Key-Note-Papers

Current Status in, and Future Trends of, Ultraprecision Machining and Ultrafine
Materials Processing
Norio Taniguchi ( l ) , Tokyo Science University

The h i s t o r i c a l a r o g r e s s o f machining a c c u r a c y i s p l o t t e d and i t s p r o b a b l e f u r t h e r development i s shown

by e x t r a ? o l a t i o n , b o t h i n t h e m i c r o - t e c h n o l o g y and n a n o - t e c h n o l o g y r e g i o n s . Single ?oint "mirror
machining" of s o f t m e t a l s and t h e u l t r a p r e c i s i o n o o l i s h i n g of h a r d and b r i t t l e m a t e r i a l s a r e d i s c u s s e d .
The c o n c e p t of " a t o m i c - b i t ' ' c h i p removal f i r s t by e l a s t i c e m i s s i o n m a c h i n i n g , e t c . i s i n t r o d u c e d .
P h o t o l i t h o g r a p h y f o r LSI w a f e r p r o c e s s i n g and e l e c t r o n beam ? r o c e s s i n g / l i t h o g r a p h y f o r I C ? h o t 0 m a s k s
a r e then d e s c r ib e d . I o n beam s p u t t e r i n g , a p r o m i s i n g a t o m i c - b i t n a c h i n i n g p r o c e s s f o r t h e n e a r
f u t u r e , i s also described. F i n a l l y , a n a l y s i s i s made of t h e problems t o be a d d r e s s e d and s o l v e d i n
a c h i e v i n g t r u e a c c u r a c i e s of 0.1 pm - 0.05 pm f o r e l e c t r o n i c , o o t i c a l and m e c h a n i c a l w o r k p i e c e s ;
m e a s u r i n g r e s o l u t i o n and random e r r o r s i n t h e r e q u i r e d u l t r a - p r e c i s i o n p r o c e s s i n g machines w i l l have t o
b e n o worse t h a n 0.01 pm ( 1 0 nm) .

Fig. 1 The development of achievable machining accuracy

Achievo ble
Machming / (systematic) errw, E.i
accuracy \+ (random) errw, e.(o)) Machine tools _ ___
Measuring __
instrumnts
(processing equipment) (inspction equipment)

I \
I
:
I
Precision lathes. grondng machines
lawinq machtnes honing machines
Mechanral comparators
mrrometers. dial mdicalws

1. The P r o g r e s s o f Accuracy i n X a c h i n i n g
The development o f a c h i e v a b l e machining a c c u r a c y
o v e r t h e l a s t s e v e n t y y e a r s i s shown i n F i g . 1 u n d e r
t h e g e n e r a l i s e d c l a s s i f i c a t i o n of
- normal machining
- p r e c i s i o n machining
- u l t r a p r e c i s i o n machining
I t a l s o l i s t s t h e m a c h i n e s , p r o c e s s i n g e q u i p m e n t , and
d i m e n s i o n a l m e a s u r i n g equipment ( a n d d i s p l a c e m e n t
t r a n s d u c e r s ) by which t h e i n d i c a t e d r e s o l u t i o n can b e
achieved.
By " u l t r a p r e c i s i o n machining" t h e a u t h o r means
t h o s e p r o c c s s e s / m a c h i n e s by which t h e h i g h e s t ? o s s i b l e
d i m e n s i o n a l a c c u r a c y i s , o r h a s been a c h i e v e d a t a
given p o i n t i n t i m e . Today " u l t r a p r e c i s i o n machin-
f n g " means t h e a c h i e v e m e n t of d i m e n s i o n a l t o l e r a n c e s
i n t h e o r d e r of 0.01 pm ( a p p r o x i m a t e l y 0 . 5 m i l l i o n t h s
of an i n c h ) and s u r f a c e r o u g h n e s s o f 0.001 Jim (1 nm).
T'ne d i m e n s i o n s o f p a r t s o r e l e m e n t s of p a r t s p r o d u c e d
may be a s s m a l l a s 1 pm and t h e r e s o l u t i o n and re-
- -
p e a t a b i l i t y o f t h e machines u s e d must b e i n t h e o r d e r
of 0 . 0 1 ,um (10 nm)
2. U l t r a P r e c i s i o n Machining Technology and '!Nano-
technology"
These a c c u r a c y t a r g e t s f o r t o d a y ' s u l t r a p r e -
c i s i o n machining c a n n o t be a c h i e v e d by s i m p l e e x t e n -
s i o n o f c o n v e n t i o n a l machining p r o c e s s e s and t e c h -
niques. F i g . 2 shows i n t e g r a t e d c i r c u i t ( I C ) dimen-
s i o n s s p e c i f i e d t o 0 . 1 pm and i n d i c a t e s t h e r e q u i r e -
mcnt f o r u l t r a p r e c i s i o n machining d c c u r a c y c a p a b i l i t y
i n rhe o r d e r of 0 . 0 3 5 p m ( 5 n m ) . T o b a t i b < i / Artch
I I ~ I ! ~ arqu.i?eiiieiits
" 4,5 L'IIO. 0 5 : h e I W L I ~ Cint!~oc.tniit
113L 5 { ac i i t g viniiii $ a c tu t i ti i) ciig i t!ee .7 5 t v dn !I. In
f a c t , w e have s e e n t h e development and i n t r o d u c t i o n t o
p r a c t i c e o f a whole new r a n g e of m a t e r i a l s p r o c e s s i n g
t e c h n o l o g i e s f o r t h e m a n u f a c t u r e of D a r t s t o t h i s
o r d e r of a c c u r a c y . These t e c h n o l o g i e s t o g e t h e r w i t h
t h e o r d e r of a c c u r a c y c a p a b i l i t y t h e y o f f e r a r e l i s t -
e d u n d e r "Machining Mechanism" i n T a b l e 1. As w e
p r o g r e s s from t h e n i c ; o t c c I ~ r ~ i r S i ~r~erg, i o n (1 pm accu-
r a c y c a p a b i l i t y ) t o t h e i ? n i ? [ , t e c k i r , , i r ~ r! e~ g i o n
( 0 . 0 0 1 pm = 1 nm a c c u r a c y c a p a b i l i t y ) f h e 5<!5tCl>15
L ' . ~ ~ g i i ~ ~ ! e -demand
, i r ~ g rapidly increases in stringency

Annals of the ClRP Vol. 32/2/1983 573

 $83 a h i , j h Ji;iionsional a c c u r a c y and s u r f a c e
quality. :Jhen t h e c h i p s i z e becomes less t h a n
a b o u t 1 ,LIT, t h e s h e a r s t r e s s i n t h e c u t t i n g t o o l
Fig. 2. Sectional view of MOS transistor i n c r e a s e s s h a r p l y a n d becomes w r y large. 1-1
t h e c d s e :,f s q f z s t e e l , tliis s t r e s s v a l u e
a:J?roaches t h e u 1 t i r : a t e s h e a r s t r e n g t h of the
Gate 510 film (14nnl)
v?ri..:)iece m n r e r i a l !see Fig. 3 ) .
Gate p'lysllicon ,' Alumlntum electrode (I,,m)

Fig. 3. Relationship between fim, cutting and shear stress

Trans ASME (Bechef Shaw) 74 1 1952

CarbonsteelSAE1112 G = 8 2 x 1 0 ' N j m m Shearingstrain , k 3
Theoretical shear strength T =G/2-% 1 3~ 10'N/mm-
n SIIICMI n siIicon (Marginal shearing ewrgy density=
(rG)'=3 26x 10 J / c m )
Standard donor impurity density 2 7 Y 10' cm
Gate SiO film thickness 0 014um (14nm= l40A)
Field SiO film thickness >50nm (500A)

(a) Sectional view of minimum dimensional MOS transistor

(circuit element 01 super LSI)

PSG 1 l u m
I
loolIr.L. I-;
I I
0 5 1 5 10 50 100 500
Chip thKknesS m

m The s u n m a r i s e d r e a s o n f o r t h i s i s :
d
0
n si~icMl 3um n silicon
- v i t h d e p t h s q f c u t less t h a n 1 ym, t h e d i s t r i -
P silicon wafer b u t i o n of m o v a b l e d i s l o c a t i o n s i n t h e m e t a l
c r y s t a l s ap?roaches P e r 0 and t h u s t h e c u t t i n o
PSG Glass
El PSG Glass with boron
.Forces S a v e t o o v e r c o m e t h e ( v e r y l a r g e )
High density n t y p
atomic bondinq f o r c e s w i t h i n t h e c r y s t a l s .
n SI~ICM
(See l i q . 4 and Table 2 ) .
(b) Sectional view of 16hb CCRAM MOS transistor (circuit element 01 IC)
'lable 2 s e t s o u t t h e m a r g i n a l m a c h i n i n g e n e r g y
d e n s i t y ( J / c I ~ 'f)o r d i f f e r e n t m a c h i n i n g ?recesses
i . e . t h e e n e r y y r e q u i r e d t o remove u n i t volume
of m a t e r i a l .
In t h e c a s e of high s u r f a c e f i n i s h grinding, f i n e
a h r d s i v e cjrsiris ( o r y r i t s ) s u c h as c a r b o r u n d u m o r
alundum a r e u s e d t o remove f i n e c h i q s . The
and complexity. Nachine t o o l s / p r o c e s s i n g equipment
a n d d i n l e n s i o n a i a n 6 s u r f a c e q u a l i t y m e a s u r i n g i.ns t r u -
rnents h C 7 \ . t > t: it< ! I I . t 2 . 2 i , l t L . : < , , 5 ? ! : ,(':'$I i , ' l ' t : , . i
5 y 5 :L!IHS w h i c h will p r o v i d e h i g h a c c u r a c y a c ~ e l e r a t i o n
v e l o c i t y a n d p o s i t i o n loop c o n t r o l b e ' v e e n t o o l s a n d
workpieces, frequently a t very high sneed. The

--
Fig. 4. Distribution of defects
e l e n e n t s o f macAine t o ~ ~ l e s .,q . q u i d e i r w b e a r i n q s ,
displacement tronducfrs/measu;inS equipment and-servo-
Movable Precipitants Precipitants
p o s i t i o n i n g t e c h n i q u e s b r o a d l y a ? p r o y r i d t e t o le.icls
I '
.
,,rnAJ'dislocation Grain boundary
o f m a c h i n e a c c u r a c y t a r g e t s , a r e also shown i n T a b l e 1 .
-Microcrack
"Nanotechnoloqy" i s t h e tern used t o c l a s s i f y % +
:,.vacancy I % %
t h e i n t e g r a t e d n a n u f a c t u r i n y t e c h n o l o g i e s and machine
s y s t e m s which p r o v i d e u l t r a p r e c i s i o n XaChining capa-
b i l i t y i n t h e o r d e r o f 1 ! ? a n o r . e t r e (0.001 pm = 1 nm)
( R e f . 1, 2 and 3 ) . kanoLechnoloyy, perhaps t o d a y ' s
,
Movable
most advanced manufacturing technology, n i g h t also be i dis location
Interstitial atom
c a l l e d "extreme cechnology" because t h e t h e o r e t i c a l
l i m i t of a c c u r a c y i n m a c h i n i n g o f s u b s t a n c e s must b e
t h e s i z e of a n atom o r m o l e c u l e o f t h e s u b s t a n c e -
t h e a t o m i c l a t t i c e s e p a r a t i o n ( 0 . 2 nm t o 0 . 4 nm) ,
see F i g . 1. The t h i n f i l m t e c h n o l o g y r e q x i r e d :or
t h e n e x t g e n e r a t i o n s of s e m i - c o n d u c t o r s demands
s t u d y of " e x t r e m e t e c h n o l o g y " p r o b l e m s a n d t e c h n i q u e s ;
i n d i v i d u a l atoms have t o be c o n t r o l l e d and p o s i t i o n e d
where r e q u i r e d . In t h i s s e n s e , u l t r a p r e c i s i o n
m a c h i n i n g t e c h n o l o g y i s a l r e a d y a p p r o a c h i n q t h e ex- Fig. 5. Mirror cutting of soft metals
treme o r u l t i m a t e l i m i t s .
3. X i r r o r ( o r " m i c r o - i n c h " ) Y a c h i n i n y of S o f t Mirror surface
-
:bt e r i a 1s generating edge
Comp Tension Feedrate A
I t was irhen .'lr J.3. Bryal? ( L a w r e n c e Livermore Depth
N a t i o n a l L a b o r a t o r y ) g a v e a p r e s e n t a t i o n t o t h e STC Depth of cut Roughness
'Me' o f CIRP (now STC I ? ' ) i n 1972 t h a t t h e author --- (R,, )
f i r s t l e a r n e d of " m i c r o - i n c h m a c h i n i n g " of m i r r o r s . (Diamond tool)
I t h a d b e e n d e v e l o p e d b y Mr Bryan i n t h e 1 9 6 0 ' s f o r \ ,mpirwwi (cutting edge)
t h e s i n g l e m o n o c r y s t a l l i n e diamond c u t t i n g o f a l u m i -
nium o r o t h e r s o f t r a t e r i a l s w i t h d e p t h s of c u t a n d Mirror surface
generating edge
f e e d r a t e s t h a t p r o d u c e c h i p s of 1 pm o r less, a h i y h
q u a l i t y mirror f i n i s h o f R = 0 . 0 1 pm a n d p r o f i l e
a c c u r a c y o f a b o u t 0 . 1 wn. max D i s k m d drum s u b - 0
s t r a t e s f o r c o m p u t e r memory s y s t e m s h a d , of c o u r s e , W d k Diarnbndtool
been s i n g l e p o i n t d i a x o n d n a c h i n e d b e f o r e t h i s , b u t (cutting angle 90')
n o t l a r g e mirrors o f conplex s h a n e . 'Iamond Nose radius r

(a) C u t t i n g n e c h a n i s m s 2nd t o o l s R.. .. =A;

Theoretical value
f = feed
N e e d l e s s t o s a y , t o o l s t h a t car. p r o d u c e very Assum,ngr=5mm;R~. % 2 . 5 x 10 ',m(f=lOpm)
f i n e c h i p s arc e s s e n t i a l tor m a c h i n i n q c o n p o n e n t s R . . , . . * 2 . 5 x 10 ':.m(I=3Opm)

574
 a b r a s i v e y r a i n s r e a r r a p i d l y because th e y a r e
s u b j e c t e d to t h e s e v e r y h i g h stresses; thc c u t -
t i n g e d g e s o f t h e g r a i n s a r e s u b j e c t e d t o ver;.
h i g h p r e s s u r e and t e m p e r a t u r e t h r o u g h t h e r e l e a s e
of t h i s high energy d e n s i t y . S e v e r t h e l e s s , con-
t i n u o u s g r i n d i n g i s p o s s i b l e b e c a u s e , as t h e
g r a i n s a r e s h e a r e d a t t h e s e high stresses, nev
e d g e s a r e formed and i n a random manner. Thus
t h e g r o u n d s u r f a c e e x h i b i t s randomiy d i s t r i b u t e d
? e a k s and v a l l e l p . A mirror or t r u l y s p e c u l a r
f i n i s h c a n n o t b e o b t a i n e d by g r i n d i n g - o n l y by
g e n e r a t i n g t h e s u r f a c e v i t h t h e same f i a t c u t t i n g
edge. Thus f o r t h e c o n t i n u o u s c u t t i n g g e n c r a -
t i o n of m i r r o r f i n i s h e s , o n l y diamond can r e a l l y
b e used even f o r s u c h s o f t m a t e r i a l s a s a l u n i n i -
um o r c o p p e r . Even t h e n when t h e c u t t i n g o p e r a -
t i o n i s l o n g , s u c h a s f o r l a r g e X-ray t e l e s c o p e
p a r a b o l o i d s , even a s i n g l e p o i n t diamond t o o l
c a n become b a d l y worn or worn o u t , t h u s l i m i t i n g
t h e a c h i e v a b l e a c c u r a c f and a r e a of s p e c u l a r
machined s u r f a c e .
F i g . 5 shows a s i n g l e p o i n t diamond t o o l w i t h
n o s e r a d i u s of a p p r o x i m a t e l y 5 mm. b e i n g used t o
c u t a m i r r o r s u r f a c e i n oxygen f r e e c o p p e r a t a
f e e d r a t e of 2 0 t o 30 p / r e v . and a d e p t h of c u t
o f ap;,roximately 5 pm. I I r N. Sumiya o f t h e
T o s h i b a C o r n o r a t i o n r e p o r t s t h a t t h i s can p r o -
d u c e a s u r f a c e r o u g h n e s s o f a b o u t 2 0 nrn w i t h a
" d e g e n e r a t e d s u r f a c e l a y e r " o f less t h a n lgm.
Only machine tools o f a s u f f i c i e n t l y h i g h o r e -
c i s i o n can b e u s e d , of c o u r s e , and some machines
o f t h i s c a l i b r e a r e mentioned l a t e r .
:\'hen g l a s s , c e r a m i c s , o r o t h e r h a r d and b r i t t l e
m a t e r i a l s of h i g h e r t e n s i l e o r s h e a r s t r e n g t h
a r e machined, diamond t o o l s w i l l become worn
e v e n more q u i c k l y . Thus t h e mirror c u t t i n g o f
g l a s s by s i n g l e ? o i n t diamond tools i s v e r y
d i f f i c u l t and l a p p i n g a n d n o l i s h i n g u s i n g f r e e
a b r a s i v e s a r e t h e t e c h n i q u e s m a i n l y used t o ob-
t a i n mirror finishes.
-
D e g e n e r a t e d l a y e r s and r e s i d u a l stresses
A l l a s p e c t s of t h e d e g e n e r a t e d s u r f a c e l a y e r
which i s formed a t t h e s u r f a c e ( s e e F i g . 5 ) a r e
n o t e n t i r e l y understood. Even when t h e d e p t h
of c u t and f e e d r a t e a r e v e r y small, a r e l a t i v e -
l y d e e p d e g e n e r a t e d o r p l a s t i c a l l y deformed ( a n d
t h u s h i g h l y s t r e s s e d ) l a y e r w i l l b e l e f t on t h e
s u r f a c e , even when machining s o f t m e t a l s . This
Fig. 6. Hill's spherical cavity axpsnding lheory
can be p r e d i c t e d b y r e f e r e n c e t o (5) H i l l ' s S p h e r i c a l
C a v i t y Expanding Theory s e t o u t d i a g r a m m a t i c a l l y
i n F i g . 6 ( a ) and t h e n by examining F i g . 6 ( b ) .
The r a t i o c / a , where "a" i s t h e r a d i u s of t h e
" i n d e n t i n g " t o o l n o s e and "c" i s t h e r a d i u s o r
d e p t h o f t h e p l a s t i c d e f o r m a t i o n zone c a u s e d by
t h e t o o l i n t h e workpiece can be a s l a r g e a s 7
f o r copper and 8 f o r aluminium. These m e t a l s
have l a r g e v a l u e s f o r t h e r a t i o n E / y , i . e . e l a s t i c
modulus t o h a r d n e s s ( V i c k e r s ) a s shown i n F i g . 6 [ b ) .
On t h e o t h e r hand, t h e m a t e r i a l s which a r e
l e s s prone t o degenerated s u r f a c e l a y e r formation
such a s g l a s s , p h e n o l i c r e s i n s , A1203, S i and
T i c have l o l i e r v a l u e s o f E/Hv and c / a r a t i o s .
Mr. S.Kato o f t h e H i t a c h i C o r p o r a t i o n r e p o r t s
t h a t r e s i d u a l s t r e s s l e f t i n t h e machined s u r f a c e
by a s h a r p diamond t o o l i s t e n s i l e , whereas
when t h e edge becomes worn t h e r e s i d u a l
s t r e s s becomes c o m p r e s s i v e due t o t h e b u r n i s h i n g
e f f e c t o f t h e t o o l (See F i g . 5 ) . These e f f e c t s
can be r e a d i l y d e r i v e d from H i l l ' s t h e o r y t o o .
(cl Mirror c l l t t i n g machine t o o l s
I t i s w e l l known t h a t i n o r d e r to o b t a i n h i g h
etrical/profile accuracf i n t h e
sfnrii. d!irlL7li:ic L l C ~ L I ~ ' l C . < ~'TI12
5 t
t ! / of w o r k s p i n d l e s , t o o l and w o r
be correspondingly hi gh. F i g . 7 shows t h e new
u l t r a - p r e c i s i o n m i r r o r c u t t i n g machine c o n f i g u r a -
t i o n and h i g h p r e c i s i o n s p h e r i c a l a e r o s t a t i c
s p i n d l e b e a r i n g a r r a n g e m e n t d e v e l o p e d by M r i:.
Sumiya of t h e T o s h i b a C o r p o r a t i o n . l r J.B.
Bryan and o t h e r s a t t h e Lawrence Livermore
N a t i o n a l L a b o r a t o r i e s have b u i l t and d e v e l o p e d
s e v e r a l new CNC m i r r o r c u t t i n g diamond t u r n i n g
machines. P r o f e s s o r P . A . XcKeown a n d h i s c o l -
l e a g u e s a t t h e C r a n f i e l d Unit f o r P r e c i s i o n Engi-
n e e r i n g have d e s i g n e d , c o n s t r u c t e d , and d e v e l o p e d
a l a r g e h i g h p r e c i s i o n CNC diamond t u r n i n g mach-
i n e f o r t h e n a n u f a c t u r e of p a r a b o l o i d and hy?er-
b o l o i d m i r r o r s f o r X-ray t e l e s c o ? e s rnade i n ?I8
Aluminium. (Ref. 4 ) .
These and o t h e r machines a r e used f o r t h e F r o -
duction o f :
- convex mirrors f o r h i g h o u t n u t C02 l a s e r
resonators
- spherical bearing surfaces i n beryllium,
copper and o t h e r m a t e r i a l s

.' *----- -. - X-ray m i r r o r s

- i n f r a r e d l e n s e s i n germanium f o r t h e r m a l
imaging s y s t e m s
- scanners f o r l a s e r p r i n t e r s
- e l l i ? t i c a l m i r r o r s f o r YAG l a s e r beam
collectors

a= lndentmg radius
'.--_ ---cO
#'lElastlc

n.=Y/B(tension). N/mm'
deformation zone

Hv= Indentinghardness.
(Vickers hardness)
kz,
c = Plastic deformationzone radius n =Y/(3/2) (compression). N/mm'
Yield stress. N/m+
E= Elastic modulus. N / m d
Fig. 7. Mirror cutting machine

Hill's formula Diamond tool

(:!
HV=

b=
.i
=3(1-,)Y
E

*~11+31n1 ) i
3
Poisson's ratio
5 yl!L6
Distortions strain

(a)
I Ionic band
Covalent bond (a) Tool arrangement for concave mirror
Metallic bond

2.000
/' cu

I ,- /
-1.500 5
/
4 r " * "MgO ~1.000
AI,O fiSb

- 500

p-. --
100 200 300 400 Unit mm 791 Orivmg splndk
hard. E/H 601t
(b) Details 01 tool spndk construction (Toshiba Cwp 1
Eiastlc rnodulus/Hardness.
Vlckers)
(b)

575
4. g L t r a - : , r e c l s i o n '4irror P o l i s h i n g of Hard and
B r I t t i e :4a t e r I i 1s

S i n g l e :Joint diamond m i r r o r cLlttil'l5 c a n n o t ;Jet

be x s e d f o r t h e f i n i s h n a c h i n i n g O f g l a s s and c e r 3 -
mics; a s shown i n T a b l e 2 , t h e s ? e c i f i c s t o c k r e n o -
v a l e n e r g y o r marqina? machining e n e r g y d e n s i t - ) i s
ver;. h i g h . tiigh t e m q e r a t u r c s and s t r e s s e s a t t h e
c u t t i n g edge c a u s e r a g i d i r e a r . Therefore lau?ing
and p o l i s h i n g p r o c e s s e s u s i n g f r e e a b r a s i v e s a r e
widely used.
I n t h i s category l i e s e v e r a l very im?ortant
6. S t e p and Repeat P r ' o ~ c c t i o . ?and P h o t o e t c h i n s
for IS1
--__ Wafer ? r o c e s s i n c
F i g . 9 shows f i r s t t h e t y p i c a l d i m e n s i o n s o f an
IC s i l i c o n w a f e r , c h i p and i t s c i r c u i t e l e m e n t s . It
t.hen shows t h e LSI w a f e r p a t t e r n i n g ?recesses, p h o t o -
etching being t h e a t o 2 i c - b i t m a t e r i a l s processing
technique necessar] t c achieve u l t r a f i n e p a t t e r n s
?mnI(: 0 . 5 ~ r r , l i n e i r i d t h and p s i t i o n m y a c c u r a c y .

For VLSI w a f e r p r o c e s s i n g ( t o a c h i e v e even h i g h e r

de:.elo?eci by D r Y . p a c k i n g d e n s i t i e s of d e v i c e s ) masis w i t h l i n e w i d t h s
f r o n 0 . 5 pm t o 0 . 1 IIXI c o g e t h e r w i t h s t e p and r e p e a t
u r o j e - t r o n p o s i t i o n i n g a c c u r a c i e s of 0 . 1 pm t o 0 . ~ 5gm
a r e necessary.

7. r i n e E l e c c r o - f o r m i n g and U l t r a - f i n e StamDer
Haxi::cj P r o c e s s e s f o r C a p a c i t i v e and O p t i c a l
Video 3 i s c ? l a n u f a c t u r e

Fig. l O ( a ) and ( b ) shows t h e s u r f a c e m i c r o p r o -

f i l e s of c a p a c i c i v e and o p t i c a l forms of v i d e o d i s k s .
The f i n e c h a n n e l s and c a v i t i e s a r e a b o u t 1 pm wide
w i t h t - o l e r a n c e s on w i d t h o f a b o u t 0 . 1 pm. They a r e
They a r e shown i n Fic;. 8. A l l these are p r o d u c e d by p r e s s i n g a s u i t a b l e p l a s t i c m a t e r i a l d i s k
" a t o m i c b i t s i z e c h i p removal ?recesses" u s i n g a (or l a c q u e r e d g l a s s d i s k ) w i t h an Xi s t a m p e r t o o l
polishing t o o l a s t h e reference surface. TypicallY ( S e e F i g . 1 0 ( d )1 . The s t a m p e r i s made by an atomic-
s u r f a c e s w i t h f l a t n e s s o f 0 . 1 pm, r o u g h n e s s of O.0Lpm b i t a c c r e t i o n p r o c e s s namely e l e c t r o - f o r m i n g ( s e e
and danaged la:fer de?th of o n l y J. few n a n o m e t e r s a r e F i g . 1Ofc) j
achievable.
8. E l e c t r o n Beam L i t h o g r a p h y f o r I C Mask Xaking
T o s a t i s f y t h e r e q u i r e m e n t f o r imuroved x o f i l e
a c c u r a c y t o s a y 0 . 0 1 pn, t h e a c c u r a c y of t h e t o o l A t one t i m e i t was e x p e c t e d t h a t e l e c t r o n beams
g u i d e nechanism must b e im?roVed a c c o r d i n g l y . might be s u c c e s s f u l l y used d i r e c t l y t o c a r r y o u t
u l t r a p r e c i s i o n - m a c h i n i n g ( m i l l i n g ) of s u r f a c e s ,
5. B a s i c Conce3ts of A t o m i c - b i t ?.!aterials Processincc b e c a u s e an e l e c t r o n i s a v e r y s m a l l p a r t i c l e ( 2 . 8 x
l o + ' 'cm. F a d i u s ) and a l t h o u g h i t s mass i s v e r y s m a l l
L!ltra-:>recision machinina n e c e s s i t a t e s u l t r a ( 9 x lo-,' cjm.) it c a r r i e s v e r y h i g h e n e r g y ( u p t o
s m a l l c h i p removal, t h e e x t r e m e t e c h n o l o g y s t a t e o f s e v e r a l hundred keV). A d d i t i o n a l l y i t can b e f o c u s -
which i s a t o m i c - b i t m a t e r i a l s x o c e s ; : . n g ; the chip sed t o a v e r y f i n e p o i n t of a b o u t I pm t o 2 gm d i a -
s i z e i s t h e n one r . o l e c u l e o r atom. The u l t r a p r e - n e t e r and p o s i t i o n e d v e r y a c c u r a t e l y I O . 0 i pm) w i t h
c i s i o n m i r r o r p o l i s h i n g p r o c e s s e s i n ( 4 ) above a r e very high speed.
all Of t h i s t y p e . T a b l e 3 l i s t s t h e c u r r e n t l y used However, i t became c l e a r t h a t d i r e c t t h e r m a l
a t o m i c - b i t m a t e r i a l s processincj te c h n iq u e s, coverinq machining u s i n g h i g h e n e r g y e l e c t r o n beams i s n o t
Fig. 8-1. Elastic emission machining (EEM) s u i t a b l e f o r u l t r a p r e c i s i o n machining because t h e
high energy e l e c t r o n s penetrate the s u r f a c e layers t o
d e p t h s o f many m i c r o n s o r t e n s o f m i c r o n s ( a t 5OkV,
Suspension liquid Amled working pressure t y p i c a l l y 1 0 pm i n aluminium) (Scc F i g . 11) The
Fine powder abrasive grains e n e r g y 1s t r a n s f e r r e d t o t h e atoms i n t h e form of
(0 1 0 Olprn) Polyurethane ball h e q t o v e r a r e l a t i v e l y l a r g e Zone ! s e v e r a l z t i c r o n s ) .
Q u i t e d i f f e r e n t t o d i r e c t e l e c t r o n beam machrn-
i n g i s e l e c t r o n beam l i t h o g r a p h y i n which I C masks
a r e p a t t e r n e d by e x p o s i n g p h o t o r e s i s t by ' w r i t i n g '
x i t h e l e c t r o n beams a s shown i n F i g . 1 2 . The
e l e c t r o n bean only i n i t i a t e s p o l y m e r i s a t i o n of t h e
p h o t o r e s i s t b u t b e c a u s e t h e w a v e l e n g t h i s much s h o r t e r
t h a n v i s i b l e i i y h t , a much h i g h e r r e s o l u t i o n of l i n e
i r i d t h and p o s i t i o n can be a c h i e v e d . The l a t e s t ,
Fig. 8-2. Machano-chcmcal machning most advanced e l e c t r o n beam l i t h o g r a p h y f o r L S I
a u - t r r m t e e s d p o s i t i o n i n g a c c u r a c y Of 0 . 1 grn. For
Relerence surface Applled working pessure speciaL ' I L S I ' s , 0 . 0 1 clm can b e a c h i e v e d .

T h i s , t h e h i g h e s t p r e c i s i o n e l e c t r o n beam l i t h o -
q r a p h e r s y s t e m i n c o r p o r a t e s v e r y n r e c i s e guideways
(abrasive grains and workwce) x i t h motion s t r a i g h t n e s s a c c u r a c y b e t t e r t h a n 0 . 1 pm
and " s t i c k s l i p motion" no worse t h a n 0 . 0 1 gm. Work
t a b l e p o s i t i o n i n g i s computer c o n t r o l l e d t h r o u g h
c l o s e d l o o p l a s e r i n t e r f e r o m e t e r s e r v o d r i v e s and i n -
Fig. 8-3. Mechano-chemical machining p r o c e s s feedback c o n t r o l . l'he s y s t e m a t i c p o s i t i o n -
i n g e r r o r s a r e h e l d t o w i t h i n 0 . 1 ~m w i t h a r e p e a t a -
W!th hydrodynamic pressure b i l i t y i n t h e o r d e r ~f 0.01 +m.
Relative speed
The wor:k t a b l e o p e r a t e s i n a h a r d vacuum
(lo-'' T o r r ) s o m i r r o r f i n i s h e d guideways and h i q h p r e -
Polish surface tool c i s i o n tungsten c a r b i d e rollers a r e used. The l a t e s t
/(reference surlace) d e s i g n s of e l e c t r o n bean: l i t h o g r a p h y s t a g e s w i l l u s e
e l e c t r o - m a g n e t i c , e l e c t r o s t r i c t i v e and e l a s t i c t y p e s
of d r i v e s and guideways.
Polishing liquid
Abrasive grains 9. i o n Beam ?lachining and Its A p p l i c a t i o n s

Ion beam machining i s an a t o m i c - b i t machining

p r o c e s s and y i v e s v e r y h i g h r e s o l u t i o n . A s shown i n
Fig. 8-4. Chemico-mechanical machining F i g . 1 3 , t h e method u s u a l l y employs i o n s o f a r g o n
( A r i o r othex- i n e r t g a s e s w i t h h i g h k i n e t i c e n e r g y
Polishing twl i n t h e o r d e r o f 1 0 kev. I o n s which a r c t h e ' t o o l s ' ,
[reference surface) Pressure application 'ire c a u s e d t o bombard and e j e c t atoms from t h e x o r k -
Small clearance 1 p i e c e s u r f a c e by e l a s t i c c o l l i s i o n . T h i s phenomenon
polishing liquid
is c a l l e d "ion s p u t t e r " . The p e n e t r a t l o n d e p t h o f
an i o n a t I k e V i s cstirnat.ed from e l e c t r o n d i f f r a c t i o n
Activated chernlcally p ; i t t e r n s t o be a b o u t 5 pm.
(hqutd and workpiece) Workplece Abraswe gralns
G e n e r a l l y t h e method &xzs n o t g e n e r a t e h e a t n o r

576
c a u s e m e c h a n i c a l s t r a i n damaqe i n t h e machined s u r - (a) a s p h e r i z i n y of lenses
f a c e l a y e r , b u t some of t h e i o n s a r e r e t a i n e d , s u b -
s t i t u t i n g d i s p l a c e d w o r k p i e c e atoms. This process (b) s h a r p e n i n g of diamond i n d i c a t o r s
h 3 s a m a c h i n i n g r e s o l u t i o n o i 0.01 pm (10 n n ) which (c) s h a r p e n i n g of diamond microtome k n i v e s and
c o n t r a s t s w i t h t h a t o f e l e c t r o n bedm ( t h e r m a l ) machin- c u t t i n g tools
ing.
id) optical diffraction gratings) u l t r a f i n e pat-
The g e n e r a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f i o n beam machin- ) t e r n i n g through
(e) I C pattern etching 1 D a t t e r n masks
m g a r e shown i n F i g . 1 4 . The s p u t t e r i n g r a t e s
Lf) b u b b l e memory c o r e s i
of s p u t t e r e d stoms
of i n c i d e n t i o n s
O p e r a t i o n s ( a ) , ( b ) , and ( c ) , a r e c a r r i e d o u t by
v a r i e s w i t h t h e i n c i d e n t a n g l e of t h e i o n beam, w i t h d i r e c t s p u t t e r i n g of pre-forms i n g l a s s , s i l i c a ,
t h e o r i e n t a t i o n of t h e c r y s t a l p l a n e and t h e n a t u r e diamond o r s i m i l a r m a t e r i a l s . But i n c o n t r a s t t o
and e n e r g y of i o n s u s e d . machine t o o l t e c h n o l o g i e s of c u t t i n g , g r i n d i n g , l a p -
p i n g and p o l i s h i n g , t h e i o n beam p r o c e s s h a s no i n -
Ion beam machining e q u i p m e n t s a r e c h a r a c t e r i s e d h e r e n t r e f e r e n c e s u r f a c e ( s u c h a s g u i d e w a y s ) . The
b y t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n of t h e i r i o n s o u r c e s : ' r e f e r e n c e ' i s t h e p r e f o r m or p a t t e r n i n g mask.
Fig. 15 - duo-plasmatron type when t h e + n i c z , , - c , > i ~ 6eit.n of 1 gm t o 2 pm d i a m e t e r
Fig. 16 - n i g h f r e q u e n c y plasma t y p e becomes a v a i l a b l e , t o g e t h e r w i t h r e c e n t developments
i n u l t r a p r e c i s i o n beam p o s i t i o n c o n t r o l , i t w i l l be
and Fig. 17 - ion shower t y p e possible t o carry out u l t r a precision patterning i n
2 D and d i r e c t u l t r a p r e c i s i o n machining of w o r k -
A s shown i n Fiq. 1 8 , t y p i c a l a p u l i c a t i o n s f o r p i e c e s in 3D.
ion beam machining are:

Fig. 9. K: wafer pattern procosa

(a) Silicon wafer (c) Circuit ekment

10-20pm

@ 1-5um

(d) Wafer patterning process

Pattorn mask Ultra.violet-rav

SO.. (0 25mrn. 1)
Si (0.2-03mm. t)
w
Photo resist
(21 Development
so, d : line width
1- 1.5pm (LSI)
3-4um (IC)
(3) Etching photo (5)' Doping
(ton. Plasma) resist SO? Doper

I SI SI
1
(4) Stripng (Ashmg)

sio
nc,I I I I
1 1
Doper. acceptor

1 -&Photoresist

577
 Fig. 10. Video diak, optical disk, and stanwer Fig. 11. Electron beam machining Fig. 12. Electron beam lithography

(a) Capacity type video disk (b) Direct read after write
(VietorlJapan. RCA) optical disk
Eiectron gun?
I G B B l a n k i n c electrode

electrons
1st acerture
Shaplnq deflector

Shapbng Ieps
Atomic
nucleus
2nd aperture

&,a Shaped rectangular

lnla
rmatw Guide track channel I

(c) Stamper making process

P Contraction
\ + G l a s s Projection rectangular beam
lens
Photo resist Positicming
(splnnlng. baking) defkctor
w;
- -Exwsure oattern

~ - 2 > 10 V PI crn Electronrange

Uexposure ~ ~ A c c e k r a t i vonage
on V. D Density g/cm
XD= Electron dlffusi& depth cm 'V<pectmen mover
Photo.resist XE=Electron energy maximum loss depthcm
developing 50kV (Steel) R= 7pm Beam diagram of variable area type electron
(Aluminium) A = 10,o-n teamexposure equipment JEX 6A (vector
lOkV (Steel) R=0.3pm scanning type) There also is a raster scanning
(Aluminium) R=O 8 m type which deflects I t s electron beam
horizontally

Aluminium.
evapolation
L' I &
1
Master(Ni platmg)

,Master (NI plating)

(ref k c t d
m
type) Ckar pass. film
Aluminium film

m (plastics)

Plastrs (disk)
a C
-Mother
I
&
.Mother

a t i n g

Fig. 13. Model of machining mechanism of ion sputter

IkeV(Ar)

\j,E?d -

5nm Incident ion

penetration depth

x10 3
%
Fig. 14. Characteristics of ion sputter machining

Perpendrularly incident Ar iws a of im team

Cross sectional
(cm?)

A Ion poflcted area

area
(A)

Machined surface

?t-';>Ld volume (cml)

r = Machiningtime (5)
S Sputtering rate
- Number of sputtered atoms atom
- NumberofEdentions ion (
V. Rate of machining depth (sped)
Sputter machining depth cm/s
= Ion beam current density A/cm i
Ion incident angle

S 4' ' '( ):

[ Adp j, a= A cos 0
p Density (g/cmJ)
N Avogadro's number 6 0 2 x 10" mokcuk
1
mole
E Elementarycharge 1 6 x 10 1 , (C/ion)
2 (atom/rnokcule)
M Molecular welght of specimen (g/mok)
S. Sputter rnachlningrate (cml/C)

578
Fig. 15. D u o p l a m t r o n type Fig. 16. High frequency plasma type

Fig. 18. Applications of ion beam machining or etching

(a) Aspheric lens (b) Diammd indenta

Sharpening

Prelorming

(c) Sharpening 01 diamond mcrotome cutter

Ion (d) Optical diffracticm grating
(holographr mask)

Preforming Finishing
( a ) Magnetr bubble memory
0 3-1 Oum-tO 02pm

Permallol Chromium 20nm

Permalloy structure i ~, milling

n

111 II
1I1 11 11
1 1 10 div. = 2 5 1 m

11111 11
TTT
579
lo. F u t u r e Developments i n U l t r a p r e c i s i o n Machininq (5) R . H I L L , l h e mathematic t h e o r y o f p l a s t l c i t y
and U l t r a f i n e P r o c e s s i n y Oxford U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , london 1950
10.1 In order t o achieve u l t r a precision p a t t e r n s (0) r o l e r a n c e s o f P r o d u c t s (See t a b l e 1-1 and 4 - 2 )
( 2 D ) and s h a p e s ( 3 D ) , i t i s e s s e n t i a l t h a t t h e c a u s e s
of a p p a r e n t random e r r o r s i n p r o c e s s i n g machines b e
a n a l y s e d , upgraded, r e f i n e d o r r e p la c e d , i . e . v i r -
t u a l l y e l i m i n a t e d and t h a t t h e s y s t e m a t i c e r r o r s be
minimized t h r o u g h :

(a) L e v e l l i n g up t h e i n h e r e n t p r e c i s i o n o f a l l
e l e m e n t s / s u b - s y s t e m s of machine tools

- s t r a i g h t n e s s , ' f l a t n e s s ' and s g u a r e n e s s

of tool/work motions
- ' roundness'/error m o t i o n s of work s p i n d l e s
and f e e d s c r e w b e a r i n g s , e t c . .

The t a r g e t a c c u r a c y s h o u l d b e 0 . 1 pn which can-

n o t b e a c h i e v e d by s i m p l e random assembly of
p a r t s p r o d u c e d by normal a c c u r a c y machining.
A d j u s t m e n t s f o l l o w i n g ' c u t and t r y ' work by
s k i l l e d p r e c i s i o n craftsmen x i 1 1 be necessary.

(b) F u r t h e r i n t r o d u c t i o n s of ' m e a s u r i n g and a d j u s t -

i n g ' s y s t e m s , i.e. a d a p t i v e a c c u r a c y c o n t r o l of
machine t o o l m o t i o n s (Ref. 4 ) . A suggested
a c c u r a c y t a r g e t is 0 . 0 1 p n (10 nm) t h r o u g h which
it s h o u l d b e p o s s i b l e i n dvt@.?.t?ibit5t<.c p?c,duc-
t i o i l t o a c h i e v e machine a c c u r a c y c a p a b i l i t i e s
o f 0 . 0 5 pm ( 5 0 nm).

(c) A p p l i c a t i o n s o f q u a l i t y c o n t r o l t e c h n i q u e s and
s y s t e m s o f t h e h i g h e s t l e v e l by i n t r o d u c t i o n o f
m e a s u r i n g , i n s p e c t i o n and s o r t i n g equipment of
t h e highest accuracy capability. I n t h i s way
t h e c o n t r o l o f p k L! b fl b ii i 5 t ic i 5 t c- c k~75 tic p t 0 d u c -
ti.vn w i l l i n c r e a s e , t h u s r a i s i n g t h e y i e l d of
u l t r a p r e c i s i o n p a r t s - a s witnessed i n I C pro-
d u c t i o n systems.

10.2 Although it i s e s s e n t i a l t o minimize random

t y p e errors and i n c r e a s e machining r e s o l u t i o n t o
o b t a i n u l t r a f i n e p a t t e r n s and s h a p e s , i n t h e c a s e of
f i n e p a t t e r n s i n t h e o r d e r of 2 t o 3 pm w i d t h / s p a c i n g
t h e d o m i n a t i n g c r i t e r i a become t h e s y s t e m a t i c e r r o r s
of beam d i a m e t e r s ( l i g h t , eb. and i o n ) and p o s i t i o n i n g
(a) Wide u s e o f a t o m i c - b i t machining t o p r o g r e s s i v e -
l y improve t h e machining p r o c e s s i t s e l f t h r o u g h
e l i m i n a t i o n of i t s random errors.

(b) P r o g e s s i v e l y i n c o r p o r a t e machine sub-systems

c a p a b l e of improving t o o l and w o r k p i e c e g u i d i n g
and p o s i t i o n i n g a c c u r a c y t o a b o u t 0 . 1 pm ( b o t h
s t a t i c a l l y and d y n a m i c a l l y ) e . g . h y d r o s t a t i c ,
a e r o s t a t i c , e l e c t r o - m a g n e t i c , and e l a s t i c
g u i d e s and b e a r i n g s e t c . .

(c) A p p l i c a t i o n of u l t r a p r e c i s i o n motion c o n t r o l
s e r v o - s y s t e m s t o t o o l and workpiece h o l d e r s
g i v i n g a r e s o l u t i o n o f 0 . 0 1 pm t h r o u g h t h e u s e
of e l e c t r o s t r i c t i v e or m a g n e t o s t r i c t i v e a c t u a -
to r s e . g . p i e z o e l e c t r i c s y s t e m s .
(d) L e v e l l i n g up t h e s t r u c t u r e of w o r k p i e c e m a t e r i -
a l s t o h i g h t a r g e t u n i f o r m i t y i n t h e o r d e r of
0.01 pm (10 nm).

(el U s e of f u l l y a u t o m a t i c m a n u f a c t u r i n g s y s t e m s t o
a v o i d random e r r o r s due t o hunan o p e r a t i o n .

(f) E f f i c i e n t a p p l i c a t i o n of t e r o t e c h n o l o g y t o m i n i -
m i z e / e l i m i n a t e breakdown of m a n u f a c t u r i n g
machines and equipment.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

The a u t h o r w i s h e s t o e x p r e s s h i s s i n c e r e t h a n k s t o
P r o f e s s o r P.A. McXeown, C r a n f i e l d U n i t f o r P r e c i s i o n
E n g i n e e r i n g , C r a n f i e l d , England, f o r e d i t i n g and
p r e s e n t i n g t h i s keynote paper.

REFERENCES

(1) T a n i g u c h i , N . On t h e b a s i c c o n c e p t o f Nano-tech-
nology. Proc. o f ICPE i n Tokyo, 1974
(2) T a n i g u c h i , N . C u r r e n t s t a t u s and f u t u r e t r e n d s
of u l t r a p r e c i s i o n machining p r o c e s s . Metal
working and m a r k e t i n g , Mar. 1982/Japan
(3) T a n i g u c h i , N. A n a l y s i s o f mechanism of v a r i o u s
m a t e r i a l s working b a s e d on t h e c o n c e p t of work-
i n g energy. S c i e n t i f i c p a p e r s of t h e I n s t . of
Phy. and Chem. R e s e a r c h / J a p a n , 61-3,1967.
(4) McXeown, P.A. The d e s i g n and development of a
l a r g e u l t r a p r e c i s i o n CNC diamond t u r n i n g machine
SME t e c h n i c a p a p e r , MR-82-931, 1982.
 Table 1. Machining accuracies and related technique6

Accuracy
Elements 01
mach,ne too(s
Elements 01
measuringequipment
(length vcughnesr)
Msch,ningmechan,rm 1 Surtace analysis
[structure)
j TwI and workpiece
Fasitinning conlrol

Ball 01 roller (steel) Pwumatic micrmeters EDM. electrolytic '(Sequence and quantity
(status 01 components) IMA (ionmicrop&
guideways and bearings dial indicators machknmg. wire cut. contro1)AC seruomolon SEM (scanning
O p l ~ amicroscops
l analyzer) electron
precfs on flat bearings micrmeters optical drrcharge cut OW (structures) hardness
electric stepmotor
chemical analyms
electro hydraulic pulse
microrcooe)
'0.m and gwdeways pecision detkction scales
screws , s p c t r u m analysis
motors relay logc
TEM (lransmisstonelectron
microscope)
(Infrared)
controllers e l e m @ STEM (scanning transmiwon
~

magnetic brakes eleclron mltroscoP'

I__ -___ -~ c ~ d - EEM (elastic emission
Dynam c h y d r w a h c D$fleantialtranslorrners Abrasive grains. grtnding Preclsim EDM elactro ultraviolet ray micro DC servo notors (semi , machining)
EPMA ( e l e c t m n p d
bearings electrostatic m d w t m y n scales '
wheel. a l u n d m (WA. l y t u polishmg. tm sc-s radiationanalysis )closed sncodarr) CVD (chemral
mlcroscoce) y a w dewst
pneumatic bearings and photo electric moire ' SA). Carbawdurn (GO. cutting a grinding photc mrmanalyris mtcw I optimal control
"'m gusdeways MI or roller scales pectsma~r ,
diamMd (artdicial. - .Iwsible
IithoaraDhv Vtcken hardness tester tlanslston lbgr '
PVD
tmn)
(physical v a w deposi
pre laadbearings or moometers straw gauger 1 polycryslals) photo light). electrm team ultresontc micrmcope Controllers servo lochs
guideways Vidicons CCDs 1
resist (N) machining laser lion)
SOR (synchrotron&la1
I machining rad#ation)
EDM (electro discharp
Precision pneumo /Precision Mnsrenttal I
Abrasive g r a m CBN M m a surtace cutflng Fluorescent light Preciston DC servo machining)
static Pessure bearings ~ l r a n s f a m e nlaser 1 high melting point (grlndlng) Vacuum analysis m o t a s (closed IwP). CBN (cubrcbaon
and guideways elastic inlarlermelers electro 1 mCtaIIIc oxodes ice0 deFaSlt 0" pecIsIon adaptive conlrol wtth nitride)
spring guideways hard / m c . p t t c cornparatas M @ a & ) single lappng.ckmlcal vapor mrcrocompvter CCD (charge c o w e d
Irm metals (ruby) ball 01 ,radiation Cornten point diamond cuttinp tool depostt~on(CVD) Photo de"d
roller bearings or , (monocrystallme) IithOgraPhy (ultra
j guideways (preload I i photo rerwt ( P j violet rays) single win1
OllY) drammd c v t t q

Monostrwtureelastic 1 UItRPfecIsmn dlnarential 1 Reactive abrasive grains EEM. mechanockmtcal High pecision DC servo
swing guideways transfarmers electro 1 l a w n g d a t e s Iawmg lawlng reactim lawng. m o t m (closed l a )
electromagnetic a m a p t l c poxirnily Ihquids. ms. laser laser heat treatment wedlcttcg controls
o, ,rm electroslat?c lm sensas laser mmrlerenca eieclrans x rays (photo PVD (Phyr~calvapor eloctromagnelic servo
movement guideways optlcal Doppler tibers restst E ) depmwm) .I.Ct(.M actuatas (thermal and
tkrmal delamat!m (optcal r e m a s ) , beam exposure M R electrostatic). mini
tme movement guvdsaays expure computers
I

Eleclrostatc and
electromagnetic
Electron X ray
Scmt~llators.ions (SEM.
~

1
Atoms. molecules
(reactive). ~mr.actwe
1 Non.con1actong lawing,
ton machining. sputter
Ion analysis. Augei
analysis
Eleclroslriclion and
magnetoitnction sewm.
OOl,,m delkction. electro super high s p e d
~ stnctiveand
magnstortrictive lnne
movements
Multi relbction)
laser interlermeter
(cube)
j sputter deposltlon. Im
ptatnq. +ontrnplantation
e l e c t m u computers
(sequence. pocess).
(unattended syslems)

i Atoms. molecules
(neutral). neutrons
'
I1
Subtance synthesmng
wocesstng (atomic a
molecular arrays,
molecular beam
machmmg)

Compller Simulation D q t a l control (quantity,

Inlte ekment method. sequence)
modal m l l y s l s (stress)

Table 2. Marginal machining energy density

a(J/cm')
rocessing

Crack,
Pro uniformity
cessing
mechanism
Atm
molecule I Pointdefect. Olslocatlon.
vacancy microcrack
cavity.
grain
boundary

trochemical
decMlposltlon 10 10' 10' 10'
(dissolution) ____ 1
tensile fract
(cleavage)
i
1
10'
microcrack i I 102
(~~~;Ics)

(cluster) i I
I Evaporation
(thermal)
I
i
Ioh...lol l(r...py
(cluster) i
(cluster)
1 I 1 I I I
w=specifr stock removmgenargyJ/cm'. (.... .)
a % w except plastic delormation
a for plastlc deformation =Y2/2E. Y =elastic ltmlt
a for elastic shearing failure = r,h?/2G<o,i2/2E
b , h r r l h=theoretical tensile and shear strength
Glass and ceramlcs wlth microcrack make brlttle fracture (processing
unit over about lpm), but one with no cracks (processing unlt under
about lpm) make elastc shearing failure or shearlng slip.

581
 Table 8. Atomic-bit nut.r*lr procnm

Processingmechanism Prccessing method , Dimensionalaccuracy control

Shearing w tensik rupture micro
bit fracture. solid
Elastic failure (solid, atomic.
bit)
Chemical decomposition (gas,
b i d Solid)
-
Fine cutting with singlelapoint Accwacyof shape and surface
diamd t d roughness (machine tools)
I
EEM. magretic fluid machining 1 Surface accuracy (polishing tool
(ultra fine poliihmg) 1 profi*rg). depth accuracy (micro)
I
Chemical etching reactive plasma 1
Surfece accuracy (polishing tool
etchmg. mmchanochemiial machin. I profilhg). depth accuracy (macro).
ing, chemicomechanicalmachining pattern accuracy (mask)

Surface accuracy (polishing tool

Ebctrocbtricaldecomposition
(liquid. soad)
Ektrdytic poliishina. electrolytic
procsssing(etching) ,1
I

pofilmg), depth accuracy (macro).

patern accuracy (mask)
Vapwizib (thermal) (gas. sdM) Electronteam machining, laser ' Linear accwaey (control). surface
machining. thermal ray machining Muracy (macro). depth accuracy
(macro)

Dilhrsionseparation (thermal) Dilfusion removal (dissdution) Surfsca pattem accwacy (mask).

(sdd, liquid. gas. solii)
Melting reparstion(thermal)
(rqua. gas. S d i )
Sputtering(solid)
surface accuracy (macro), depth
accuracy
Melting removal Surface pattern accuracy (mask).
surface accuracy (macro), depth
accuracy (macro)
Ion sputter machining, reactive ion Surface pattern accwacy (mask).
sputter machming surface accuracy (macro). depth
accuracy (micro)

Chemical dspoaiion and Wn

ig
(gas, liquid, s d i )
Electrahemicd depositionand
boding (gas. liquid, solid)
Thsnnal deposition and bDndmg
(gas. liquid s d i )
Diffusion bonding melting
(thermal bonding)
Physicaldepositionand bonding
(krrtic)
Implantat! (kinetic)
Chemical plating, gas phase plating.
oxidation. nitridation. activated re-
action pbting (ARP)
Ekctmplating. anodi oxidetion
electrofuming
Vapor deposition. epitaxii growth.
molecular beam epitaxy
Sintering. Mistericg, ion nitridation.
dipping, mdten plating
Sputteringdeposition. ionized plat.
ing cluster ion epitaxy. ion beam
deposition
Ion implantation(ijeeton)
Surface pattern accuracy (mask).
thickness accuracy (macro)
Svface pattern accuracy (mask),
thickness accuracy (micro)
Svface pMtsnr accuracy (mask),
thickness accuracy (micro)
Surface pattern accuracy (mask).
thickness (depth) accuracy (macro)
Surface pattern accuracy (mask).
depth accwacy (micro)
Surface patternaccuray (mask),
depth accuracy (micro)

Tharmal mW Surface tension (themutl, optical, Swface accuracy (macro)

laser. electron beam). gas (high
temperature)
Viscous fbw Lwidflow (hydro. polishing) Surface accwaey (macro)
Friction Mw Fine partcla flow (palishing, Surface scuracy (micro)
burnishing l a m )

TABLE 4 - 1 TOLEWYCES OF PRODUCTS

Accuracy
Tolerance Mechanical Component
Me anva 1ue

g e a r , screw, p a r t s of type w r i t e r s , automobile

watch Darts. u r e c i s i o n e e a r / s c r e w ( b a l l l. .machine

_
t o o l b i a r i n g , - r o t a r y compressor p a r t s
b a l l bearing, r o t t e r bearing, a i r bearing,
n e e d l e b e a r i n g s , f l a p p e r servo-values.gyro-
bearinn
blockgauge, diamond t o o l , p r e c i s i o n XY t a b l e
guide, microtom
s u r f a c e roughness
I

TABLE 4-2 TOLEWVCES OF PRODUCTS

Acc/Tol. Electric(E1ectronic)Component O p t i c a l Comp,
200 um g e n e r a l purpose elect.equipment camera body
50 um e l e c t r o n i c packages, micromotor s h u t t e r of
t r a n s i s t o r . diode camera. l e n s
I
I
I I holder- II
e l e c t r i c r e l a y / r e s i s t o r , conden- l e n s , prism,
s o r . d i s c memory, c o l o r mask, optic. f i b r e
video t a p e c y l i n d e r connector

t
mag.head, mag.scale, CCD elements p r e c i s i o n
q u a r t z v i b r a t o r , mag buble, lens/prism,
.magnetron o p t i c . scale
l a s e r mirror
0.05 um IC, Video disc, LSI optic. f l a t
outic. disc
0,005 wn Super LSI
I
precision
diffraction
I grating
( 1 um I Synthesized semi conductor
I
582