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MODAL VERBS
1. Can
Use Examples

ability to do sth. in the present

I can speak English.
(substitute form: to be able to)

permission to do sth. in the present

Can I go to the cinema?
(substitute form: to be allowed to)

request Can you wait a moment, please?

offer I can lend you my car till tomorrow.

Can we visit Grandma at the

suggestion
weekend?

possibility It can get very hot in Arizona.

2. Could
Use Examples

ability to do sth. in the past

I could speak English.
(substitute form: to be able to)

permission to do sth. in the past

(substitute form: to be allowed I could go to the cinema.
to)

polite question * Could I go to the cinema, please?

polite request * Could you wait a moment, please?

I could lend you my car till

polite offer *
tomorrow.

Could we visit Grandma at the

polite suggestion *
weekend?

possibility * It could get very hot in Montana.

3. May

Use Examples

possibility It may rain today.

permission to do sth. in the

present (substitute form: to be May I go to the cinema?
allowed to)

polite suggestion May I help you?

4. Might

Use Examples

possibility (less possible than

It might rain today.
may) *

hesitant offer * Might I help you?

5. Must

Use Examples

I must go to the supermarket

force, necessity
today.

possibility You must be tired.

You must see the new film with

advice, recommendation
Brad Pitt.

6. Must not/May not

Use Examples

You mustn't work on dad's

prohibition (must is a little computer.
stronger) You may not work on dad's
computer.
7. Need to

Use Examples

sth. is necessary I need to study to pass the exam.

8. Need not

Use Examples

I needn't go to the supermarket,

sth. is not necessary we're going to the restaurant
tonight.
9. ought to
simliar to should – ought to sounds a little less subjective

Use Examples

You ought to drive carefully in bad

advice
weather.

You ought to switch off the light

obligation
when you leave the room.

10. should

Use Examples

You should drive carefully in bad

advice
weather.

You should switch off the light

obligation
when you leave the room.
11. Will

Use Examples

wish, request, demand, order

Will you please shut the door?
(less polite than would)

prediction, assumption I think it will rain on Friday.

promise I will stop smoking.

Can somebody drive me to the

spontaneous decision
station? - I will.

She's strange, she'll sit for hours

habits
without talking.
12. would
Use Examples

wish, request (more polite than

Would you shut the door, please?
will)

Sometimes he would bring me

habits in the past
some flowers.
13. Shall
used instead of will in the 1st person

Use Examples

suggestion Shall I carry your bag?

PAST MODAL VERBS
Must have
“Must have” se usa para expresar una conclusión lógica sobre algo que ocurrió
en el pasado. No estamos seguros de lo que sucedió exactamente, pero
basándonos en las pruebas, podemos llegar a alguna conclusión. A diferencia
de “might have” o “may have”, como veremos más tarde, “must have”
expresa más certeza.

Ejemplos:

• The lights are off. They must have gone out.(Las luces están apagadas. Se
deben haber ido.)
• I never see John and Claire together anymore. They must have
separated.(Ya nunca veo a John y Claire juntos. Se deben haber separado.)
• I know you love chocolate. It must have been difficult to say “no” to that
piece of cake.
May have / Might have

“May have” y “might have” se utilizan para expresar posibilidad en el pasado. El uso
de estos dos modales también expresa incertidumbre.

Ejemplos:

• I think it may have worked, but we gave up too soon.(Creo que podría haber
funcionado, pero nos rendimos demasiado pronto.)
• They might have won if their star player hadn’t been injured.(Ellos podrían
haber ganado si su mejor jugador no se hubiera lesionado.)
• I don’t know, it might have been different if you were there.(No sé, podría haber
sido diferente si tú hubieras estado allí.)
Could have

“Couldn’t have” se puede usar en lugar de “can’t have”.

Ejemplos:

• I know you love chocolate. It couldn’t have been easy to say “no” to that
piece of cake. (Sé que te gusta el chocolate. No debió haber sido fácil para ti
decir “no” a ese pedazo de pastel.)
• Frank failed the exam. He couldn’t have been paying attention in class.
(Frank suspendió el examen. No debió haber estado atento en la clase.)

“Could have” también se utiliza para expresar que algo fue posible en el pasado
pero en realidad no pasó.

Ejemplos:

• If it hadn’t stopped raining, the party could have been a disaster.(Si no hubiera
parado de llover, la fiesta podría haber sido un desastre.)
• She could have run faster, but she wanted to save her energy.(Ella podría
haber corrido más rápido, pero quería ahorrar energía.)
Should have / Ought to have

“Should have” y “ought to have” se utiliza cuando algo no ocurrió, pero

habría sido mejor si hubiera ocurrido. En la negativa, estos referentes indican
que algo sucedió, pero habría sido mejor que no fuese así.

Ejemplos:

• I told you, you should have studied more!(Te lo dije, deberías haber
estudiado más.)
• Ben ought to have gone to the doctor sooner. Now they say it will be a
month before he is fully recovered.(Ben debería haber ido al médico antes.
Ahora dicen que tardará un mes más en recuperarse por completo.)
• We should have left earlier. Now we are going to be late.(Deberíamos
haber salido más temprano. Ahora vamos a llegar tarde.)
Can’t have
“Can’t have” se utiliza de una manera similar a “must have”, pero en la forma
negativa. Podemos utilizar “can’t have” cuando estamos bastante seguros de
que algo no ocurrió o que no fue verdad en el pasado.

Ejemplos:

• I know you love chocolate. It can’t have been easy to say “no” to that piece of
cake. (Sé que te gusta el chocolate. No debió haber sido fácil para ti decir “no”
a ese pedazo de pastel.)
• Frank failed the exam. He can’t have been paying attention in class. (Frank
suspendió el examen. No debió haber estado atento en la clase.)
• They had a lot of work to do and little time. They can’t have finished
everything. (Tenían mucho trabajo que hacer y poco tiempo. No podrían
haber terminado todo.)
ARTICLES
QUESTION TAGS
 The Zero Conditional

● We can make a zero conditional sentence with two present simple verbs
(one in the 'if clause' and one in the 'main clause'):
If + present simple, .... present simple.

● This conditional is used when the result will always happen. So, if water
reaches 100 degrees, it always boils. It's a fact. I'm talking in general, not
about one particular situation. The result of the 'if clause' is always the
main clause.
● The 'if' in this conditional can usually be replaced by 'when' without
changing the meaning.

For example:
● If water reaches 100 degrees, it boils. (It is always true, there can't be a
different result sometimes).
● If I eat peanuts, I am sick. (This is true only for me, maybe, not for
everyone, but it's still true that I'm sick every time I eat peanuts)
 The First Conditional
● The first conditional has the present simple after 'if', then the future simple in the
other clause:
if + present simple, ... will + infinitive

● It's used to talk about things which might happen in the future. Of course, we
can't know what will happen in the future, but this describes possible things,
which could easily come true.

○ If it rains, I won't go to the park.

○ If I study today, I'll go to the party tonight.
○ If I have enough money, I'll buy some new shoes.
○ She'll be late if the train is delayed.
○ She'll miss the bus if she doesn't leave soon.
○ If I see her, I'll tell her.

● First vs. Zero Conditional:The first conditional describes a particular situation,

whereas the zero conditionaldescribes what happens in general.
 The Second Conditional
● The second conditional uses the past simple after if, then 'would' and the infinitive:
if + past simple, ...would + infinitive
● (We can use 'were' instead of 'was' with 'I' and 'he/she/it'. This is mostly done in formal writing).
It has two uses.
● First, we can use it to talk about things in the future that are probably not going to be true.
Maybe I'm imagining some dream for example.
❑ If I won the lottery, I would buy a big house.(I probably won't win the lottery)

❑ If I met the Queen of England, I would say hello.

❑ She would travel all over the world if she were rich.

❑ She would pass the exam if she ever studied.(She never studies, so this won't happen)

● Second, we can use it to talk about something in the present which is impossible, because it's not
true. Is that clear? Have a look at the examples:
❑ If I had his number, I would call him. (I don't have his number now, so it's impossible for me
to call him).
❑ If I were you, I wouldn't go out with that man.
 The Third Conditional

● We make the third conditional by using the past perfect after 'if'
and then 'would have' and the past participle in the second part of
the sentence:
if + past perfect, ...would + have + past participle

● It talks about the past. It's used to describe a situation that didn't
happen, and to imagine the result of this situation.
➢ If she had studied, she would have passed the exam (but, really we know she
didn't study and so she didn't pass)
➢ If I hadn't eaten so much, I wouldn't have felt sick (but I did eat a lot, and so I
did feel sick).
➢ If we had taken a taxi, we wouldn't have missed the plane
➢ She wouldn't have been tired if she had gone to bed earlier
➢ She would have become a teacher if she had gone to university
➢ He would have been on time for the interview if he had left the house at nine
ENOUGH / TOO MUCH
Los adverbios too y enough se pueden utilizar tanto con sustantivos como
con adjetivos, con algunas particularidades respecto a su posición en
la frase. Too hace referencia a cantidades o calidades excesivas, mientras
que enough significa suficiente.

Too:
1. Para poder acompañar a los sustantivos, se utiliza en la estructura too
much / too many.

Too many se utiliza con sustantivos contables en plural:

I have too many books. (Tengo demasiados libros)

Too much se utiliza con sustantivos incontables (siempre en singular):

There is too much sugar in my coffee. (Hay demasiado azúcar en mi café)

2. Se utiliza también con los adjetivos:

This dress is too long. (Éste vestido es demasiado largo)
ENOUGH
Cuando se utiliza con los sustantivos, siempre les precede. Puede
acompañar a:

Sustantivos contables en plural:

• I have enough books. (Tengo suficientes libros)
• There aren’t enough apples to make a tart. (No hay suficientes
manzanas para hacer una tarta)

Sustantivos incontables (siempre en singular):

• We have enough time to finish the project. (Tenemos suficiente tiempo
para acabar el proyecto)
• I don’t have enough money to buy a house.(No tengo suficiente dinero
para comprar una casa)

2. Cuando se utiliza con los adjetivos, siempre va detrás del adjetivo:

• This dress is long enough. (Este vestido es suficientemente largo)
QUANTIFIERS
a lot of / lots of

a lot of and lots of have the same meaning: they both mean a large amount or
number of people or things.

They are both used before countable nouns and uncountable nouns:

with countable nouns:

A lot of people went to the game.
Lots of people went to the game.

with uncountable nouns:

A lot of snow falls in winter.
Lots of snow falls in winter.

a lot
a lot means very often or very much. It is used as an adverb. It often comes at
the end of a sentence and never before a noun.
I like basketball a lot.
She's a lot happier now than she was.
I don't go there a lot anymore.