, long-term stability, fuel flexibility, low emissions, and relatively low cost. The
largest disadvantage is the high operating temperature which results in longer start-up times and
mechanical and chemical compatibility issues.

They operate at very high temperatures, typically between 500 and 1,000 °C. At these
temperatures, SOFCs do not require expensive platinum catalyst material, as is currently necessary
for lower temperature fuel cells such as PEMFCs, and are not vulnerable to carbon monoxide
catalyst poisoning. However, vulnerability to sulfur poisoning has been widely observed and the
sulfur must be removed before entering the cell through the use of adsorbent beds or other means.

Solid oxide fuel cells have a wide variety of applications, from use as auxiliary power units in
vehicles to stationary power generation with outputs from 100 W to 2 MW. In 2009, Australian
company, Ceramic Fuel Cells successfully achieved an efficiency of an SOFC device up to the
previously theoretical mark of 60%.[2][3] The higher operating temperature make SOFCs suitable
candidates for application with heat engine energy recovery devices or combined heat and power,
which further increases overall fuel efficiency.

Disadvantages of hydrogen oxygen fuel cells:

 Fuel cells cannot be used for large–scale energy production, so conventional fossil fuel or
nuclear power stations still have an important future.
 Hydrogen is a gas and requires a much larger storage volume compared to fossil fuels like
petrol.
 Safe storage is an issue, especially as it would be stored under high pressure to decrease
the storage space required.
o This immediately makes leaks and accidents more likely to happen because
hydrogen is a highly flammable and explosive gas – too easily ignited, remember
the 'squeaky pop' lit splint test for hydrogen!
 There is no efficient means of mass-producing hydrogen.
o Efficient large-scale technology is not yet developed to produce hydrogen on a
large scale e.g. from electrolysis using solar power electricity – photovoltaic power
system, wind turbines or hydroelectric power.
o Although water is cheap and plentiful, it requires expensive electrical energy to
electrolyze water to split it into hydrogen and oxygen.
o Electrolysis of acidified water is expensive because electricity is expensive and
much is still made from fossil fuels. You would need large scale electrolysis plants
and then devise safe means of storing and delivering the hydrogen gas to where its
needed.
o Not only that, most electricity in the world is generated from burning fossil fuels!
o Most hydrogen used in industry is made from fossil fuel hydrocarbons, which won't
last forever. (see making hydrogen for the Haber Synthesis of ammonia).
o Apart from the fact that the electrode catalysts are costly, disposing of used cells
has its problems e.g. may contain toxic metal compounds.
Phosphoric acid fuel cells:

Phosphoric acid fuel cells (PAFC) are a type of fuel cell that uses liquid phosphoric acid as
an electrolyte. They were the first fuel cells to be commercialized. Developed in the mid-1960s
and field-tested since the 1970s, they have improved significantly in stability, performance, and
cost. Such characteristics have made the PAFC a good candidate for early stationary applications.

 Electrolyte is highly concentrated or pure liquid phosphoric acid (H3PO4) saturated in

a silicon carbide matrix (SiC). Operating range is about 150 to 210 °C. The electrodes are
made of carbon paper coated with a finely dispersed platinum catalyst.

 Anode reaction: 2H2(g) → 4H+ + 4e‾

 Cathode reaction: O2(g) + 4H+ + 4e‾ → 2H2O
 Overall cell reaction: 2 H2 + O2 → 2H2O

Applications:

PAFC have been used for stationary power generators with output in the 100 kW to 400 kW range
and are also finding application in large vehicles such as buses.

Q. When there is an option to use biofuel to run cars (which would be cheap, and the
technology is already there), why should one be interested in fuel cells to run cars?

To meet the President’s goal of reducing greenhouse gas emissions by 80 percent by 2050, the
Energy Department is working to cut carbon pollution and petroleum use in the transportation
sector through a portfolio of technologies, including biofuels, electric vehicles and fuel cell
vehicles. Biofuels are a key part of our strategy, but the total sustainable biomass in the U.S. would
not be sufficient for displacing all the petroleum used in the entire transportation sector.

Biofuels from corn and fuel cell vehicles that run on hydrogen produced from natural gas, both
can achieve a greenhouse gas reduction on a well-to-wheels basis of about 60 percent compared to
today’s gasoline-powered internal combustion engine. However, the added benefit of fuel cell
vehicles using hydrogen from renewables, like solar energy, is that they could further reduce
emissions by more than 90 percent.
Q. How is the durability of fuel cells during temperature changes?

For fuel cell vehicles to achieve market parity with conventional vehicles, they must meet
durability targets (about 5,000 hours or 150,000 miles) but also function over the full range of
operating conditions. Fuel cells can operate at temperatures well below the freezing point to above
the boiling point of water and humidity levels ranging from dry to wet. Both very low and high
temperatures can impact durability, but our durability testing shows that we’re on track to meet
our targets. For more on the technical targets for addressing fuel cells in cold weather, check out
the Department's Multi-Year Research Development and Demonstration Plan.

Q. What is the typical lifetime of a stationary fuel cell? Where are fuel cells manufactured?

The current operation lifetime of a stationary fuel cell is 40,000-80,000 hours, depending on fuel
cell technology. But factors such as application, temperature, contaminants and duty cycle can
impact lifetime.

Fuel cells are developed and manufactured all over the world including the United States, Canada,
Korea, Japan and the European Union. In 2012 alone, about 6,000 fuel cells were manufactured in
the U.S. -- double the number manufactured in 2011. For more on the state of the fuel cell market,
check out the Department’s 2012 Market Report.

Q. Can you discuss fuel cells for residential and commercial buildings and their cost?

The cost of fuel cells for residential power is expected to decrease in the coming years due to
investments in research and development made by the Energy Department and industry. In general,
fuel cell costs are still higher than other residential power options, but they provide high reliability
and resiliency. Costs can range from $2,300 per kilowatt to $4,000 per kilowatt, excluding
installation. That means for a 5 kilowatt residential unit, it can cost up to $20,000.

Fuel cells for commercial buildings are more widespread and costs range from $3,500 per kilowatt
to $5,500 per kilowatt, depending on the type of fuel cell and application. In addition to base load
power and heat for buildings like hospitals, hotels and industrial plants, fuel cells are being used
in telecom and data center applications for backup power -- illustrating the dependability of fuel
cells and willingness of businesses to rely on fuel cells for mission-critical power.