Water Resources Development and Management for

Sustainable Food Production in Maharashtra

Suresh A. Kulkarni1

1. Introduction

It is estimated that within the next three decades, the global food production will require
40 to 50 percent more water; municipal and industrial water demand will increase by 50
to 70 percent; and the energy sector will need 85 percent more water (World Bank,
2016). Meeting these competing water demands for food production, energy generation,
industrial and urban uses, and ecosystem services will create unprecedented strains
and conflicts between different water use sectors.

Water is the prime conduit through which the impacts of climate change on the world’s
ecosystems and on the livelihoods of societies will be felt. It will have an impact on
every element in the water cycle. Climate change will increase variability of rainfall,
frequent floods and droughts, increased evaporation from reservoirs and water bodies,
sea level rise and saltwater intrusion, more pressure on groundwater to compensate for
more variable surface water supply, more frequent and longer periods of soil moisture
deficit affecting crop growth, and increased demand for irrigation water ( FAO, 2013).
Globally, agricultural water withdrawal represents 70 percent of all the freshwater
withdrawals which varies substantially between countries and regions. Estimates
suggest that in the South Asia region, farm-related income could decline by as much as
25 percent due to diminishing crop yields (World Bank, 2016). Climate change will have
the biggest impact on food security in regions which are already amongst the most
insecure. Countries like India having large area under irrigation, high reliance on
groundwater, large population of smallholder farmers and weak institutions are likely to
be highly vulnerable due to climate change.

Although climate change is a global phenomenon, the adaptation or mitigation

measures will have to be evolved at the local level. Rapid increase in water use for
agriculture and other purposes have already modified the water balance in many
watersheds and aquifers. In Maharashtra some sub-basins are on the brink of closure
due to excessive withdrawals both surface and groundwater. It is therefore necessary
first to address the undue water extraction due to human activities followed by
responses to climate change impacts. This paper attempts to provide an overview of
water resources development and management in the State of Maharashtra and various
initiatives, policy reforms and strategies introduced towards improved water governance
and achieving sustainable food production.

1
Secretary, Maharashtra Water Resources Regulatory Authority, World Trade Center,
Center 1, Cuffe parade, Mumbai-400005, Maharashtra, India; Email:kulsur@gmail.com;
www.mwrra.org

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2. Water Resources and Irrigation Development

Maharashtra is the second highest populated, third largest in area and the second most
urbanized as also most industrialized State in India. The cultivable area is 22.5 million
ha and 17.5 million ha is the net sown. Of the 115 million State population, about 58% is
rural while 42% is urban. There are 13.6 million operational holdings having average
size as 1.44 ha. About 78% holdings were below 2.0 ha, 21% holdigs between 2.0 to
10.0 ha, and less than 1% holdings were 10.0 ha and above (Agriculture Census, 2012).
Agriculture plays an important role in the State’s economy contributing about 12% to
State’s GDP. Increasing food demand, rapid urbanization, rising living standards,
expanding industralization, and growing demand for energy are exacerbating the
pressure on the limited freshwater resources of the State.

The annual average rainfall of Maharashtra State is 1150 mm and ranges from 450 mm
to 3500 mm. Major portion of the rainfall (88%) occurs between June to September.
Around 16 million ha are drought-prone. The successive Governments have given due
importance to irrigation sector by making substantial investment in water resources
development. The State has five river basins viz., Godavari, Krishna, Tapi, Narmada,
and West Flowing Rivers. The first four basins are shared with neighboring states. The
average annual renewable water availability is 163.8 billion cubic meters (BCM) and as
per the Interstate Water Tribunal Awards, 126 BCM are allocated to Maharashtra. The
annual utilizable water resources considering technical feasibility and financial viability,
however, are estimated at 88 BCM comprising 67 BCM as surface water and 21 BCM
as groundwater.

As the State is situated in the semi-arid region, irrigated agriculture in particular acts as
an ‘Engine of Growth’ for the rural economy thereby alleviating poverty and increasing
farmer’s income. Presently, about 30 percent of the cultivable area is irrigated. The
State government has given high priority for construction of dams and today the State
has the highest number of large dams (1845) which is 36percent of the total number of
large dams in India. There are about 750 State sector irrigation projects under
construction. Besides the State sector, small water storages are also constructed
through the local sector. There are large number of percolation tanks, village tanks,
Kolhapur Type (K.T.) weirs, and minor tanks. The water storage capacity created so far
through the completed State sector major, medium, and minor projects is about 40
BCM. During the last 10 years, depending upon the rainfall, on an average about 70
percent of the created storage capacity has actually been realized. In 2014, the actual
storages in the State sector projects were about 30 BCM; of which 18 BCM, 3.85 BCM
and 0.7 BCM were used for irrigation, domestic and industrial purposes, respectively.
Besides the State sector, there are more than 69,000 small local sector schemes/
structures (having less than 250 ha of CCA) creating about 8 BCM storages; of which
estimated 4 BCM and 0.2 BCM are used for irrigation and domestic purposes,
respectively. The renewable groundwater resources in the State are estimated at 33

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BCM. Of the total groundwater draft of about 17 BCM, about 16 BCM (94%) are
annually withdrawn for irrigation and balance 1BCM (6%) for domestic and industrial
uses. Thus, presently a total of about 38 BCM surface and groundwater are withdrawn
for irrigation and 5.8 BCM for non-irrigation purposes.

The Maharashtra Water & Irrigation Commission (MW&IC, 1999) has assessed the
ultimate irrigation potential as 8.5 million ha, which can be increased to 12.6 million ha
by adopting modern irrigation methods, watershed development and improved irrigation
practices. In 2014, it is estimated that some 6.7 million ha comprising about 2.6 million
ha through surface water and 4.1million ha through groundwater were irrigated. The
surface water irrigated area consists of canal (1.78 million ha), rivers and nalas (0.35
million ha), and 0.5 million ha from local sector minor irrigation schemes. In 2014,
estimated 22 BCM of surface water and 16 BCM of groundwater were withdrawn for
irrigation purpose. There is a possibility of double counting of groundwater volume and
area irrigated in the canal command area which needs further study. As per the MW&
IC, water demand in 2030, both from surface and groundwater is likely to be about 103
BCM comprising 86 percent for irrigation and 14 percent for non-irrigation uses. Thus,
there is likely to be a serious supply - demand gap of the freshwater over the coming
one and half decade, unless additional storages are created and also demand
management measures are put in to practice,. The State has also been witnessing
increasing conflicts among irrigation and non-irrigation users, upstream and downstream
users, between regions, gravity and lift irrigation schemes, food crops and cash crops,
large irrigation projects and small water conservation schemes. Irrigation, in particular is
facing challenges of low utilization of the created potential, low water use efficiency and,
overexploitation of groundwater.

3. Policy, Institutional and Technological Interventions

The following key technological interventions, institutional/ policy reform initiatives were
taken up by the State government with the objective of sustainable, efficient and
equitable use of water resources by all the sectors. It is hoped that these initiatives/
measures directly or indirectly would foster adaptation strategies to alleviate likely
impact of climate change on agriculture production.

a) State Water Policy: The Maharashtra State Water Policy was brought out in 2003
with the objectives of ensuring sustainable development, optimal use and
management of the water resources, to provide maximum economic and social
benefits to the people while maintaining the healthy environment. The policy
underscores integrated and multi-scetoral approach towards planning, development
and management of water resources with river basin/ sub-basin as a unit. The policy
recommended institutional restructuring and establishing regulatory framework in the
water sector, deciding water allocation priorities for different uses, transfer of

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 irrigation system management responsibilities to legally empowered water user
associations (WUAs), rationalization of water charges and charging on volumetric
basis. It calls for setting up of River Basin Agency for each of the five major river
basins.

b) Maharashtra Water Resources Regulatory Authority: MWRRA was established

under the MWRRA Act 2005 to regulate water resources, facilitate and ensure
judicious, equitable and sustainable management, allocation and utilisation of water
resources, fix the rates for use of water for agriculture, industrial, drinking and other
purposes and matters connected therewith. The Authority is also required to function
as a quasi-judicial body to handle and dispose of petitions relating water related
disputes and review of tariff and entitlements. Authority has played an important role
in resolving disputes of equitable distribution of water within the sub-basins of Upper
Godavari and Upper Bhima. The Authority also supports and aids the enhancement
and preservation of water quality and to promote and implement sound water
conservation and management practices throughout the State.

c) Maharashtra Management of Irrigation System by Farmers Act: The MMISF Act

was enacted in 2005 with the main provisions of - water will be supplied only to
WUAs and on volumetric basis, WUAs will have freedom for cropping pattern and
the tail-enders is assured of water supply. Representation of women in the
management of WUA is made compulsory. All the farmers under WUA area
automatically become its members. However, the command area of the project has
to be first delineated in order to form WUAs under MMISF Act. Rehabilitation works
of distribution network to ensure adequate and timely delivery of irrigation water are
carried out by the WRD. However, due to lack of funds the delineation/ rehabilitation
works are not being taken up. This is hampering the expansion of WUAs in the
state.

d) Groundwater Regulation Act: In many districts of the State the groundwater is

rapidly depleting due to proliferation of wells (dug and bore wells) and over
exploitation. Presently, of the 1531 watersheds 76 are overexploited and 4
watersheds are critical. Maharashtra is also among the first States in the country to
introduce legislation to regulate groundwater development and extraction. The
Maharashtra State Legislature enacted the Maharashtra Groundwater (Development
& Management) Act 2009 (which received President’s assent in 2013) to regulate
and manage the groundwater resources of the State. The Act empowers the
MWRRA to also act as the State Groundwater Authority. The Authority is
implementing the provisions of the Act in co-ordination with the Water Supply and
Sanitation Department (WS&SD) and the Groundwater Survey and Development
Agency (GSDA).

e) Micro and Sprinkler Irrigation: Maharashtra is at the forefront in the country in

adoption of micro and sprinkler irrigation technologies. In 2015, a total of 1.9 million
ha comprising 1.4 million ha by drip system and 0.5 million ha by sprinkler system

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 were equipped in the state. Subsidy assistance to the tune of 50% of the capital cost
of the system is provided by the State and the Central Governments to the farmers.
In Maharashtra sugarcane is grown on about 1 million ha of which only about 25%
area is brought under drip irrigation. The sugarcane cultivated area consumes
almost 60 percent of the total irrigation water. Maharashtra Water Resources
Regulatory Authority (MWRRA) as per the provision of the Act has made it
mandatory to adopt drip irrigation to all perennial crops, especially sugarcane grown
in the canal command. The ultimate potential area which can be brought under
micro and sprinkler irrigation in the State is estimated as 2.7 million ha which is
about 10% of the potential area of the entire country.

f) Water Conservation in Rainfed Area: As almost 75 percent cultivable area is

presently rainfed, providing moisture security to grow atleast one crop is a must.
Government of Maharashtra has taken up a programme of watershed development
with the objective of restoring and developing of degraded lands, arresting loss of
the top soil, insitu recharge of rainwater, recharging of groundwater and promoting
water conservation. Watershed development works have been carried out on about
12 million ha. Recently, an ambitious programme of water conservation "Jalyukt
Shivar" spread over five thousand villages was taken up.

g) Participatory Irrigation Management: The concept of participatory irrigation

management (PIM) was introduced in Maharashtra in 1980s. Initially, Water User
Associations (WUAs) were formed under Cooperative Act. Subsequently, in 2005
Maharashtra Management of Irrigation System by Farmers (MMISF) Act was
enacted to encourage and expand the PIM and make it more farmers’ friendly.
Presently, there are a total of 4676 water user associations (WUAs) formed both
under the cooperative Act and MMISF Act 2005 covering about 1.86 million ha
command area. Water Resources Department (WRD) supplies irrigation water on
volumetric basis to WUAs as per their entitlements. The WUAs have freedom to
grow crops as per their choice and decide water charges as per the collective
decision of their members. In general, the WUAs found to be effective in equitable
and efficient distribution of water and also in increasing the water productivity

h) Entitlement Programme: The term ’Entitlement’ is an authorization by the River

Basin Agency (RBA) to use water. Ensuring guaranteed water supply to farmers is
important for adopting improved on-farm water application and crop production
techniques. According to Section 31A of MWRRA (Amendment and Continuance)
Act 2011, the term ‘Entitlement’ shall apply to those areas which comply with all
relevant provisions including delineation under MMISF. Water is supplied and
charged on volumetric basis to WUAs under entitlement programme.

i) Water Pricing: Prior to 2010, the water rates in Maharashtra were decided by the
Water Resources Department (WRD) on an ad-hoc basis. The chief objective of the

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 water charging has been the recovery of the operation and management (O & M)
expenses of the irrigation projects. MWRRA, for the first time has developed a
rational approach for determining the criteria for bulk tariff system for agricultural,
domestic and industrial uses. The first edition of the bulk tariff for the period 2010-13
was introduced in 2011. Subsequently, the second bulk water tariff criteria for the
period 2013-16 has been prepared. As per the 2nd tariff proposal, agriculture
(irrigation), domestic, and industrial users will share 19%, 22%, and 59% of the total
O & M cost.

j) Integrated State Water Plan: The objectives of the Integrated State Water Plan
((ISWP) are - to prepare a long term plan/ road map for the development of the
basins’ surface and groundwater resources, to identify and set priorities for
promoting water resources development projects, to formulate a short term action
plan consistent with financial allocations and priorities of the government, to identify
steps to promote water conservation and preservation vis-a-vis enhancement of
water quality. Water Resources Department is preparing an Integrated State Water
Plan (ISWP) for each of the five river basins and for the entire State. A basin plan for
Godavari basin has been prepared and is being finalized.

k) Irrigation Status Report: Irrigation Status Report provides updated and

comprehensive information/ data of key aspects of water resources development
and management. It cover detailed data on basin-wise, region-wise, project-wise
water storages, irrigation potential created and utilization, season-wise water use
for irrigation and non-irrigation purposes, evaporation losses, water use efficiency,
cropped area and crop yields, status of formation of WUAs, assessment and
recovery of water charges, etc. The status report is published annually and is widely
circulated among stakeholders. This initiative has elicited transparency and
accountability amongst department personnel.

l) Water Audit Report: Water auditing is a systematic compilation of water

withdrawals and different uses from the state sector projects. The water audit report
provides information on water use for irrigation and non-irrigation purpose,
evaporation from reservoirs, water losses in conveyance network, etc. The actual
data is compared with the designed/ planned. The discrepancies, if any are brought
to the attention of the concerned Irrigation Officer for undertaking suitable corrective
measures. The water audit is an effective tool for the irrigation managers for
deciding appropriate measures for minimizing losses, optimizing various uses and
eventually saving water. The Govt. of Maharashtra in May 2016 has established a
separate office of the Chief Auditor, Water & Irrigation at Aurangabad.

4. Challenges and Way Forward

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Maharashtra is a pioneering State in introducing policy and institutional reforms in the
water sector. Establishment of the Water Regulatory Authority, enacting of Farmer’s Act,
Groundwater regulation Act, volumetric supply and measurement, progressive water
pricing, adoption of water saving and crop yield enhancing irrigation methods like drip
and sprinkler, water auditing will go a long way in judicious and equitable utilization of
the State’s scarce water resources. However, in the coming decades growing
demographic pressures, increasing urbanization and industrialization will put
unprecedented pressure on the water resources. The rivers and water bodies will have
to be protected from pollution generating from urban conglomeration and industrial
areas. In future, urban wastewater will have to be fully treated and reused either for
watering green areas in cities, toilet flushing, thermal cooling in power plants, or
irrigating peri-urban agriculture. The wastewater should be treated as a resource.
Storage of water in the large dams is the proven strategy of increasing resilience against
highly variable rainfall, droughts and floods. However, they are very capital intensive
and politically sensitive given the large gestation period required for their completion
and increasing opposition from environmentalists. There is a need to modernize the
large public irrigation schemes to improve their performance. Implementation of
Groundwater act is also a challenging task given the huge number of wells and
dependency of millions of farmers on groundwater irrigation for their livelihood.
Participatory approach of users in regulating common public resource like groundwater
has been found to be effective. The Government has planned to implement “Jalyukt
Shivar” programme in another 6000 villages. These works should be planned and
executed with a scientific approach. Restrictions on further expansion of water intensive
crops like sugarcane or even prohibiting its cultivation in water-scarcity areas will have
to be imposed by creating public awareness. UN agencies like FAO has developed
many climate-smart agriculture (CSA) practices aimed at simultaneously improving
agricultural productivity. Government Departments, academic and research institutes,
private companies need to collaborate in finding solutions to the water related problems.
Most importantly, all the Ministries and Departments dealing with water resources
development, management, conservation need to work closely with an integrated
approach to face the challenges posed by the climate change.

References

Agricultural Census, 2014, Government of Maharashtra,

Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, 2013, Climate-Smart

Agriculture Source Book

Water Resources Department, Government of Maharashtra, 1999, Report of the

Maharashtra Water and Irrigation Commission

World Bank, 2016, High and Dry Climate Change, Water and the Economy,
Washington, D.C

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