Unit 2

Evolution of wireless technology

Direct-Link or Point-to-Point
Networks

• Physical layer handles bits

• Data-link layer handles packets
• Framing
• Error detection
• Retransmission-based protocols
• How do I send to N hosts?
• N point-to-point links
• Other possibilities?

Prof. Rick Han, University of Colorado at Boulder

Shared-Media or Broadcast
Networks
• N senders and receivers connected by a
shared medium (copper wire, atmosphere-TV!)
• Sharing access to the same media
• Analogy: How do N persons converse in a room or
at the dinner table? At once, or one by one?
What is the communications protocol?
• Local Area Network (LAN)

Ethernet (802.3) 802.11/Wireless

Ethernet
Prof. Rick Han, University of Colorado at Boulder
Multiple Access Protocols

• Determine which host is allowed to transmit

next to a shared medium
• Channel reservation: TDMA, FDMA, CDMA, Token
Ring, …
• Random access: ALOHA, CSMA/CD, CSMA/CA

Ethernet 802.11/Wireless
Ethernet
Prof. Rick Han, University of Colorado at Boulder
Multiple Access Protocols (2)

Host A
• Also called Medium-Access
Control (MAC) protocols
Data Link • Before data link-layer
Layer packets can be sent, a
sender has to gain access to
MAC Layer the media
• MAC layer is often placed in
the stack between layer 2 and
layer 1
Physical
Layer

Prof. Rick Han, University of Colorado at Boulder

 Figure 12.2 Taxonomy of multiple-access protocols discussed in this chapter

12.6
 FREQUENCY MULTIPLEX

• Separation of the whole spectrum into smaller frequency bands

• A channel gets a certain band of the spectrum for the whole time
• Advantages:
• no dynamic coordination k k k k k k
necessary 1 2 3 4 5 6

• works also for analog signals c

f

• Disadvantages:
• waste of bandwidth
if the traffic is
distributed unevenly
• inflexible t
• Limits the number
of users
TIME MULTIPLEX

• A channel gets the whole spectrum for a certain

amount of time

• Advantages: k k k k k k
• only one carrier in the 1 2 3 4 5 6

medium at any time c

• throughput high even f
for many users
• Disadvantages:
• precise
synchronization t

necessary
TIME AND FREQUENCY MULTIPLEX

• Combination of both methods

• A channel gets a certain frequency band for a certain
amount of time
• Example: GSM
k k k k k k

Advantages:
1 2 3 4 5 6
•
c
● better protection against
f
tapping
● Disadvantage:
• precise coordination
required t
Access method CDMA(code division multiple
access):
This scheme uses different codes for different users which are
orthogonal to each other allowing all the users to access
the medium at the same time without inteference.all users use the
same carrier frequency and may transmit simultaneously
CDMA

Uses the whole band, for the whole timeEveryone

transmits on top of everyone else.
How do we show this?
.
CDMA

Everyone will transmit together but only with different

codes

and if you know the right code, you can receive

just the person transmitting with that code
CDMA EXAMPLE
Low-Bandwidth Signal:

High-Bandwidth Spreading Code:

...repeated...
CDMA EXAMPLE
Low-Bandwidth Signal:

High-Bandwidth Spreading Code:

Mix is a simple multiply

… and transmit.
CDMA EXAMPLE
To Decode / Receive, take the signal:

Multiply by the same Spreading Code:

… to get ...

… which you should recognise as...

CDMA EXAMPLE

To Decode / Receive, take the signal:

Multiply by the same Spreading Code:

… to get ...
WHAT IF WE USE THE WRONG CODE?
Take the same signal:

Multiply by the wrong Spreading Code:

… you get ...

… which clearly hasn't recovered the original signal.

Using wrong code is like being off-frequency.
 This obviously shows that
timing is critical. To receive a signal, you not only need to be
generating the RIGHT code, but your TIMING needs to be
locked very tightly to the
received signal too.
CSMA
• Station that wants to transmit first listens to
check if another transmission is in progress
(carrier sense).
• If medium is in use, station waits; else, it
transmits.
• Collisions can still occur.
• Transmitter waits for ACK; if no ACKs,
retransmits.

24
 CSMA FLAVORS

• 1-persistent CSMA (IEEE 802.3)

● If medium idle, transmit; if medium busy, wait until idle; then
transmit with p=1.
● If collision, waits random period and starts again.
• Non-persistent CSMA: if medium idle, transmit; otherwise wait a
random time before re-trying.
● Thus, station does not continuously sense channel when it is in use.
• P-persistent:
• 1. If the medium is idle, transmit with probability p, and delay for one
time unit with probability (1 - p)

(time unit = length of propagation delay)

2. If the medium is busy, continue to listen until medium becomes idle,
then go to Step 1
3. If transmission is delayed by one time unit, continue with Step 1
25
 Figure 12.11 Flow diagram for three persistence methods

12.26
 Figure 12.14 Flow diagram for the CSMA/CD

12.27
ORTHOGONAL FREQUENCY DIVISION
MULTIPLEXING(OFDM)

• It is a special kind of FDM

• The spacing between carriers are such that they are
orthogonal to one another
• Therefore no need of guard band between carriers.

29
WHAT IS ORTHOGONAL FREQUENCY
DIVISION MULTIPLEXING (OFDM)?

• Multi-carrier Amplitude modulation

scheme
● Each Carrier’s amplitude is modulated
• Well-suited for Wireless Communication
Amplitude

Frequency
OFDM can be used as a multiple access scheme allowing simultaneous
frequency-separated transmissions to/from multiple mobile terminals
The number of sub-carriers can be scaled to fit the bandwidth – Scalable
OFDM can be used as a multiple access scheme allowing simultaneous
frequency-separated transmissions to/from multiple mobile terminals
Wireless Technology
 Wireless network architecture

It consists of mobile hosts, fixed hosts, access stations (BS),

core network to support mobility and switching.
Classification of wireless networks

● Wireless body area networks

● Wireless personal area networks
● Wireless local area networks
● Wireless metropolitan area networks and
● Wireless wide area networks such as GSM or

CDMA cellular networks

● Satellite networks and broadband access networks
 Classification of wireless networks
(Contd..)
h

.
 Classification of wireless networks
(Contd..)
Wireless Body Area Network (WBAN)
● Max. signal range 2 meters

● Interconnecting respective devices within the surface of the body

●
 Classification of wireless networks
(Contd..)
Wireless Body Area Network (WBAN)
 Classification of wireless networks
(Contd..)
Wireless Personal Area Network (WPAN)

● Max. signal range of 10 meters

=
 Classification of wireless networks
(Contd..)
Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN)
• Signal range is ≈100 meters.
• Also called the Wireless Fidelity (Wi-Fi or IEEE 802.11)

=
 Recall: an example of wired LAN

Laptop Laptop Laptop

Server Printer

Work Work Work

Station Station Station
A user is connected if An example of wireless LAN Each cell operates at
he/she is in the a
coverage different frequency
area of a cell
Work
Laptop Station Laptop Laptop Laptop
Laptop

Access Access Access

Point Point Point

Server Printer

Access Access Access

Point Point Point

Work Work Work Work Work

Station Station Station Station Station
 Cellullar structure
• Implements space division multiplex: base station covers a certain
transmission area (cell)
• Mobile stations communicate only via the base station

• Advantages of cell structures:

– higher capacity, higher number of users
– less transmission power needed
– more robust, decentralized
– base station deals with interference, transmission area etc. locally
• Problems:
– fixed network needed for the base stations
– handover (changing from one cell to another) necessary
– interference with other cells
• Cell sizes from some 100 m in cities to, e.g., 35 km on the country side
(GSM) - even less for higher frequencies.
• A Cell is the basic geographical unit of a cellular system. Commonly
represented as a hexagon, each served by at least one fixed-
location transceiver, known as base station.
f
• Each BS is allocated a set of channels. f
3

f
5 2
• Frequency reuse only with a certain distance f 4 6 f f 5

• between the base stations. 1 f f

4

• Hexagonal shape is universally accepted. 3 f 7 f f 1

• The radio coverage area of a cell is called a 2 f

• footprint.
• Standard model using 7 frequencies

• The BS simultaneously communicates with many mobile using one

channel (pair of frequencies) per mobile. One frequency is for the
forward link (Base station to the mobile) and other frequency is for
the reverse link (Mobile to the Base station).
 Cellular network or mobile network is a wireless network distributed
over land areas called cells, each served by at least one fixed-
location transceiver, known as a cell site or base station. In a cellular
network, each cell uses a different set of frequencies from neighboring
cells, to avoid interference and provide guaranteed bandwidth within
each cell.
 • Frequency planning
• Cluster
• A cluster is a group of cells. No frequencies are reused within a
cluster. Frequencies used in one cell cluster can be reused in
another cluster of cells. A large number of cells per cluster
arrangement reduces interference to the system.
• Frequency Reuse
• Frequency reuse is a technique of allocating channels to the
cellular system. Because of the unavailability of the spectrum at
the cellular band, channels frequencies must be reused. Cells are
assigned group of channels that are completely different from
those of neighboring cells. Cells with the same number have the
same set of frequencies. Cell cluster size , denoted by N, IS 7 if the
number of available frequency is 7, the frequency reuse factor is
1/7, which implies that each cell is using 1/7 of available
frequencies . Frequency reuse introduces interference into the
system.
• Assume cellular area has ‘N’ clusters ,Capacity ‘C’ is calculated as
• C=k.MN
• Where, k=set of channels assigned for each cell
• M= No. of times cluster N is replicated.
• Or C=Ms where s is number of duplex channels.
 Channel Assignment Strategies
• Frequency reuse scheme
– increases capacity
– minimize interference
• Channel assignment strategy
– fixed channel assignment
– dynamic channel assignment
• Fixed channel assignment
– each cell is allocated a predetermined set of voice channel
– any new call attempt can only be served by the unused channels
– the call will be blocked if all channels in that cell are occupied
• Dynamic channel assignment
– channels are not allocated to cells permanently.
– allocate channels based on request.
– reduce the likelihood of blocking, increase capacity.
 Fixed Channel Assignment Strategy
– Each cell is allocated a predetermined set of voice channels.
– A call attempt can only be served if unused channel in that
particular cell is available
– If all channels are occupied then the call is blocked. Several
variation exist like borrowing strategy
• A cell is allowed to borrow a channel from
neighboring cell if all of its channels are occupied
• A mobile switching center (MSC) supervises such
procedures and ensures that borrowing of channel
does not disrupt or interfere with any of the calls in
progress in the donor cell

48
 ➲ Dynamic Channel Assignment Strategy

• Dynamic Channel Assignment Strategy

– Voice channels are not allocated to cells
permanently
– On each call request, the BS requests a
channel from MSC.
– MSC allocates a channel by taking into account
• the likelihood of future blocking within the
cell
• The frequency of use of the candidate
channel, reuse distance
49
– Hence, MSC only allocates a channel if that is not presently
in use in the cell which falls within minimum restricted
distance of frequency reuse.
– It reduces the likelihood of the call blocking, increasing the
trunking capacity of the system.
– It requires MSC to collect real-time data on channel
occupancy, traffic distribution and RSSI of all channels
• This increases storage and computational load
on the system
• But provides increased channel utilization and
decreased call blocking

50
 Frequency planning
f3 f3 f3
f2 f2 f2 f3 f7
f1 f1 f1
3 cell cluster f5 f2
f4 f6 f5
f3 f3
f1 f4
f2 f2 f2 f3 f7 f1
f2 f3
f1 f1
f6 f5 f2
f3 f3 f3

7 cell cluster

f2 f2 f2
f1
f3 h2
f1
f3 h2
f1
f3 3 cell cluster
h1 h1
g1
g2 h3
g1
g2 h3
g1
g2 with 3 sector
g3 g3 g3
antennas
 Hand-off Strategies

Original
BS
Target BS

• During a conversation, the mobile station moves from one cell to another.
• When it does, the signal may become weak. To solve this problem, the MSC monitors
the level of the signal every few seconds.
• If the strength of the signal diminishes, the MSC seeks a new cell that can better
accommodate the communication.
• The MSC then changes the channel carrying the call (hands the signal off from the old
channel to a new one).
 4 types of handover
1)intracell 2)intercell 3)interBSC 4)interMSC
1
2 3 4
M M M M
S S S S

BTS BTS BTS BTS

BSC BSC BSC

MSC MSC

4.29.1
Handoff types with reference to the network

❖ Intra-system handoff or Inter-BS handoff

The new and the old BSs are connected to

the same MSC.
 Intra-system handoff or Inter-BS handoff

Steps
1. The MS momentarily suspends conversation and
initiates the handoff procedure by signaling on an idle
(currently free) channel in the new BS. Then it
resumes the conversation on the old BS.
 Intra-system handoff or Inter-BS handoff

2. Upon receipt of the signal, the MSC transfers the encryption

information to the selected idle channel of the new BS and sets up the
new conversation path to the MS through that channel. The switch
bridges the new path with the old path and informs the MS to transfer
from the old channel to the new channel.
 Intra-system handoff or Inter-BS handoff

3. After the MS has been transferred to the new BS, it signals

the network and resumes conversation using the new
channel.
 Intra-system handoff or Inter-BS handoff

4. Upon the receipt of the handoff completion signal, the

network removes the bridge from the path and releases
resources associated with the old channel.
 Radio Link Transfer

a) The radio link to

the old BS is
disconnected.
b) A radio link to the msc
new BS should be New
established. Old BS BS

• Link transfer
procedure
• Hard handoff
• Soft handoff
 Radio link transfer procedures
• Hard handoff procedure
– Channel in the source cell is released and only
then the channel in the target cell is engaged.
– Source connection is broken before the target
connection is made hence also known as break-
before –make.
– Instantaneous handovers minimizes call disruption
– TDMA, FDMA
• Soft handoff procedure
– Channel in the source cell is retained and used in parallel with target
cell channel.
– Target connection is established before source connection is broken,
hence called make-before-break..
– Complicated than hard handoff.
– Connections to multiple cells can be maintained by one phone at same
time.
– The best signal of all used channels can be utilized for the call or all
the signals can be combined to produce a clearer copy of the signal.
– CDMA
 Strategies for Handoff Detection
• • Who makes a decision for handoff
• • Three handoff detection schemes:
• • Mobile-Controlled Handoff (MCHO)
• • Network-Controlled Handoff (NCHO)
• • Mobile-Assisted Handoff (MAHO)
• • Others
 Mobile controlled handoff
• The most popular technique for low-tier radio systems
• MS continuously monitors the signals of the surrounding BSs.
• The MS initiates the handoff process when some handoff criteria are met.

Make quality measurements

of channels
Monitoring the signal
strength and quality from Checks the best candidate BS
BSs
Automatic link transfer control
Measurement Time slot transfer control
s
process

Yes Link-
qualit No Select new Execute
y Channel or ALT or
Accep time slot TST
table?
 Network controlled handoff
• Heavy network signaling traffic happens
• The surrounding BSs measure the signal strength and quality from the MS.
• • The network initiates the handoff process when some handoff criteria
are met.
• • MSC controls the handoff.
MS RSS
BS Monitor signal
RSS I
strength
I
and quality
BS RSS BS
I
Thr
esh
BS
old

Arranges for a handoff

to another BS
Network
Choose new BS
Informs both the MS Report the measurement result
and the new BS Ask to monitor the signal from the MS
 Interference and system Capacity
• Some of the sources of interference are:
• Signal generated from other mobile
• A call in progress in the neighboring cell.
• Other BSs operating within the same frequency range.
• Cross talk
• The effects of interference are:
• Decays signal strength.
• Blocked calls status
• Limits the capacity of cellular systems.
• The different types of interference are:
• Co-Channel interference(CCI)
• Adjacent Channel interference(ACI)
• Two major types of system-generated interference :
1) Co-Channel Interference (CCI)
2) Adjacent Channel Interference (ACI)
• Co-Channel Interference caused by frequency reuse
– Many cells in given coverage area use same set of channel
frequencies to increase system capacity (C)
– Co-channel cells → cells that share same set of frequencies
– VC & CC traffic in co-channel cells are interfering sources
to neighboring (not adjacent!) co-channel cells
 Co-Channel Interference
• Possible solution :
A)Increase base station Tx power to improve radio signal
reception?

NO!!
Why ??
→ increases interference from co-
channel cells by the same amount!
→ no net improvement

67
 Co-Channel Interference
• Possible solution :
B)Separate co-channel cells by some minimum distance to
provide sufficient isolation from propagation of radio
signals?

YES!!
Why ??
→ if all cell sizes ≈ same then co-
channel interference is independent of Tx power
Q=D/R, where
Q=cochannel reuse ratio
D= Distance between 2 centers of nearest cells.
R=Radius of the cell
Q=SQRT( 3N), where N is custer68 size
 Adjacent Channel Interference
• Adjacent Channel Interference (ACI)
– Arises from signals that are adjacent in frequency.Caused
by imperfect Rx filters that allow frequency from adjacent
channels to leak into passband of desired signal

Desired Ideal Signal BW

Filter Response
Signal
Energy Leaks
Actual Filter into Rx from
Response Adjacent
f1 f2 Channel

69
 Adjacent Channel Interference
• ACI can affect both forward & reverse channel links
• Reverse Link → mobile-to-base
– Interference @ base station Rx from nearby mobile Tx
when desired mobile Tx is far away from base station
• Forward Link → base-to-mobile
– Interference @ desired mobile Rx from nearby base Tx
when secondary mobile Rx is far away from base station
• Near/Far Effect
– Interfering source (Tx) is near some Rx when other source
is far away
• ACI is primarily from mobiles in same cell
– Some cell-to-cell ACI does occur as well → secondary
source

70
Adjacent Channel Interference

Reverse Link ACI

BS
X Interference @ BS Rx

X
MS 1
Undesired
Nearby X MS 2
Strong Desired
Signal Signal
Far Away
& Weak

71
 Adjacent Channel Interference

Forward Link ACI

BS
X
X Interference @ MS Rx

MS 1: Desired Mobile,
X Nearby with Strong Tx
Signal and ACI from BS
MS 2: Secondary
Mobile, Far Away
with from BS

72
• GSM GSM: Overview
– formerly: Groupe Spéciale Mobile (founded 1982)
– now: Global System for Mobile Communication
– Primary Goal: provide a mobile system that allow users to
roam throughout and provide voice services compatible to
ISDN and other PSTN systems
– Simultaneous introduction of essential services in three phases
(1991, 1994, 1996) by the European telecommunication
administrations
– Today many providers all over the world use GSM (more than
130 countries in Asia, Africa, Europe, Australia, America)
– More than 100 million subscribers

4.2.1
 Disadvantages of GSM
• There is no perfect system!!

• no end-to-end encryption of user data

• no full ISDN bandwidth of 64 kbit/s to the user, no transparent B-channel

• reduced concentration while driving

• electromagnetic radiation

• abuse of private data possible

• roaming profiles accessible

• high complexity of the system

• several incompatibilities within the GSM standards

4.4.1
 GSM: Mobile Services
• GSM offers
– several types of connections
• voice connections, data connections, short message service
– multi-service options (combination of basic services)
• Three service domains
– Bearer Services
– Tele Services
– Supplementary Services
– PLMN-public land mobile network
– MT-Mobile termination performs all network related tasks (TDMA,FDMA, Coding) and
provides interface for data transmission to terminal TE

bearer services
MS
transit source/
TE MT GSM-PLMN network destination TE
R, S Um (PSTN, ISDN) network (U, S, R)

tele services

4.5.1
 Bearer Services
• Comprise of all services that enable transparent transmission of data
between the interfaces to the network,
• It provides transparent and non transparent, synchronous and
asynchronous data transmissions
• Transparent bearer services uses functions of physical layer to transmit
data.
• Non transparent bearer services use protocols of layers two and three to
implement error correction and flow control.
• Different data rates for voice and data (original standard)
– data service (circuit switched)
• synchronous: 2.4, 4.8 or 9.6 kbit/s
• asynchronous: 300 - 1200 bit/s
– data service (packet switched)
• synchronous: 2.4, 4.8 or 9.6 kbit/s
• asynchronous: 300 - 9600 bit/s

4.6.1
 Supplementary services
• Services in addition to the basic services
• Similar to ISDN services besides lower bandwidth
due to the radio link
• May differ between different service providers,
countries and protocol versions

• Important services
– identification: forwarding of caller number
– automatic call-back
– conferencing with up to 7 participants
– blocking of the mobile terminal (incoming or
outgoing calls)

4.9.1
 Architecture of the GSM system
• GSM is a PLMN (Public Land Mobile Network)
– several providers setup mobile networks following the
GSM standard within each country
– components
• MS (mobile station)
• BS (base station)
• MSC (mobile switching center)
• LR (location register)
– subsystems
• RSS (radio subsystem): covers all radio aspects
• NSS (network and switching subsystem): call
forwarding, handover, switching
• OSS (operation subsystem): management of the
network
 GSM: overview
OMC, EIR,
AUC
HLR
GMSC
NSS fixed network
with OSS

VLR MSC MSC

VLR

BSC

BSC

RSS

(AUC) -Authentication Center

(EIR) Equipment Identity
Register
Operation and Maintenance Center (OMC)
GSM: elements and interfaces
radio cell
M M BSS
S S

Um radio cell

M RSS-radio subsystem
RSS BTS S

BTS
NSS-Network and
Abis
switching subsystem
BSC BSC
A

MS MS OSS-Operation Subsystem
C C

NSS signaling
VLR VLR
GM ISDN, PSTN
HLR
SC
IW PDN
F
O

OSS AU OM
EIR
C C

4.12.1
System architecture: radio subsystem
radio •
network and switching Components
subsystem subsystem – MS (Mobile Station)
– BSS (Base Station Subsystem):
MS MS performs all functions necessary to
maintain radio connections to an MS. It
consisting of
Um
• BTS (Base Transceiver
BTS Abis Station):comprises all radio
BS
MSC euipment e.g antennas,amplifiers
BTS C necessary for radio transmission
sender and receiver
• BSC (Base Station Controller):
manages the BTS’s,reserves radio
frequencies,handles handover from
one BTS to another
A
BTS
BS MSC • Interfaces
C
BTS – Um : radio interface
BSS – Abis : standardized, open interface with
16 kbit/s user channels
– A: standardized, open interface with
64 kbit/s user channels
4.14.1
 Radio subsystem
• The Radio Subsystem (RSS) comprises the cellular mobile network up to
the switching centers
• Components
– Base Station Subsystem (BSS):Each BSS controls a base station
controller.
• Base Transceiver Station (BTS): radio components including sender,
receiver, antenna - if directed antennas are used one BTS can cover
several cells
• Base Station Controller (BSC): switching between BTSs, controlling
BTSs, managing of network resources, mapping of radio channels
(Um) onto terrestrial channels (A interface)

• BSS = BSC + sum(BTS) + interconnection

– Mobile Stations (MS)

4.16.1
 Base Transceiver Station and Base Station Controller

• Tasks of a BSS are distributed over BSC and BTS

• BTS comprises radio specific functions
• BSC is the switching center for radio channels

4.18.1
System architecture: network and switching subsystem
network fixed partner
subsystem networks
●Components
ISDN ● MSC (Mobile Switching Center):
PSTN
MSC ● IWF (Interworking Functions)
allow MSC to PDN.
EIR

●Databases
SS7

HLR
● HLR (Home Location Register)-
stores user relevant
VLR information.static information
ISDN
MSC
PSTN ● VLR (Visitor Location Register)-
IWF
PSPDN
dynamic information
CSPDN

4.15.1
 Network and switching subsystem
• NSS is the main component of the public mobile network GSM
– switching, mobility management, interconnection to other
networks, system control
• Components
– Mobile Services Switching Center (MSC)
controls all connections via a separated network to/from a
mobile terminal within the domain of the MSC - several
BSC can belong to a MSC
– Databases
• Home Location Register (HLR)
central master database containing user data, permanent and
semi-permanent data of all subscribers assigned to the HLR
• Visitor Location Register (VLR)
local database for a subset of user data, including data about all
user currently in the domain of the VLR
4.20.1
 Mobile Switching Center
• The MSC (mobile switching center) plays a central role in GSM
– switching functions
– additional functions for mobility support
– management of network resources
– interworking functions via Gateway MSC (GMSC)
– integration of several databases
• Functions of a MSC
– specific functions for paging and call forwarding
– termination of SS7 (signaling system no. 7)
– mobility specific signaling
– location registration and forwarding of location information
– provision of new services (fax, data calls)
– support of short message service (SMS)
– generation and forwarding of accounting and billing information

4.21.1
 Operation subsystem
• The OSS (Operation Subsystem) enables centralized operation, management,
and maintenance of all GSM subsystems
• Components
– Authentication Center (AUC)
• generates user specific authentication parameters on request of a VLR
• authentication parameters used for authentication of mobile terminals
and encryption of user data on the air interface within the GSM system
.
• Specifies a database that allows checking whether a user is able to
make a call or not with the help of sim card assigned.
– Equipment Identity Register (EIR)
• registers GSM mobile stations and user rights
• Stores the numbers of those phones that have been lost or stolen or in
blacklist.
– Operation and Maintenance Center (OMC)
• different control capabilities for the radio subsystem and the network
subsystem
4.22.1
 GSM Channels
• Traffic channels:
• It is used to carry speech and data traffic. 3 types are:
• Full rate(FR)/Half Rate(HR):13Kbit/s for FR and 5.6 kbit/s for HR
• Enhanced Full rate(EFR):Better voice quality than FR with low error
rate.data rate is 12.2 kbit/s
• Adaptive multi-rate(AMR):Used with 3G systems

• Control Channels:
• Helps in controlling medium access,allocation of traffic channels, or
mobility management.cchs are of following types
• Broadcast control channel(BCCH):
• Continually broadcasts on the downlink, information including BS
identity, frequency allocation and frequency hopping sequence
• Common C ontrol channel(CCCH):
• Specifies a channel used to exchange information regarding connection
setup between MS and BS.

88
• Dedicated Control Channel:
• Consists of bidirectional channels.DCCH are of the
following types:
• Standalone dedicated control channel(SDCCH):
• Ensures connection during user identficatin and
resource allocation
• Slow associated control channel(SACCH):
• Specifies the channel that is used fr power changing of
an MS, Timing advance,sending report on
measurements done by an MS..
• Fast associated Control Channel(FACCH):
• Specifies the channel thatis used for sending urgent
messages or stealing frames from a TCH

89
 GSM Burst Structure
• A time slot structure is the division of a time slot period into different
fields that store information.
• A single time slot transmission is called a radio burst.
• In a GSM system,radio bursts are of the following types:
• Normal Burst:
• used in communication of a mobile device with a BS.Can transfer 114
bits of data.
• Random Access Burst:
• used to request access to the GSM system.can transfer 88 bits of
data.
• Frequency correction burst:
• used to adjust timing in a mobile device for better receiving and
demodulating the radio chanel.can transfer 142 bits of data.
• Synchronisation Burst:
• it specifies a transmission burst that contains system timing info.
 GSM hierarchy of frames
hyperframe
204 204 204 3 h 28 min 53.76 s
0 1 2 ...
5 6 7

superframe
0 1 2 ... 48 49 50
6.12 s
0 1 ... 24 25

multiframe
0 1 ... 24 25 120 ms

0 1 2 ... 48 49 50 235.4 ms

frame
0 1 ... 6 7 4.615 ms
slot
bur 577 µs
st

4.24.1
 GSM - TDMA/FDMA 935-960 MHz
124 channels (200 kHz)
downlink

890-915 MHz
124 channels (200 kHz)
uplink
higher GSM frame structures
time

GSM TDMA frame

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
4.615 ms

GSM time-slot (normal burst)

guard guard
space tai user data S Training S user data tail space 546.5 µs
l
3 bits 57 bits 1 26 bits 1 57 bits 3
A single time slot is 0.57692 ms.each time slot contains 156.25 bits, out of which 8.25 bits
are utilized for guard space and 6 bits for starting and stopping bits to avoid overlapping
 GPRS
• GPRS (General Packet Radio Service)
– It is a fully packet-oriented,flexible and powerful data
transmission technique.
– Enabled high data rates upto maximum of 172kbps.
– standardization 1998, introduction 2000
– GPRS was voice oriented and transmitted data at high speeds
– It offered web browsing services
– User is charged on volume instead of time duration of connection
– It offers security services , including authentication, access
control, confidentiality,,
• GPRS network elements
– GSN (GPRS Support Nodes): GGSN and SGSN
– GGSN (Gateway GSN)
• interworking unit between GPRS and PDN (Packet Data Network).
• In this mode, storing routing information for GPRS Users, performing
conversion of address and using encapsulation to tunnel data to a user are
contained.;
• The role of GGSN n SGSN is similar to the role played by home agent and
foreign agent respectively
– SGSN (Serving GSN)
• supports the MS
• It asks the GR to provide user addresses (location, billing, security)
– GR (GPRS Register)
• user addresses, stores all data relevant to GPRS
 GPRS architecture and interfaces
SGSN

Gn

PDN
MS BSS SGSN GGSN

Um Gb Gn Gi

MSC HLR/
GR

PDN-packet
VLR EIR
data network
• The GPRS architecture consists of
• Gateway GPRS support node(GGSN):is the
interworking unit between the GPRS network and
external packet data networks(PDN)
• This node contains routing information for GPRS
users, performs address conversion, and tunnels data
to a user via encapsulation
• Serving GPRS support node(SGSN):Supports the MS
via Gb interface.
• It requests user addresses from GPRS register(GR)
• Keeps track of the individual MS’s location
• Collects billing information and security functions
such as access control.
 GPRS protocol architecture
MS Um BSS Gb SGSN Gn GGSN Gi
apps.

IP/X.25 IP/X.25

SNDCP SN GTP
DCP GTP
LLC LLC UDP/TCP UDP/TCP

RLC RL BSS BSSGP IP IP

C GP
MAC MAC
FR FR L1/L2 L1/L2
radio radio

GTP=GPRS tunneling protocol

SNDCP=Subnetwork dependent convergence protocol
 EDGE
• Stand for enhanced data rates for GSM evolution.
• It can handle 3 times more data than GPRS
• It is the only IMT -2000 air interface standard based on TDMA
technology.
• The standardization process for EDGE Consists OF 2 PHASES:
• Phase 1 emphasizes increased capacity and spectral efficiency by
adopting an enhanced packet switched mode and an enhanced
circuit switched mode that offer data rates upto 473 and 64 kbps
respectively.
• These modes are referred to as Enhanced GPRS(EGPRS) and
Enhanced Circuit Switched Data(ECSD).
• Phase 2 provides support for QOS, real time and packet switched
voice services as well as interfacing to an all-IP core network.
 EDGE Network Architecture
• The elements are as follows:
• GGSN:It acts as a gateway to the world outside the network.
• A gateway,router,and firewall combined together form a
GGSN. When data for specific user is received , it verifies if
user is active or not and only then it forwards the data.

• SGSN:It is a gateway to the services that are found within the

network. It offers services like packet routing and
transmission, authentication, logical link management,
mobility management and data charging to mobiles.

• Packet control unit(PCU):It determines whether the data has

to be routed to the circuit switched network(GSM)or packet
switched networks.(GPRS).
 CDMA
• CDMA refers to a method of accessing the channel .in CDMA multiple
transmitters are able to transmit information at the same time using
single communication channel.T his enables mobile users to use the
same band of frequencies
• It consists of the foll elements:
• MS
• BTS
• BSC
• Packet control function(PCF):It uses handoff to guard radio mobility
for the upper layer services
• Packet Data Service Node(PDSN):Implements the switching of packet
data service for mobile users.it offers an interface between the radio
network and packet data network.
• MSC, VLR, HLR
• Transmit diversity:
– In multicarrier approach, the base station will use different,
spatially seperated antennas, to transmit the multiple
subcarriers. Signals originating from the different antennas
will fade indpendently, thus increasing frequency diversity.
– BS spreads data into 2 substreams, which in turn are
transmited via separate antennas.
• Fast Power Control:
‾ MS measures the power of downlink traffic and issue power
up or power down commands to BS according to
measurements
• Common pilot and auxiliary pilots:
₋ Mobile nodes within a cell share this channel to obtain
information about multipath fading and channel condition.. It
also supports smart antenna systems
• Synchronised base station operation: enables fast handovers
between Cdma One and Cdma 2000 networks.
• Forward channels:
• The forward pilot channel(F-PICH):
• provides timing and phase info.
• The forward auxiliary pilot channels(F-APICHs):
• Coverage to geographical point is increased by
using smart antennas
• The transmit diversity pilot channel(F-TDPICH):
• Synchronisation by mobiles inside specific cell.
• The forward common control channel(F-CCCH):
• BS transfers MAC sublayer or high layer messages
to mobiles
• The forward Sync channel(F-SYNCH):
• MS acquire initial synchronisation info.
• The forward paging channel(F-PCH):
• Bs use this channel to transmit overhead information
and MS specific messages
• The forward broadcast channel(F-BCH:):
• Send control info to MS that are not assigned traffic
channel
• The forward quick paging channel(F-QPCH):
• Contol info to MS
• The forward common power control channel(F-
CPCCH):
• conveys info fo power control
• The forward common assignment channel(F-CACH):
• quick assignment of uplink common control channel
Bs provides
• The forward data traffic channels
• Reverse CDMA channels
▪ The reverse pilot channel(R-PICH)::
▪ Helps BS to detect Mobiles transmission
▪ The reverse access channel(R-ACH):
▪ MS uses this channel to initiate communication
with the BS and respond to paging messages
▪ The reverse enhanced access channel(R-EACH):
▪ Respond to MS- directed messages
▪ The reverse common control channel(R-CCCH):
▪ Conveys user and signaling information to the BS
when reverse traffic channels are not used
▪ Thee reverse data traffic channels
 Location or roaming management
• Roaming
• When a mobile user moves from one system to
another, the location of the user should tell the PCS
system.
UMTS: Universal Mobile Telecommunication
System
4g LTE : Long term Evolution