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Vector Analysis
Problem Set #1: 1.2, 1.3, 1.9, 1.10, 1.11, 1.15, 1.18, 1.20 (Due Thursday
Jan. 23rd)
Problem Set #2: 1.14, 1.17, 1.28, 1.29, 1.30,1.33, 1.39, 1.43, 1.46 (Due
Tuesday Feb. 18th)
A = (Ax , Ay , Az ) (1.1)
which is a scalar. Scalars are real numbers or elements in space R and vectors
are elements in space R3 . For vectors A, B, ... ∈ R3 and angle θ between A
and B one can define:
1. Addition:
A + B ≡ (Ax + Bx , Ay + By , Az + Bz ) (1.3)
which is commutative
A+B=B+A (1.4)
4
CHAPTER 1. VECTOR ANALYSIS 5
associative
(A + B) + C = A + (B + C) (1.5)
and defines inverse (or minus) vector
A + (−A) ≡ 0 (1.6)
2. Multiplication by scalar:
which is distributive
a (A + B) = aA + aB (1.9)
A · B ≡ AB cos θ (1.10)
which is commutative
A · B =B · A (1.11)
and distributive
A · (B + C) = A · B + A · C. (1.12)
1.1.2 Components
It is convenient to write vectors in the components form
A = (Ax , Ay , Az ) = Ax x̂ + Ay ŷ + Az ẑ (1.17)
where x̂, ŷ and ẑ are unit vectors in the direction of positive x, y and z axes.
Then,
1. Addition:
A+B = (Ax x̂ + Ay ŷ + Az ẑ)+(Bx x̂ + By ŷ + Bz ẑ) = (Ax + Bx ) x̂+(Ay + By ) ŷ+(Az + Bz ) ẑ
(1.18)
2. Multiplication by scalar:
aA = a (Ax x̂ + Ay ŷ + Az ẑ) = (aAx ) x̂ + (aAy ) ŷ + (aAz ) ẑ (1.19)
3. Dot product:
A · B = (Ax x̂ + Ay ŷ + Az ẑ) · (Bx x̂ + By ŷ + Bz ẑ) =
= Ax x̂ · (Bx x̂ + By ŷ + Bz ẑ) + Ay ŷ · (Bx x̂ + By ŷ + Bz ẑ) + Az ẑ · (Bx x̂ + By ŷ + Bz ẑ
= (Ax x̂ · Bx x̂) + (Ay ŷ · By ŷ) + (Az ẑ · Bz ẑ) = Ax Bx + Ay By + Az Bz (1.20)
since
x̂ · x̂ = ŷ · ŷ = ẑ · ẑ = 1 (1.21)
and
x̂ · ŷ = ŷ · ẑ = ẑ · x̂ = 0. (1.22)
Note that ! √
A= A2x + A2y + A2z = A · A. (1.23)
CHAPTER 1. VECTOR ANALYSIS 7
4. Cross product:
since
x̂ × x̂ = ŷ × ŷ = ẑ × ẑ = 0 (1.25)
and (for the right-handed coordinate system)
x̂ × ŷ = ẑ ŷ × ẑ = x̂ ẑ × x̂ = ŷ (1.26)
A · (B × C) = B · (C × A) = C · (A × B) . (1.29)
A × (B × C) = B (A · C) − C (A · B) , (1.30)
but you are not required to memorize these formulas since they can always
be re-derived from the components representation of vectors.
1.1.3 Notations
Let us now introduce some notations:
s ≡ r − r′ = (x − x′ ) x̂ + (y − y ′) ŷ + (z − z ′ ) ẑ (1.34)
1 d2 f (x)
' ( ' (
df (x)
f (x) = f (x0 )+ (x−x0 )+ (x−x0 )2 +.... (1.38)
dx x=x0 2 dx2 x=x0
CHAPTER 1. VECTOR ANALYSIS 9
1. Multiplication by scalar:
or ' ( ' (
∂... ∂... ∂... ∂a ∂a ∂a
∇a = , , a= , , (1.50)
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂x ∂y ∂z
which is a gradient of a scalar field a which is a vector field as we have
already mentioned.
A · B = Ax Bx + Ay By + Az Bz (1.51)
CHAPTER 1. VECTOR ANALYSIS 11
or ' (
∂... ∂... ∂...
∇·A= , , · (Ax , Ay , Az ) = . (1.52)
∂x ∂y ∂z
which is a scalar field called divergence of a vector A. Geometrically
the divergence measures the amount by which the lines of vector field
diverge from each other.
3. Cross product (or vector product):
⎛ ⎞
x̂ ŷ ẑ
A × B = det ⎝ Ax Ay Az ⎠ (1.53)
Bx By Bz
or ⎛ ⎞
x̂ ŷ ẑ
∂... ∂... ∂...
∇ × A = det ⎝ ∂x ∂y ∂z
⎠. (1.54)
Ax Ay Az
which is a vector field called curl of a vector A. Geometrically the curl
measures the amount by which the lines of vector field curl around a
given point.
From definitions one can also derive expressions for second derivatives the
most useful of which is a Laplacian operator
∇2 a ≡ ∇ · (∇a) . (1.57)
∇ × (∇a) = (0, 0, 0)
∇ · (∇ × A) = 0. (1.58)
B ≡ (Bx , By , Bz )
E ≡ (Ex , Ey , Ez )
J ≡ (Jx , Jy , Jz ) . (1.60)
It looks a bit odd and in fact (as you might suspect) there is a more natural
object (the so-called four-vector potential) which is an element of a tangent
bundle of the four dimensional manifold describing the space-time.
Then to promote these vectors to vector fields we should imagine they
are functions of spatial x′ , y ′, z ′ and temporal t′ coordinates
In writing the fields we usually omit the ugly looking (t′ , x′ , y ′, z ′ ) but the
dependence on space and time coordinates is always implied.
Now if we think of ρ and J as the electric charge and electric current
density (fields) and of electric E and magnetic B fields then there are the
so-called Maxwell equations which relate these fields to each other. In SI
units the famous equations take the following form
CHAPTER 1. VECTOR ANALYSIS 13
ρ
∇·E = (Gauss’s law) (1.61)
ϵ0
∂E
∇×B− = µ0 J (Ampere’s law) (1.62)
c2 ∂t
∂B
∇×E+ = 0 (Faraday’s law) (1.63)
∂t
∇ · B = 0 (Gauss’s law) (1.64)
where c = √ϵ10 µ0 is the speed of light. Why light? Because light is nothing
but the waves of electric E and magnetic B field (or for short electromagnetic
waves) propagating in space.
These equations can be derived from variational principle and interested
students will be encouraged to do so at the end of the course. It turns out
that the fundamental fields are not the electric E and magnetic B fields, but
the scalar V and vector A potential (fields). In terms of these potential fields
∂A
E = −∇V − (1.65)
∂t
B = ∇ × A. (1.66)
The two potentials combined form a four-vector (V, A) which is the element
of the tangent bundle of our four-dimensional space-time.
And to derive (1.61,1.62,1.63,1.64) from first principles (i.e. variational
principle) one should start with a particular Lagrangian written in terms of
V and A and vary it with respect to V and A. We are not going to do this,
but we will assume that the Maxwell equations give a correct description
of electricity and magnetism for macroscopic charges, currents, distances,
energies, etc.
The Maxwell equations describe how charges (stationary ρ or moving J)
generate the electric E and magnetic B fields, but do not describe how the
charges move due to electric and magnetic forces. For that you need an
additional equation known as Lorentz force law:
F = q (E + v × B) . (1.67)
but for a function of three variables f (x, y, z) one can integrate over line (or
path) , over area (or surface) and over volume:
• Path integral /
v(l) · dl (1.69)
P
where the integral is take over some path P from point l = a to point
l = b. (The subscript P is often dropped, but it is always implied that
the integral is over some path.) For example, work required to move a
particle along some path is given by
/
W = F(l) · dl (1.70)
• Surface integral /
v(l) · da (1.71)
S
where the integral is take over some surface S (also often omitted sub-
script) and da is an infinitesimal patch of area with direction perpen-
dicular to the surface (lousy, but common notation) with also a sign
ambiguity in the definition. For closed surfaces
0
v(l) · da (1.72)
over a cubical box with side 2. Then there will be six contributions to
the integral
CHAPTER 1. VECTOR ANALYSIS 15
• Volume integral
/ /
3
f dx = f (x, y, z)dxdydz (1.81)
V V
which is nothing but a triple integral which can be taken in any order
/ '/ '/ ( ( / '/ '/ ( (
f (x, y, z)dx dy dz = f (x, y, z)dz dx dy = ...
(1.82)
CHAPTER 1. VECTOR ANALYSIS 16
df (x)
F (x) = (1.83)
dx
then / x=b
F (x)dx = f (b) − f (a). (1.84)
x=a
In higher dimensions this results generalizes to integrating a function
F = −∇V (1.87)
then the work only depend on the value of the potential in the initial and
final points / b
W = F(l) · dl = V (a) − V (b). (1.88)
a
∇ × F = 0 ⇔ F = −∇V (1.90)
and thus the path independence of work (1.88) and vanishing of work for
closed paths (1.89) would follow automatically. And if the vector field is not
curl-less we can still rewrite it as
∇ × F ̸= 0 ⇒ F = −∇V + ∇ × A.
CHAPTER 1. VECTOR ANALYSIS 17
Roughly speaking the Gauss’s theorem (1.91) describes the two ways of cal-
culate the number of (vector v) field lines entering a given volume minus
the number of field lines leaving the volume. On can calculate it either by
integrating divergence of the field lines over the volume (as on the left hand
side), or by integrating the flow of the field lines over the surface (as on the
right hand side).
Similarly the Stokes’s theorem (1.92) describes the different ways how
swirling of the field lines can be calculate. One can calculate it by integrating
the curl of field lines over the area (as on the left hand side), or by the
integrating the rotation of field lines as we go around boundary (as on the
right hand side).
For a vector field (1.73)
we can find
∇ · v = 2z + 2yz (1.94)
⎛ ⎞
x̂ ŷ ẑ
∂... ∂... ∂... ⎠ = (z 2 − 3)x̂ + 2xŷ + ẑ.
∇ × v = det ⎝ ∂x ∂y ∂z (1.95)
2
2xz x + 2 y(z − 3)
is the same as total flux through the boundary (1.80) as correctly predicted
by Gauss’s theorem (1.91). Moreover for the face of the cube (y = 0)
/ 2 / 2 1 2 2
/ 2 / 2
(z − 3)x̂ + ŷ2x + ẑ · ŷdxdz = 2xdxdz = 8 (1.97)
0 0 0 0
CHAPTER 1. VECTOR ANALYSIS 18
or
/ /
1 2 2
(2xzx̂ · x̂) dx + y(z − 3)ẑ · ẑ dz +
/ z=0 / x=2
1 2 2
+ (2xzx̂ · (−x̂)) dx + y(z − 3)ẑ · (−ẑ) dz =
z=2 x=0
/ 0
0+0+ (4xx̂ · (−x̂)) dx + 0 =
2
/ 2
4xdx = 8 (1.98)
0
∇ · (f A) = f ∇ · A + A · ∇f (1.102)
implies
/ / 0
f (∇ · A) dx3 = − A · (∇f ) dx3 + f A · da (1.103)
V V S
and
∇ × (f A) = f (∇ × A) − A × (∇f ) (1.104)
CHAPTER 1. VECTOR ANALYSIS 19
implies
/ / 0
f (∇ × A) · da = − (A × (∇f )) · da + f A · dl. (1.105)
S V P
so that
/ ∞/ ∞ / ∞
δ(x − a)δ(y − b)δ(z − c)f (x, y, z)dxdydz = f (a, b, c) (1.109)
−∞ −∞ −∞
or /
f (r)δ(r − a)dx3 = f (a). (1.110)
1.4 Transformations
1.4.1 Simple transformations
Clearly the choice of the reference frame or coordinates system (i.e. origin,
axes, handedness, etc ) is arbitrary, and we want the laws of physics not
CHAPTER 1. VECTOR ANALYSIS 20
n(n − 1)
(n − 1) + (n − 2) + .... + 2 + 1 = .
2
Thus there are
n(n − 1) n(n + 1)
n+ =
2 2
independent transformations.
Linear combination of translations can be described by a translation vec-
tor
T = (Tx , Ty , Tz ) (1.112)
of the old coordinate system (x, y, z) to new coordinate system (x′ , y ′, z ′ ).
Note that the translation vector is also expressed in the old (unprimed)
coordinates. Then scalars (e.g. A) and vectors (e.g. A = (Ax , Ay , Az ))
transforms into A′ and A′ = (A′x′ , A′y′ , A′z ′ ) such that
A′ = A (1.113)
and
A′ = A. (1.114)
CHAPTER 1. VECTOR ANALYSIS 21
This is just a statement of the fact that vectors parallel transported in the
Euclidean space do not change.
For brevity of notations (and to confuse readers) the primes are often
dropped either for the newly transformed vector (as in books on general
relativity) or for the new coordinates (as in book on electrodynamics) so
that
A′x = Ax
A′y = Ay
A′z = Az (1.115)
The notations are confusing, but it should always be clear from the context
whether we are in the old (unprimed) or in the new (primed) coordinates
system.
Linear combination of rotations can be described by a rotation matrix
⎛ ⎞
Rxx Rxy Rxz
⎝ Ryx Ryy Ryz ⎠ ≡ (1.116)
Rzx Rzy Rzz
⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
cos φ1 sin φ1 0 1 0 0 cos φ3 0 − sin φ3
⎝ − sin φ1 cos φ1 0 ⎠ + ⎝ 0 cos φ2 sin φ2 ⎠ + ⎝ 0 1 0 ⎠.
0 0 1 0 − sin φ2 cos φ2 sin φ3 0 cos φ3
for some angles φ1 , φ2 and φ3 . Then scalars and vector transform as
A′ = A (1.117)
3
3
A′i = Rij Aj (1.118)
j=1
Clearly, the simplest transformation rule is for scalar quantities - they do not
change under coordinate transformations.
• Spherical coordinates
x = r sin θ cos φ
y = r sin θ sin φ
z = r cos θ (1.122)
• Cylindrical coordinates
x = s cos φ
y = s sin φ
z = z (1.123)
A = Ax x̂ + Ay ŷ + Az ẑ (1.124)
A = Ar r̂ + Aθ θ̂ + Aφ φ̂ (1.125)
or (s, φ, z)
A = Ar r̂ + Aφ φ̂ + Az ẑ (1.126)
and vise versa. The transformation matrix is called Jacobian an can be
calculated for any transformation.
For example, using the inverse Jacobian matrix
CHAPTER 1. VECTOR ANALYSIS 23
⎛ ⎞
∂x ∂x ∂x ⎛ ⎞
∂r ∂θ ∂φ sin θ cos φ r cos θ cos φ −r sin θ sin φ
∂y ∂y ∂y
Ĵ−1 = ⎝ ⎠= sin θ sin φ r cos θ sin φ r sin θ cos φ ⎠
⎜ ⎟ ⎝
∂r ∂θ ∂φ
∂z ∂z ∂z cos θ −r sin θ 0
∂r ∂θ ∂φ
(1.127)
one can expressed vectors in new coordinates
⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
1 0 0
A ∝ ⎝ 0 ⎠, B ∝ ⎝ 1 ⎠, C ∝ ⎝ 0 ⎠ (1.128)
0 0 1
in terms of old coordinates
⎛ ⎞
sin θ cos φ
Ĵ−1 A ∝ ⎝ sin θ sin φ ⎠ = sin θ cos φx̂ + sin θ sin φŷ + cos θẑ.
cos θ
⎛ ⎞
r cos θ cos φ
Ĵ−1 B ∝ ⎝ r cos θ sin φ ⎠ = r cos θ cos φx̂ + r cos θ sin φŷ − r sin θẑ.
−r sin θ
⎛ ⎞
−r sin θ sin φ
Ĵ−1 C ∝ ⎝ r sin θ cos φ ⎠ = −r sin θ sin φx̂ + r sin θ cos φŷ. (1.129)
0
which can be normalized to define
r̂ ≡ cos φx̂ + sin θ sin φŷ + cos θẑ
θ̂ ≡ cos θ cos φx̂ + cos θ sin φŷ − sin θẑ.
φ̂ ≡ − sin φx̂ + cos φŷ. (1.130)
In fact these normalization constants (1, r and r sin θ) are important as they
appears in a general infinitesimal displacement
dl = drr̂ + rdθθ̂ + r sin θdφφ̂ (1.131)
often written in terms of the so-called metric tensor
⎛ ⎞
1 0 0
2 2 2 2
dl = dr + rdθ + dφ = ⎝ 0 r2 0 ⎠ (1.132)
2 2
0 0 r sin θ
Similarly for cylindrical coordinates
x = s cos φ
y = s sin φ
z = z (1.133)
CHAPTER 1. VECTOR ANALYSIS 24
and
⎛ ⎞
cos φ
Ĵ−1 A ∝ ⎝ sin φ ⎠ = cos φx̂ + sin φŷ
0
⎛ ⎞
−s sin φ
Ĵ−1 B ∝ ⎝ s cos φ ⎠ = −s sin φx̂ + s cos φŷ
0
⎛ ⎞
0
−1
Ĵ C ∝ ⎝ 0 ⎠ = ẑ. (1.135)
1
or
&
s = x2 + y 2
-y.
φ = arctan
x
z = z (1.140)