GENERAL CHEMISTRY

P R I N C I P L E S A N D M O D E R N A P P L I C AT I O N S
ELEVENTH EDITION

PETRUCCI HERRING MADURA BISSONNETTE

Atoms and the

Atomic Theory 2
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 CONTENTS
Atoms and the
2-1 Early Chemical Discoveries and the
Atomic Theory Atomic Theory
2-2 Electrons and Other Discoveries in
Atomic Physics
2-3 The Nuclear Atom

2-4 Chemical Elements

2-5 Atomic Mass

2-6 Introduction to the Periodic Table

2-7 The Concept of the Mole and the

Avogadro Constant
2-8 Using the Mole Concept in
Calculations

Image of silicon atoms that are only 78 pm apart by a

scanning transmission electron microscope (STEM)
 2-1 Early Chemical Discoveries
and the Atomic Theory

Lavoisier 1774 Law of Conservation of Mass

Proust 1799 Law of Constant Composition

Dalton 1803-1888 Dalton’s Atomic Theory

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 Law of Conservation of Mass

Antoine Lavoisier

mass is neither created or destroyed during regular

chemical or physical changes
Mass of Reactants = Mass of Products

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 Mass of Reactants = Mass of Products
potassium chromate

potassium nitrate

silver nitrate
silver chromate

Mass is conserved during a chemical reaction

(a) Before the reaction, a beaker with a silver nitrate solution and a
graduated cylinder with a potassium chromate solution are placed on a
single-pan balance, which displays their combined mass—104.50 g. (b)
When the solutions are mixed, a chemical reaction occurs that forms silver
chromate (red precipitate) in a potassium nitrate solution. Note that the total
mass—104.50 g—remains unchanged.
FIGURE 2-2
Mass is conserved during a chemical reaction
 Law of Constant Composition

joseph Proust

samples of a pure compound always contain the same elements in the

same mass proportion.

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 Joseph Proust (France 1799)

Law of Definite
Proportions:
A given compound always contains
elements in a certain proportion by mass.
(Constant composition).

The elemental composition of a

pure substance never varies.
Atoms combine in whole number ratios, so their proportion by
mass will always be the same.
Example: H2O is always made up of 2 atoms of H and one
atom of O.
The ratio of O to H in water is always 16:2 or 8:1.
Example:

KCl always contains one atom of K for every one atom of Cl

In KCl, potassium and chlorine always have a ratio of “39.09
to 35.45” or “1.1 to 1” by mass.
Law of Multiple Proportions (John Dalton)

When the same two elements combine to form more than one
compound:
the ratios of the mass of one element in the first compound to
its mass in the second compound, (as it combines with the
same mass of the other element), can always be expressed as
ratios of small whole numbers( ex: 1:3 or 2:5).
Example of Law of Multiple Proportions

Carbon combines with

oxygen to form CO and
CO2 .

Mass of Mass of Ratio of O

Carbon(g) Oxygen(g) in CO2 to O
in CO
CO 12.01 16.00

CO2 12.01 32.00 2:1

If two elements form more than a single compound, the masses of one element
combined with a fixed mass of the second are in the ratio of small whole
numbers.

• In forming on oxide, 1.0 g of

carbon combines with 1.33 g
of oxygen.

• In forming the other oxide,

1.0 g of carbon combines with
2.66 g of oxygen.

FIGURE 2-3
Molecules of CO and CO2 illustrating the law of multiple proportions

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 John Dalton (1766-1844)

• Dalton is the “Father of Atomic

Theory”
• Dalton’s ideas were so brilliant
that they have remained
essentially intact up to the present
time and has only been slightly
corrected.
 John Dalton, New Atom,1803

Born in England, 1766

Studied chemistry, physics,

and color blindness

Brought back Democritus’s

idea of an indivisible atom
Color blindness

Can you see a number in this gray box?

If not, you may be color blind.
(More males are color blind than females)
Dalton’s Atomic Theory
1. He deduced that all elements
are composed of atoms.
2. Atoms are indivisible and
indestructible particles. (later
proved wrong)
3. Atoms of the same element
are exactly alike. (found out
not exactly correct)
4. Atoms of different elements
are different.
5. Compounds are formed by
the joining of atoms of two
or more elements.
 2-2 Electrons and Other Discoveries
in Atomic Physics

FIGURE 2-4
Forces between electrically charged objects

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The Electron

Streams of negatively charged particles were found

to emanate from cathode tubes.
J. J. Thompson is credited with their discovery
(1897).
The Electron

Thompson measured the charge/mass ratio of

the electron to be 1.76  108 coulombs/g.
 FIGURE 2-5
Effect of a magnetic field on charged particles

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 (Discovered by Faraday)

FIGURE 2-6
A cathode-ray tube

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 Electron m/e = −5.6857 × 10−9 g coulomb−1

Cathode rays and their properties

(a) Deflection of cathode rays in an electric field. The beam of cathode rays is deflected as it travels from left to
right in the field of the electrically charged condenser plates (E). The deflection corresponds to that expected of
negatively charged particles. (b) Deflection of cathode rays in a magnetic field. The beam of cathode rays is
deflected as it travels from left to right in the field of the magnet (M). The deflection corresponds to that expected
of negatively charged particles. (c) Determining the mass-to-charge ratio, m/e, for cathode rays. The cathode-ray
beam strikes the end screen undeflected if the forces exerted on it by the electric and magnetic fields are
counterbalanced. By knowing the strengths of the electric and magnetic fields, together with other data, a value of
m/e can be obtained. Precise measurements yield a value of –5.6857 x 10–9 per coulomb. (Because cathode rays
carry a negative charge, the sign of the mass-to-charge ratio is also negative.)

Cathode rays and their properties

J.J. Thomson

He proved that atoms of any

element can be made to emit
tiny negative particles.
From this he concluded that
ALL atoms must contain these
negative particles.
He knew that atoms did not
have a net negative charge and
so there must be balancing the
negative charge.

J.J. Thomson
Conclusions

He compared the value with the mass/ charge ratio for the lightest charged
particle.
By comparison, Thomson estimated that the cathode ray particle weighed
1/1000 as much as hydrogen, the lightest atom.
He concluded that atoms do contain subatomic particles - atoms are
divisible into smaller particles.
This conclusion contradicted Dalton’s postulate and was not widely
accepted by fellow physicists and chemists of his day.
Since any electrode material produces an identical ray, cathode ray
particles are present in all types of matter - a universal negatively
charged subatomic particle later named the electron
 Thomson Model of the Atom

J.J. Thomson discovered the electron and knew that electrons

could be emitted from matter (1897).

Thomson model
In the nineteenth century, Thomson described
the atom as a ball of positive charge containing
a number of electrons.
Millikan Oil Drop Experiment

Once the
charge/mass ratio of the
electron was known,
determination of either the
charge or the mass of an
electron would yield the
other.
Millikan Oil Drop Experiment

Robert Millikan
(University of Chicago)
determined the charge on
the electron in 1909.
Radioactivity:

The spontaneous emission of radiation by an atom.

First observed by Henri Becquerel.
Also studied by Marie and Pierre Curie.
 X-Rays and Radioactivity
Radioactivity involves fundamental changes at the subatomic
level – in radioactive decay, one element is changed into
another, a process known as transmutation.

• X-rays and g-rays are high-energy radiation (Chapter 8).

• a-particles are identical to He2+.
• b-particles have the same properties as e–.

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Radioactivity
Three types of radiation were discovered by Ernest
Rutherford:
a particles
b particles
g rays
Discovery of the Nucleus

Ernest Rutherford
shot a particles at a thin
sheet of gold foil and
observed the pattern of
scatter of the particles.
Explaining the results of α–particle scattering experiments
(a) Rutherford’s expectation was that small, positively charged particles should pass through
the nebulous, positively charged cloud of the Thomson plum-pudding model largely
undeflected. Some would be slightly deflected by passing near electrons (present to
neutralize the positive charge of the cloud). (b) Rutherford’s explanation was based on a
nuclear atom. With an atomic model having a small, dense, positively charged nucleus and
extranuclear electrons, we would expect the four different types of paths actually observed:
1. und2. slight eflected straight-line paths exhibited by most of the α particles
deflections of α particles passing close to electrons
3. severe deflections of α particles passing close to a nucleus
4. reflections from the foil of a α particles approaching a nucleus head-on
The Nuclear Atom

Since some
particles were deflected at
large angles, Thompson’s
model could not be
correct.
The Nuclear Atom
Rutherford postulated a very small, dense nucleus with the
electrons around the outside of the atom.
Most of the volume of the atom is empty space.

Rutherford model
In the early twentieth century, Rutherford
showed that most of an atom's mass is
concentrated in a small, positively charged
region called the nucleus.
Other Subatomic Particles

Protons were discovered by Rutherford in 1919.

Neutrons were discovered by James Chadwick in 1932.
 Subatomic Particles

Protons and electrons are the only particles that have a

charge.
Protons and neutrons have essentially the same mass.
The mass of an electron is so small we ignore it.
 Modern View

The atom is mostly empty space

Two regions
Nucleus
protons and neutrons
Electron cloud
region where you might find an electron
 Dalton (1803)

Thomson (1904)
(positive and negative charges)

+
+ Rutherford (1911)
+ (the nucleus)
+
+ +

.
..
. .
.. .
. .
.
.

.
..
Bohr (1913) ..

.
.
.. .. ...

.. .
. . ..
(energy levels - orbits) . . . .
. .. .
.. . .

. .
. ... . .. . .
. .

.
.. . ...
.. . . ..
. .
. . .. . .
.. . . . . .
. .. . .
. ... . . .
. .. . . .
. . .. . . .
. . . . .
. . .
. .
.. .
.
.. . .
Schrödinger (1926) ..
.
.. .
(electron cloud model – orbitals) . . .. .
.

From the time of Dalton to Schrödinger, our model

of the atom has undergone many modifications.
Ralph A. Burns, Fundamentals of Chemistry 1999, page 137
Bohr Model

Neils Bohr

Planetary
model

After Rutherford’s discovery, Bohr proposed

that electrons travel in definite orbits around the
nucleus.
 Symbols

Contain the symbol of the element, the mass number and the
atomic number

Mass
# protons

X
+ # neutrons number
mass number

# protons Atomic
number
 Symbols

Find the
number of protons =9 +
number of neutrons = 10
number of electrons =9
19
Atomic number
Mass number
=9
= 19 9 F
 Symbols

Find the
– number of protons = 35
– number of neutrons = 45
80
– number of electrons = 35
– Atomic number = 35 35 Br
– Mass number = 80

http://www.chem.purdue.edu/gchelp/liquids/bromine.gif
Isotopes
iso = same
atoms of the same element with different numbers of neutrons
have different atomic masses but the same atomic number
some are stable, some are radioactive (carbon-12 and carbon-
14)
 Isotopes:

Atoms of the same element with different masses.

Isotopes have different numbers of neutrons.

11 12 13 14
6 C 6 C 6 C 6 C
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 2-4 Chemical Elements
Isotopes

A= mass number Z = atomic number

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Atomic Mass
Atomic and molecular masses can be measured
with great accuracy with a mass spectrometer.
Isotopic Masses A mass spectrometer and a mass spectrum

A mass spectrometer and mass spectrum

In this mass spectrometer, a gaseous sample is ionized by bombardment with electrons in the lower part of
the apparatus (not shown). The positive ions thus formed are subjected to an electrical force by the
electrically charged velocity selector plates and a magnetic force by a magnetic field perpendicular to the
page. Only ions with a particular velocity pass through and are deflected into circular paths by the
magnetic field. Ions with different masses strike the detector (here a photographic plate) in different
regions. The more ions of a given type, the greater the response of the detector (intensity of line on the
photographic plate). In the mass spectrum shown for mercury, the response of the ion detector (intensity of
lines on photographic plate) has been converted to a scale of relative numbers of atoms. The percent
isotopic abundances of the mercury isotopes are 196Hg, 0.146%; 198Hg, 10.02%; 199Hg, 16.84%; 200Hg,
23.13%; 201Hg, 13.22%; 202Hg, 29.80%; and 204Hg, 6.85%.
Average Mass

Because in the real world we use large amounts of atoms and

molecules, we use average masses in calculations.
Average mass is calculated from the isotopes of an element
weighted by their relative abundances.
 2-5 Atomic Mass

Weighted Average Equation (2.3)

Atomic Mass of an Element

fractional atomic fractional atomic

= abundance x mass of + abundance x mass of + ……
of isotope 1 isotope 1 of isotope 2 isotope 2

Aave = ω1 x A1 + ω2 x A2 + …… ωn x An

where ω1 + ω2+ …..+ ωn = 1.0

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Slide 2 - 61 General Chemistry: Chapter 2 Copyright © 2017 Pearson Canada Inc.
Periodic Table
How is the periodic table arranged?
arranged by increasing atomic number

rows
called periods
tells number of electron shells
number them down the left side of the periodic table – 1
through 7
Period: each row of the periodic table is called a period. If you read
from left to right one proton and one electron are added from one
element to the next
 Periodic Table

columns
called families or groups
Families are read from top to bottom
elements in same column have similar chemical properties
same number of valence electrons
 Elements combine by the outside
electrons

All of the electrons in the combining elements do not interact with each other
to form compounds….

Valence Electrons: Only the electrons in the element’s outside energy level
interact with each other.

The most stable configuration has 8 electrons in the outer energy level.

Elements in group 1 have 1 electron in outside energy level and elements in

group 17 have 7 electrons in outside energy level so they react with each
other easily to form compounds and fulfill the 8 electron stable
configuration.
Ion
atom with a charge
atom has gained or lost electrons
gained e- = (-) charge
lost e- = (+) charge

(+) ion = cation

(-) ion = anion
Atoms form Ions
Ions: formed when an atom
loses or gains one or more
electrons(- or + charge)

Cation: formed when an

atom loses an electron (+
charge)

Anion: formed when an

atom gains an electron (-
charge)
 2-7 The Concept of the Mole and
the Avogadro Constant

Physically counting atoms is impossible.

We must be able to relate measured mass to numbers of
atoms.

buying nails by the pound or kilogram.

using atoms by the gram

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 Avogadro constant, NA

• The mole is an amount of substance that contains the same

number of elementary entities as there are carbon-12 atoms
in exactly 12 g of carbon-12. The number of elementary
entities (atoms, molecules) in a mole is the Avogadro
constant, NA

NA = 6.02214129 x 1023 mol −1

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 FIGURE 2-16
Distribution of isotopes in four elements

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 FIGURE 2-17
One mole of an element

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 2-8 Using the Mole Concept in Calculations

The molar mass, M, is the mass of one mole of a substance.

M (g/mol 12C) = A (g/atom 12C) x NA (atoms 12C /mol 12C)

1 mol S 32 g S
6.022 x 1023 mol −1 1 mol S

m
n=
M

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 End of Chapter 2

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