Introduction:

History and overview of spin electronics, Classes of magnetic materials:

Objectives:
The main objectives of this first lecture are
(a) to provide a history and a broad overview of spin electronics and
(b) to introduce briefly different classes of magnetic materials.

(a). History and overview of spin electronics:

Spin electronics (also termed as spintronics), at the interface between magnetism and
electronics, is a new field of research in multidisciplinary level. The central theme is to
manipulate actively the spin degrees of freedom in solid-state systems. In other words, the
basic concept of spintronics is the manipulation of spin currents, in contrast to mainstream
electronics in which the spin of the electron is mostly ignored. It is well known to the most
of the students in science and engineering disciplines that every elemental particle
(electrons, neutrons, photons and neutrinos, etc.) has a quantum mechanical property
called 'spin' and it has a quantized value (including zero), which can be measured in
principle. Adding this spin degree of freedom in the mainstream of electronics provides new
effects, new capabilities and new functionalities, suitable for various futuristic
magnetoelectronic applications.

It is important to know that there are three important factors making the spin of conduction
electrons attractive for future technology, which are: (1) storing information using electron
spin, (2) transformation of stored information (the spin can be transferred as it is attached
to mobile carriers), and (3) the detection of stored information.

• Information can be stored in a system of electron spins because they can be polarized to
either up or down states. To represent a binary digit (bit) state, for example, spin up may
represent a high or '1' and spin down represent the low or '0' logic level.

• The second factor, the ability of information transfer by electron spins, relies on two facts:
(i) electrons are mobile and (ii) electrons have a relatively large spin memory. Interestingly,
conduction electrons "remember'' their spins much longer than they remember their
momentum states.

• Finally, after the transformation of a spin state, it has to be detected. This is performed
by observing the spin polarization either optically (photoexcited spin-polarized electrons and
holes in a semiconductor recombine by emitting circularly polarized light or the electron
spins interact with light and cause a rotation of the light polarization plane) or electronically
through charge-spin coupling (when spin accumulates on the conductor side at the interface
of a conductor and a ferromagnet, a voltage or a current appears. By measuring the polarity
of the voltage or the current, one can predict the spin orientation in the conductor.). In
addition, the possibility of having long spin relaxation time or spin diffusion length in
electronic materials makes spintronics a viable potential technology.

It is important to note that everybody has already a spintronic device in their desktop/laptop,
since the read heads of the hard disc drives use the giant magnetoresistance (GMR)
phenomenon to read the magnetic information written on the disc. Magnetoresistance (MR)
is a term widely used to mean a change in the electrical resistivity due to the externally
applied magnetic field. GMR [1,2] exploits the influence of the spin of the electrons on the
electrical resistivity in a magnetic multilayer films composed of alternate ferromagnetic (FM)
and non-magnetic (NM) layers (For example, Fe and Cr). Before the discovery of GMR, the
investigations on the charge and spin of the electrons were usually considered to be
independent of each other and hence little attention was paid to probe a correlation
between charge and spin. However, the influence of the spin on the mobility of the electrons
in FM metals, first suggested by Mott [3], had been experimentally demonstrated and
theoretically described in early works [4] more than ten years before the discovery of GMR.

Nevertheless, how to enhance the MR effect is an attractive challenge and further scope of
progress for scientists in fundamental physics and also for researchers in industries. There
are several strategies to obtain larger GMR effects: (1) taking the current flowing
perpendicular to plane GMR (CPP – GMR), (2) using the tunneling current (Tunneling MR
(TMR)), (3) using a new class of materials called half-metal as the magnetic constituent and
(4) using the ballistic current (Ballistic MR (BMR)). Usually resistance measurements in thin
metallic specimens are carried out in a conventional geometry to use an electric current
flowing in the film plane. Such configuration is called as Current in Plane (CIP) geometry.
In contrast, resistance measurements in the other geometry (i.e., CPP) are very
inconvenient for thin metallic films. However, an enhancement of MR ratio is expected in
the CPP geometry compared to the CIP geometry because the GMR effect is associated with
electrons passing through interfaces.

Apparently, realization of GMR was the first step on the road of utilization of the spin degree
of freedom, which triggered the development of the active field of research of spintronics.
Today, this field is extending largely with very promising new axes like the phenomena of
spin transfer, spintronics with semiconductors, molecular spintronics and single-electron
spintronics. In addition, the recent advent of quantum computing has added a new
dimension to spintronics. The spin polarization of a single electron can exist in a coherent
superposition of two orthogonal spin polarizations (i.e., mutually anti-parallel spin
orientations) for a relatively long time without losing the phase coherence, compared to the
charge degree of freedom. Therefore, spin has become the preferred vehicle to host a
quantum bit. The potential application of spin to scalable quantum logic processors has
provided a tremendous boost to the field of spintronics.

(b). Classes of Magnetic Materials:

As the origin of magnetism lies in the orbital and spin motions of electrons and how the
electrons interact with one another, the right way of introducing different types of
magnetism is to demonstrate how the materials respond to an external applied magnetic
fields.

Based on the magnetic response, materials can be classified into the following five major
groups: (1) Diamagnetism; (2) Paramagnetism; (3) Ferromagnetism; (4) Ferrimagnetism;
and (5) Antiferromagnetism. While the materials in the first two groups do not exhibit any
collective magnetic exchange interactions and are not magnetically ordered, the next three
groups exhibit long-range magnetic order below a certain temperature, called critical (or
Curie/Neel) temperature. Ferromagnetic and ferrimagnetic materials are generally
considered as magnetic and the remaining three are assumed to be non-magnetic. In
addition to these five groups, there exists a new type of materials called
superparamagnetism. Although it is NM in its demagnetized state, it exhibits magnetic
saturation behavior similar to FM materials under an applied field. Here, we shall briefly
discuss all types of magnetism.

1. Diamagnetism:

Diamagnetism, a very weak fundamental property of all matter, arises due to the non-
cooperative behavior of orbiting electrons when exposed to an externally applied magnetic
field. Diamagnetic substances are composed of atoms which have no net magnetic
moments, i.e., all the orbital shells are filled and there are no unpaired electrons. However,
a negative magnetization is generated when exposed to external magnetic field, and hence
the susceptibility, a ratio between the induced magnetization and the applied magnetic field,
is negative (see Figure 1.1a). Note that the magnetization is zero when the external applied
field is zero. The other characteristic behavior of diamagnetic materials is that the
susceptibility is generally temperature independent (see Figure 1.1b). Well-known
diamagnetic substances are quartz, calcite, and water. A superconductor in its
superconducting states is an example of an ideal diamagnet.

Figure 1.1: (a) Magnetic response of a diamagnetic material to an applied field and (b) the
variation of diamagnetic susceptibility with temperature.

2. Paramagnetism:

This class of the materials has a net magnetic moment due to the existence of unpaired
electrons in partially filled orbitals. However, the individual magnetic moments do not
interact magnetically and hence the magnetization is zero when there is no external applied
field or when the externally applied field is removed.

When the field is applied, there is now a partial alignment of the atomic magnetic moments
in the direction of the field (see Figure 1.2a) resulting in a net positive magnetization and
hence positive susceptibility. Also, the efficiency of the field in aligning the magnetic
moments of the paramagnetic materials is reduced by the temperature induced randomizing
effect, which results in a temperature dependent susceptibility, known as the Curie-Weiss
Law. Typical examples of paramagnetic material are biotite (silicate), siderite (carbonate),
pyrite (sulfide), and montmorillonite (clay).
 Figure 1.2: Magnetic response of a paramagnetic material with the (a) applied field and
(b) temperature.

3. Ferromagnetism (FM):

The atomic moments in FM materials exhibit very strong interactions. These interactions are
produced by electronic exchange forces and result in either a parallel or an antiparallel
alignment of atomic moments (see Figure 1.3). These exchange forces are considerably
large, approximately a 100 million times the strength of the earth's field or equivalent to a
field of about 1000 Tesla. Moreover, the exchange force is a quantum mechanical
phenomenon due to the relative orientation of the spins of electrons. FM materials exhibit
parallel alignment of moments resulting in large net magnetization even after removing the
external applied magnetic field.

Figure 1.3: Schematic representation of parallel alignment in FM materials along the

applied field direction.

Two distinct characteristics of ferromagnetic materials are (1) their spontaneous

magnetization and (2) the existence of magnetic ordering temperature. Spontaneous
magnetization is the net magnetization that exists inside a uniformly magnetized microscopic
volume even in the absence of external magnetic field. The magnitude of this magnetization
at absolute temperature depends on the spin magnetic moments of electrons. Although
electronic exchange forces in FMs are very large, thermal energy eventually overcomes the
exchange energy and produces a randomizing effect leading to paramagnetism. This occurs
at a particular temperature called the Curie temperature (TC). Below TC, the moments are
ordered (ferromagnetic) and above it, disordered (paramagnetic). The saturation
magnetization goes close to zero above TC.
 Figure 1.4: Magnetic hysteresis loop of a ferromagnetic material

Magnetic Hysteresis behavior:

All FM materials exhibit magnetic hysteresis behavior, i.e., the formation of loop under the
application of magnetic field (M - H loop) (see Figure 1.4). A great deal of information about
the magnetic properties of a FM material can be learned by studying its hysteresis loop. The
loop is generated by measuring the magnetic flux of a FM material while the magnetizing
force is changed continuously. FM materials that have never been exposed to magnetic field
or have been thoroughly demagnetized follow the dashed line as applied field is increased
and reach the point 'a' where almost all of the magnetic domains are aligned and an
additional increase in the magnetizing field produces a very little or no increase in magnetic
flux. The material has almost reached the point of magnetic saturation. When the field is
reduced to zero, the curve moves from point 'a ' to 'b '.

At this point, it can be seen that some magnetic flux remains in the material even at zero
magnetic field. This is called as RETENTIVITY and indicates the remnance or level of residual
magnetism in the material. As the magnetic field is reversed, the curve moves to point ' c',
where the magnetization reaches to zero. This point is called as COERCIVITY or coercive
force. On further increasing the field in the negative direction, the materials become
magnetically saturated but in the opposite direction (point 'd'). Reducing the field to zero
brings the curve to point 'e'. At this point, the level of residual magnetism is almost equal
to that achieved in the other direction (point 'b'). Increasing the field back in the positive
direction returns the magnetization to zero. subsequently, the curve takes a different path
from point 'f' back to the saturation point (point 'a') where it completes the loop.

From the M-H loop, a number of primary magnetic parameters of a magnetic material can
be determined.
[1]. Retentivity: A measure of the residual flux density corresponding to the saturation
induction of a magnetic material. In other words, it is a material's ability to retain a certain
amount of magnetization when the magnetizing field is removed after achieving saturation.
[2]. Residual Magnetism or Residual Flux: The magnetic flux density that remains in a
material when the magnetic field is zero. Note that residual magnetism and retentivity are
the same when the material has been magnetized to the saturation point. However, the
level of residual magnetism may be lower than the retentivity value if the magnetic field did
not reach the saturation level.
[3]. Coercive Force: The amount of reverse magnetic field which must be applied to a
magnetic material to make the magnetization to zero.
[4]. Permeability: A property of a material that describes the ease with which a magnetic
flux is established in the component.

These hysteresis parameters are not solely intrinsic properties but are dependent on various
parameters such as grain size, domain state, internal stresses, and temperature. Because
the hysteresis parameters are dependent on grain size, they are useful for magnetic grain
sizing of natural samples. The elements Fe, Ni, and Co and their alloys are typical examples
of FM materials.

4. Ferrimagnetism:

More complex form of magnetic ordering can occur in some magnetic materials as a result
of crystal structure: One such magnetic ordering is called ferrimagnetism (FiM). A simple
representation of the magnetic spins in a FiM is shown in Figure 1.5. One can consider the
arrangement as two interpenetrating sub-lattices, one with the up spin and the other with
the down spin with magnetization M↑ and M↓, respectively. In FiM, the magnetic moments of
the different sublattices are not equal and result in a net magnetic moment. Therefore, FiM
is similar to a FM. It exhibits all the hallmarks of FM behavior: spontaneous magnetization,
Curie temperature, hysteresis, and remnance. However, FM and FiMs have very different
magnetic ordering.

Figure 1.5: Schematic drawing of unequal magnitude of antiparallel alignment in FiM

materials.

5. Antiferromagnetism:

If the sublattice moments M↑ and M↓ are exactly equal but opposite (see Figure 1.6), then
the net moment in a given material is zero. This type of magnetic ordering is called
antiferromagnetism (AFM). The clue to AFM is the behavior of susceptibility above a critical
temperature, called the Néel temperature (TN). Above TN, the susceptibility obeys the Curie-
Weiss law for paramagnets as shown in the Figure 1.7 but with a negative intercept
indicating negative exchange interactions.
Figure 1.6: Schematic representation of equal magnitude of antiparallel alignment in AFM
materials.

Figure 1.7: Variation of susceptibility and inverse susceptibility with temperature in an AFM
material.

6. Superparamagnetism:

Superparamagnetism is another form of magnetism, which appears in ferromagnetic or

ferrimagnetic nanoparticles. In small enough nanoparticles (diameter < 100 Å),
magnetization direction is flipped randomly under the influence of thermal energy.

The typical time between two flips is called the Néel relaxation time. In the absence of
external applied magnetic field and when the time used to measure the magnetization of
the nanoparticles is much longer than the Néel relaxation time, their magnetization
appears to be in average zero: they are said to be in the superparamagnetic state. In this
state, an external magnetic field is able to magnetize the nanoparticles and saturate the
magnetization. Hence, their magnetic susceptibility is much larger than the paramagnets.

Superparamagnetism is characterized by two experimental features: there is no area under

the hysteresis loop in the field dependence of the magnetization ( M - H is a single-valued
curve at a given temperature) and M is a universal function of H/T. Superparamagnetism
can be destroyed by cooling, since the characteristic fluctuation time for a particle's moment
varies exponentially with temperature as shown below,
where Ku is the magnetocrystalline anisotropy energy, V is the volume of the particle, kB is
the Boltzmann constant, T is the temperature, so the magnetization appears to switch
sharply to a stable state as the temperature is reduced. The temperature at which this
occurs is called the blocking temperature (TB), and it depends linearly on the sample's
volume and on the magnitude of the magnetocrystalline anisotropy. The superparamagnetic
blocking temperature (TB) is defined as the temperature at which the superparamagnetic
relaxation time equals the timescale of the experimental technique used for the study of the
magnetic properties. Below TB, superparamagnetic relaxation can be considered negligible,
but the magnetization direction may still fluctuate in directions close to the easy axes at θ
= 0 ° and θ = 180 °. These fluctuations have been termed 'collective magnetic excitations'
[5]. The magnetic excitations in a nanoparticle are illustrated schematically in Figure 1.8.

Figure 1.8: Schematic illustration of magnetic fluctuations in a nanoparticle. At low

temperatures the direction of the magnetization vector M fluctuates near one of the easy
directions (collective magnetic excitations). At higher temperatures the thermal energy can
be comparable to the height, KV, of the energy barrier separating the easy directions, and
the magnetization can fluctuate between the easy directions (superparamagnetic
relaxation). θ is the angle between easy axis and magnetization direction.

The magnetic dynamics well below the Curie or Neel temperature in both bulk materials and
nanoparticles can be described by excitation of spin waves, but the spin wave spectrum of
small particles is size-dependent and this can have a substantial influence on the
temperature dependence of the magnetization in nanoparticles.

References:

[1]. M.N. Baibich, et al, Phys. Rev. Lett. 61 (1988) 2472.

[2]. G. Binash, P. Grünberg, F. Saurenbach, W. Zinn, Phys. Rev., B 39 (1989) 4828.
[3]. F. Mott, Proc. Roy. Soc. A 153 (1936) 699.
[4]. A. Fert, I.A. Campbell, Phys. Rev. Lett. 21 (1968) 1190; B. Loegel, et al, J. Phys. Chem.
Sol. 32 (1971) 2723; A. Fert, et al, J. Physique 32 (1971) C1; A. Fert, I.A. Campbell, J. Phys.
F 6 (1976) 849.
[5]. S. Morup, J. Magn. Magn. Mater. 37 (1983) 39

Quiz 1:

(Q1.1). Which is the first device that proved the utilization of spin degree of freedom in
spintronics?
(Q1.2). What is the magnetic parameter used to distinguish between diamagnetism and
paramagnetism?
(Q1.3). Name few examples for typical diamagnetic material?
(Q1.4). Which law decribes the temperature dependent magnetic susceptbility of a
paramagnetic material?
(Q1.5). Are the hysteresis and hystersis parameters intrinsic property of a magnetic
material?
(Q1.6). Are the residual magnetism and retentivity of a ferromagnetic material represent
the same properties?
(Q1.7). What are the typical experimental features of a material having
superparamagentism?