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2.1 Introduction
2.5 Forecasting
2.6 Summary
Overview of Planning
2.1 Introduction
Planning is the first of the four primary management functions and sets of a direction
for the organization. Planning is undertaken after the mission of the organization is defined
and its goals and objectives are established. It involves a set of decisions required to
initiate a set of activities that are undertaken to achieve the goals and objectives of the
organization, consistent with its mission. The successful implementation of policies,
procedures and rules, as prescribed during the planning process, ensures the success
of the organization. Planning is required at all levels of management. Strategic planning,
undertaken by top management focuses on where the organization will be in the distant
future, Tactical planning emphasizes on how it will be done. Operational plans are short
range plans and specify the operational aspects of the activities. Of course, all such plans
should have contingency plans to modify the existing plans and change them, if necessary.
Committee for the Olympic Games (ACOG) held in Atlanta, Georgia in 1996. While the
planning process started more than five years before the due date of the games, consider
Notes the challenging task faced by ACOG in 1993, as reported by Business Week.
Staging the Asian Games in New Delhi in 1982 required extensive planning for years
before the games, in building the stadium, new roadways, flyovers and the residential Asiad
Village for participating athletes from all over the world. Without proper and detailed planning,
success for such colossal events cannot be assured. Similarly organizing Commonwealth
Games in Delhi in 2010 require extensive planning and forecasting. Earlier in Delhi
construction of one flyover used to cause snarling traffic jams, however it is the result of
proper planning by Metro that traffic is smooth despite so much of construction in Delhi.
As such the planning function has three characteristics. First, Planning is anticipatory
in nature. This means that a decision has to be made now as to what to do and how,
before it is actually done. Second, Planning is a system of decisions. It involves a process
of making decisions, which will define as to what is to be achieved in the future and the
formation of action plans for achievement of goals. Third, Planning is focused on desired
future results. It is a means of ensuring that the important organizational objectives are
accomplished as and when desired.
6. Planning helps in the process of decision making: Since planning specifies the
actions and steps to be taken in order to accomplish organizational objectives, it
serves as a basis for decision making about future activities. It also helps managers
to make routine decisions about current activities since the objectives, plans, policies;
schedules and so on are clearly laid down.
Advantages and Potential Disadvantages of Planning are as follows.
Advantages
1. Planning gives manages some purpose and direction. Since planning is future
oriented, it forces managers to look beyond the present. Also, it creates a unity of
purpose, since the objectives are formally expressed and the methods and procedures
to obtain these objectives clearly defined.
2. Proper planning helps in the process of motivation. If plans are properly communicated
to all levels of the organization, then every one can feel involved in carrying them
Notes out. When people get involved, their sense of belonging increases and thus they are
highly motivated.
3. Planning provides a framework for decision making. Knowing the organizational
objectives and the methods to achieve these objectives eliminates ambiguity in the
decision making process. Furthermore, planning provides for feedback, periodic
evaluation of programs and indication for any deviation so that corrective action can
be taken, hence making the decision making process a little easier. Also, systematic
planning requires an understanding and evaluation of many variables which influence
events, hence it is highly unlikely that an important variable will be overlooked which
could adversely affect either the decision process or the operation.
4. Proper planning results in effective utilization of organizational resources. Since planning
involves the identification of such resources for optimal utility, there is no waste or minimum
waste of these resources. This will also reduce unproductive work, idle time of workers,
downtime for machines, and this would logically result in minimizing cost of operations.
5. Since accurate forecast of future events is an integral part of effective planning, it
reduces the elements of risks and uncertainty. Also, since planning is done in advance
of actions, it prevents hasty judgments and haphazard decisions and results in
disciplined thinking.
6. It improves the competitive strength of the company in two ways. First, since the
operations are planned in advance: the company is able to take its time in shopping
around for the best and competitive rates of raw materials, equipment and part and
human resources. Second, proper planning gives the company an advantageous
edge if it decides to make changes in its line of products or expansion in its plant
capacity or changes in methodology.
7. Formal planning forces managers to examine all areas of the organization from all
angles and efficiently coordinate the activities of all these areas. Without this process,
these managers may ignore or overlook some critical aspect due to time pressures
or other factors, thus affecting the outcome in a negative way.
Disadvantages
1. Planning is expensive and time consuming. A good deal of time, energy and capital
is involved in setting up the planning machinery for the purpose of gathering and
analyzing data and testing of various alternatives in order to select the one which is
most appropriate. Accordingly, the cost of planning and the benefits derived from it
must be adequately balanced. Sometimes, proper planning takes up so much time
that some useful opportunities can be lost if they require immediate action and such
immediate action cannot be taken without proper planning.
2. Planning itself can be a hindrance to innovation. In a planned set-up, every operation
is pre-planned. This means simply proceeding according to plans and following the
rules mechanically. This does not leave any provision for a manager’s innovation and
creativity. This problem can be overcome to some degree, however, by making the
plans more flexible in order to accommodate any changes generated by new ideas.
3. Planning can sometimes be very frustrating because it requires an extremely detailed,
careful and analytical thought process. Accordingly, it is more of an intellectual
exercise. It requires a high level of imagination and analytical ability in addition to
total commitment. The talents required and the maintenance of high quality planning
together, are difficult to achieve.
1. Keep aims crystallized: The aims and objectives must be clear, unambiguous solid,
reasonable and attainable. Badly defined objectives do not lend to accurate and
effective planning.
2. Develop accurate forecasts: Accurate events and trends in the future are the
most important inputs of the planning process. Accordingly, the managers making
the forecasts must be highly skilled and must use quantitative methods wherever
applicable in addition to intuitional judgments to improve the accuracy of the forecasts.
3. Involve subordinates in the planning process: This will ensure the acceptance
of the plans by those who are going to implement them. Studies have indicated that
people, who put the plans into operation, do so much better when they participate in
the formulation of the plans than when such plans are simply assigned to them.
4. The plan must be a sound one: In order for a plan to be effective, it must be based
on sound assumptions and correct information. Mitroff and Emshoff suggest a devil’s
advocate approach, in which someone deliberately criticizes the plan in order to
eliminate any inconsistencies in the plan and thus refine it further.
5. Don’t be over-optimistic: Objectivity is an essential ingredient of effective planning.
Over-optimism is based on feelings, emotions and intuition. Don’t see what you want
to see? but see what there is.
6. Decide in advance the criteria for abandoning a project: There is no need to
continue to stick to the plan if it is not working out as expected. However, the criteria for
abandoning a particular project should be established in the beginning. For example,
if a particular advertisement commercial does not increase sales by ten per cent in
six months, then such a commercial should be replaced.
7. Keep your plan flexible: Keep the progress of your plan under constant review so
that it can be revised and modified as the situation demands. Future trends should
also be assessed by continuously monitoring economic, social, political, technological
and competitive trends. Any changes in these variables may require changes in the
original plans.
8. Review long-range plans on a short-range basis: Long-range plans are risky due
to dynamic environment. Accordingly, long-range strategic plans should be split-up
into manageable periods and the basic assumptions underlying the strategic plan
as well as its progress should be measured and reviewed at such set intervals as
planned so that any reasons for under-performance or over-performance can be
identified and new decisions made relative to the plan.
9. Fit the plan to the environment: Assess the current as well as future environment.
If the environment is comparatively stable, a plan can be more rigid. However, if the
environment is volatile, the plan must remain highly flexible to accommodate necessary
changes.
Types of Plans
Organisation plans are usually divided into two types, namely standing plans and
single-use plans. Standing plans are those, which remain roughly the same for long
periods of time and are used in organizational situations that occur repeatedly. The
most common kinds of standing plans are policies, procedures and rules. Single-use
plans focus on relatively unique situations within the organization and may be required
to be used only once. These plans can be subdivided into programme and budgets.
These plans are explained below:
Notes
Standing Plans
Policies: A policy is a statement and a pre-determined guideline that provides
direction for decision making and action taking. Policies are usually general enough to
give the manager sufficient freedom to take judgments, while at the same time they are
specific enough to establish constraining boundaries. For example, regarding employment,
a company policy may be to employ personnel on merit alone without regard to race,
sex or age and within the bounds of this policy, a manager can make decisions. Policies
must be based upon a thorough analysis of objectives and should be consistent with the
company’s mission and philosophy. Policies, being formal statements, serve as ready
guides for answering numerous questions and making many day-to-day routine decisions,
especially about recurring problems, thus freeing management’s time for more important
and unique decisions. This helps improve the efficiency of operations. If the policies are
clearly understood and adhered to by all, then there will be fewer problems and fewer
complaints to start with. There may be separate policies for separate functions but they
must be all coordinated, thus serving the consistency of purpose.
Appropriate policy guideline enables manages to anticipate and take action for
a given set of situational variables. There are organizational policies formulated
for all types of situations and functions. There may be sales policies, production
policies, personnel policies and so on. For example, personnel policies would specify
decisions regarding selection, training, remuneration, labour relations, and promotion
of personnel and so on.
Policies are useful indicators of the conduct and the philosophy of the company and
about what the company stands for. These policies being formal statements can easily
be communicated to the organizational members as well as the outside public.
Single-Use Plans
Programmes: A programme is a single-use plan designed to carry out a special
project, solving a problem or achieving a group of related goals. This project or problem
is not intended to be in existence over the entire life of the organization like the standing
plans.
The programme exists to achieve some purpose identified by the organization and
this achievement is expected to benefit the organization. For example, an organization
may have instituted a management development programme to build special managerial
skills such as handling international competition or meeting the management challenges
of the next century.
Similarly, a college may have a programme to build a new laboratory or add new class
rooms. A business may have a programme to automate its systems. All these programmes
are one-time programme, no matter how long it takes to complete a given programme or
a project. Once the programmes goals are achieved, that programme is discontinued.
2.5 Forecasting
Forecasting plays a pivotal role in the operations of modern management. It is
an important and necessary aid to planning and planning is the backbone of effective
operations. Many organizations have failed because of lack of forecasting or faulty
forecasting on which the planning was based. For example, Curtiss-Wright, one of the
major aero plane manufacturers, the equal of Douglas and Boeing combined in 1945 -
decided to put its money into an improved piston engine instead of jets. The management
of Curtiss-Wright did not accurately forecast the market for jets and hence failed. The
importance of forecasting is emphasized by Lonis A. Alphen: “A systematic attempt to
probe the future by inference from known facts helps integrate all management planning
so that unified overall plans can be developed into which divisional and departmental plans
can be meshed. It enables a company to commit its resources with greatest assurance
to profit over the long term. By helping to identify future demand patterns, it facilitates
development of new products”.
Forecasting implies the act of making a detailed analysis of the future and planning
is impossible without either predicting the future as accurately as possible or making
intelligent assumptions about it. Forecasting may be a form of intentional and considered
judgment based on feelings, opinions and experiences, and these judgments, at best
will be educated guesses. It could also be based upon a rational study and analysis of
pertinent data and this process is known as “scientific forecasting”. It would depend upon
an analysis of past events and current conditions with a view to drawing inferences and
conclusions about future events. Some of the areas in which accurate forecast about
future events and trends are necessary for organizational success and growth are:
Notes
Economic development: The economic conditions of the country as well as global
economy would have significant effect on the operations of an organization. The necessary
elements of such forecasts include predictions relating to Gross National Products and
Gross Domestic Products, currency strength, industrial expansion, job market, inflation
rate, interests rate, balance of payments and so on. Healthy economic trends assist in
the growth of the company. On the other hand, for example, the economic depression
of 1929-1930 put many companies out of business. The knowledge about economic
trends would assist the management in making plans for their organization as an effective
response to such trends.
Social forecasts: These forecasts involve predicting changes in the consumer tastes,
demands and attitudes. Consumers have already established a trend for convenience,
comfort and for products and that are easy to use and manage. Matters of taste and
preference may change over a period of time. For example, in the 1970s, the trend was
to buy small economic cars. In the 1990s, the trend returned to luxury and comfort. While
these trends partly do depend upon the general economic trends they also depend on the
consumer tastes. For example, trends in women’s fashions and clothing change almost
every year. The Nehru jacket, highly popular is the 1960s, is unheard of today. Accordingly,
in the area of consumer goods, social trends are important aspects of forecasting.
Forecasting as a strategy is widely used today, and some of these forecasts, specially
the short-term ones, are fairly reliable. Some forecasts, using scientific methods or
instrumentations can be fairly accurately made. For example, short-range weather
forecasting, forecasting the paths of meteorites and comets or solar and lunar eclipses are
quite accurate. However, accuracy becomes less dependable as we extend forecasting
farther into the future.
Techniques of Forecasting
The future can never be known with certainty, but there are some techniques that
have proved to be effective in reducing the degree of uncertainty. There are basically two
broad categories of forecasting techniques. These are:
Qualitative Techniques: These techniques are primarily based upon judgment and
intuition about the environment and are used especially when sufficient quantitative
information and data is not available so that complex quantitative techniques cannot be
used. Under certain situations, qualitative judgments about the future are more reliable
than quantitative conclusions because the quantitative methods are based on the analysis
of the past data and its trends, which may or may not remain the same. Secondly,
quantitative techniques follow a certain pattern and do not provide for accommodating
any unexpected occurrences.
Opinions of sales persons: This approach involves the opinions of the sales force
and these opinions are primarily taken into consideration for forecasting future sales.
The sales people, being closer to the consumers, can estimate future sales in their own
territories more accurately. Based on these and the opinions of the sales manages, a
reasonable trend of the future sales can be calculated. These forecasts are good for
short-range planning, since sales people are not sufficiently sophisticated to predict
long-term trends. This method, also known as the “grass roots” approach lends itself to
easy breakdowns of product, territory, and customer and so on, which makes forecasting
more elaborate and comprehensive.
The Delphi method: The Delphi method originally developed by Rand Corporation
in 1969 to forecast military events has become a useful tool for other areas also. It is
basically a more formal version of “jury of executive opinion” method. A panel of experts
is given a situation and asked to make initial predictions about it. On the basis of a
prescribed questionnaire, these experts develop written opinions. These responses are
Notes analyzed and summarized by a central coordinator and submitted back to the panel for
further consideration, evaluation and refinement. All these responses are anonymous so
that no member influenced by other’s opinions. This process is repeated until a consensus
is obtained. This method is very useful where either the past patterns are not available
or where the past data is not indicative of future events and the issues are general in
nature such as future energy needs, possible after-effects of a nuclear war and so on.
A successful forecast is something of a miracle and often occurs for the wrong reasons.
However, it should not lead to the assumption that nothing has been accomplished.
There are some good “rule of thumb” forecasts. A part of the problem is that too much is
expected from forecasting. People want more precise answers than are possible in an
environment characterized by uncertainty.”
Forecasting Demand
1. Anticipated growth of the organization: This growth rate can be calculated from
the past trends on the assumption that all variables affecting this growth will
remain constant.
2. Budget constraints and allocations: The budget allocation specifically for the
purpose of new employees will determine the number of new workers that can
be hired, thus putting a ceiling on the maximum number.
5. Minority hiring goals: The goals established by the organsation about hiring
minorities or the handicapped, as a part of the affirmative action policies, may
affect the demand for the total number of employees, specially when it is difficult
to match the skilled, semi-skilled or unskilled minority workers to the specific job
requirements.
Forecasting Supply
1. Promotions of employees from within the organization: Promotions are a good
and a reliable source of supply of experienced and skilled personnel, who do not
need to be extensively trained and who are also familiar with the organizational
goals, policies, and philosophy
2. Availability of required talent in the external labour market: This may be assessed
by unemployment figures, a survey of private and public employment agencies
and other sources.
3. Competition for talent within the industry: If the competition is very tough then
it will be more difficult to tap the supply and the cost of additional workers will
become very high. Conversely, if the need for a particular talent is not very high
in the competitive industry, then the supply will remain flexible.
4. Population movement trends: The demographical changes will also affect the
sources of supply. For example, if there is a tendency for people to move from
rural areas to urban areas, then the supply in the rural areas will dry up. Similarly,
most new immigrants from outside have a tendency to settle in cities, thus increase
Notes the supply in the urban areas.
b) An intellectual process
2.6 Summary
Planning is a decision-making activity requiring the process of ascertaining objectives
and deciding on activities to attain these objectives. In planning, managers assess the
future, determine the goals of the organization and develop the overall strategies to
achieve these goals. The importance of formal planning has already been discussed. A
vigorous and detailed planning programme helps managers to be future oriented. It gives
the managers some purpose and direction.
Forecasting implies the act of making a detailed analysis of the future and planning
is impossible without either predicting the future as accurately as possible or making
intelligent assumptions about it. There are basically two broad categories of forecasting
techniques qualitative and quantitative techniques.