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Introduction

to Machine Learning
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Agenda

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Discussion Flow

➢Its all about business


➢Categories of problems
➢What if we make a mistake in prediction : Cost Functions
➢Cost Functions to Parameters : Gradient Descent

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Business Problems to ML
Problem

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Type of ML Problems

Supervised Un-supervised
Learning Learning

Finding Dimensionality
Regression Classification Groups Reduction

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Components of Supervised Learning

Target Predictors

Predictive
Models

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Business Problem to ML Problems

➢A bank is making too many losses because of defaulters


on retail loans.
➢Target : Customer will default on their loan or not
➢Predictors : Loan Application and Customer
Characteristics ( Loan Amt, Age, Credit History etc)

➢An e-commerce company wants to know how it should


plan for the budget on cloud servers
➢Target : Server Load
➢Predictors : Day of month , Number of products , sale
, season etc

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Are we going to ignore unsupervised Learning then?!!

➢ There is no target to predict here

➢ Unsupervised Learning concerns itself with finding structures in


the data

➢Finding groups and profiling them to launch targeted campaigns,


products

➢Anomaly detection in a data collection

➢Dimensionality reduction to reduce data size for easy


experimentation

➢Finding latent factors from many observed factors

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Cost Function

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What is a predictive model

Observed
Factors Predictions
Affecting
the
outcome

yˆi = f (Xi )
yi = yˆi + ✏i
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sha1_base64="ZBVms9UzxAfFYHBDQoQllSIr6Dw=">AAACLHicbVBNS8NAEN3Urxq/oh69LBahIpTUi3oQCnrwWMXYQhPCZrtpl24+2N0IIeQPefGviOChild/h5s0h9o6MPDmvZnZnefFjAppmlOttrK6tr5R39S3tnd294z9gycRJRwTC0cs4n0PCcJoSCxJJSP9mBMUeIz0vMlNofeeCRc0Ch9lGhMnQKOQ+hQjqSjXuLXHSGapm9E8hza8Vuk3+0V5qts2LIWKn+88gzaJBWVqhapdo2G2zDLgMmhXoAGq6LrGuz2McBKQUGKGhBi0zVg6GeKSYkZy3U4EiRGeoBEZKBiigAgnK6/N4YlihtCPuMpQwpKdn8hQIEQaeKozQHIsFrWC/E8bJNK/dDIaxokkIZ495CcMyggW1sEh5QRLliqAMKfqrxCPEUdYKoN1ZUJ78eRlYJ23rlrmvdnoPFRu1MEROAZN0AYXoAPuQBdYAIMX8Aam4FN71T60L+171lrTqplD8Ce0n18QJacb</latexit>

Copyright 2014 RESTRICTED CIRCULATION ‹#›


What do we expect from a predictive model

➢ Its accurate

➢ Accuracy is not limited to a single observation

➢ We want an overall prediction framework which


generalises very well for all the data points

➢ How do we quantify this collective accuracy/


performance measure ?

Copyright 2014 RESTRICTED CIRCULATION ‹#›


Cost Function Example : Linear Regression

f (Xi ) =
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sha1_base64="dRdmyhtbQxGvWq+bf0wfFtAxaY0=">AAACLnicbZDLSgMxFIbP1Futt6pLN8EiVoQy0426EAqCuKxibaFThkyaaUMzF5KMUIZ5Ize+gc/QjYiKWx/DTFvQtv4Q+POdc0jO70acSWWab0ZuaXlldS2/XtjY3NreKe7uPcgwFoQ2SMhD0XKxpJwFtKGY4rQVCYp9l9OmO7jK6s1HKiQLg3s1jGjHx72AeYxgpZFTvPbKLSdh6Qmy0aU+tksVdhIzRae/NyvVPRabYdWMVTWrZHKKJbNijoUWjTU1pVrVPn4BgLpTHNndkMQ+DRThWMq2ZUaqk2ChGOE0LdixpBEmA9yjbW0D7FPZScb7puhIky7yQqFPoNCY/p1IsC/l0Hd1p49VX87XMvhfrR0r77yTsCCKFQ3I5CEv5kiFKAsPdZmgRPGhNpgIpv+KSB8LTJSOuKBDsOZXXjSNauWiYt7qMO5gojwcwCGUwYIzqMEN1KEBBJ5gBO/wYTwbr8an8TVpzRnTmX2YkfH9A/i4pyY=</latexit>
0 + 1 X1i + 2 X2i .....

Error in prediction for a single observation ✏ i = yi


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sha1_base64="gCKspbX8PBc/2ud/tvElPwmJ9Uo=">AAACFnicbZBNS8NAEIYnftb6FfXoZbEIHrQkXtSDUPDiSaoYW2hC2Ww37dLNB7sboYT8Cy/+E/HiQcWrePPfuEl70NYXBp55Z4bdGT/hTCrL+jbm5hcWl5YrK9XVtfWNTXNr+07GqSDUITGPRdvHknIWUUcxxWk7ERSHPqctf3hR1Fv3VEgWR7dqlFAvxP2IBYxgpa2uWa+6LnJpIhnXacZy5KJzHaOSjzS5A6yyMs1RtWvWrLpVCs2CPYFa4/DpCrSaXfPL7cUkDWmkCMdSdmwrUV6GhWKE07zqppImmAxxn3Y0Rjik0svKvXK0r50eCmKhI1KodH9PZDiUchT6ujPEaiCna4X5X62TquDUy1iUpIpGZPxQkHKkYlQcCfWYoETxkQZMBNN/RWSABSZKn7I4gj298iw4x/WzunVt1xo3MFYFdmEPDsCGE2jAJTTBAQIP8Ayv8GY8Gi/Gu/Exbp0zJjM78EfG5w9kJJ9M</latexit>
yˆi

= yi
<latexit sha1_base64="QREMStGF5MwQWI01qTHn9fHOW8Q=">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</latexit>
sha1_base64="y6xC6S6tYyVRNZy8E6y1u4CPD1o=">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</latexit>
( 0 + 1 X1i + 2 X2i )

This error can be both positive or negative

Copyright 2014 RESTRICTED CIRCULATION ‹#›


Contd..

Pn
i=1 ✏i
A bad idea for collective error
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sha1_base64="OVWn7UHdVMBUFJT9h7iaBMTTCHU=">AAACBnicbVA9SwNBEJ3zM8avU0tBFoNgFe4EUQshYGMZxTOBJIa9zSZZsrt37O4J4bjOxr9iY6Fi62+wEOz8E/ZuPgpNfDDweG+GmXlhzJk2nvfpzMzOzS8s5pbyyyura+vuxua1jhJFaEAiHqlqiDXlTNLAMMNpNVYUi5DTStg7G/iVW6o0i+SV6ce0IXBHsjYj2Fip6e7kUV0nopmyUz+7SWWG6jTWjFsvZRlqugWv6A2Bpok/JoXS4ffHFwCUm+57vRWRRFBpCMda13wvNo0UK8MIp1m+nmgaY9LDHVqzVGJBdSMd/pGhPau0UDtStqRBQ/X3RIqF1n0R2k6BTVdPegPxP6+WmPZxI2UyTgyVZLSonXBkIjQIBbWYosTwviWYKGZvRaSLFSbGRpe3IfiTL0+T4KB4UvQu/ELpEkbIwTbswj74cAQlOIcyBEDgDh7gCZ6de+fReXFeR60zznhmC/7AefsB8mCb+g==</latexit>

Simple sum of errors with different signs , means


that sum can be small despite errors being large

Pn 2
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sha1_base64="WgxZ4019Ku9dBbG+lCwBiPPeHwM=">AAACC3icbVC9TsMwGHT4LeGvwMhiUSExVUkXYECqxMJYEKGVmlA5rtNatZ3IdpAqKw/AwquwMABi5QXYeBvcNgO0nGTpdHefPn8XZ4wq7XnfztLyyuraemXD3dza3tmt7u3fqTSXmAQ4ZansxEgRRgUJNNWMdDJJEI8Zacejy4nffiBS0VTc6nFGIo4GgiYUI22lXrXmwlDlvGfohV/cG1FAE5JMUWZNQwsrNQqb8ureFHCR+CWpgRKtXvUr7Kc450RozJBSXd/LdGSQ1BQzUrhhrkiG8AgNSNdSgThRkZkeU8Bjq/Rhkkr7hIZT9feEQVypMY9tkiM9VPPeRPzP6+Y6OYsMFVmuicCzRUnOoE7hpBnYp5JgzcaWICyp/SvEQyQR1rY/15bgz5+8SIJG/bzuXfu15k3ZRgUcgiNwAnxwCprgCrRAADB4BM/gFbw5T86L8+58zKJLTjlzAP7A+fwBTeqbbA==</latexit>

i=1 i
Alternatives
Pn
<latexit sha1_base64="TePWnQOQQElTFjGMNm4ETA2TFfg=">AAACC3icbVC9SgNBGNyLRuP5F7W0WQyCVbgTRC2EgI2FRRRjArkz7G32kiW7e8funhDOewAbC1/ExkLF1hewEOx8CXs3P4UmDiwMM/Px7TdBzKjSjvNp5WZm83PzhQV7cWl5ZbW4tn6pokRiUsMRi2QjQIowKkhNU81II5YE8YCRetA7Hvj1ayIVjcSF7sfE56gjaEgx0kZqFUs29FTCWyk9crOrVGTwBqYeiRVlxk5pZgSTcsrOEHCauGNSqux9f3yd5u+rreK7145wwonQmCGlmq4Taz9FUlPMSGZ7iSIxwj3UIU1DBeJE+enwmAxuG6UNw0iaJzQcqr8nUsSV6vPAJDnSXTXpDcT/vGaiwwM/pSJONBF4tChMGNQRHDQD21QSrFnfEIQlNX+FuIskwtr0Z5sS3MmTp0ltt3xYds7cUuUcjFAAm2AL7AAX7IMKOAFVUAMY3IIH8ASerTvr0XqxXkfRnDWe2QB/YL39ADObnx8=</latexit>
sha1_base64="xqoq1FyKBndf1FnKG2C4A6ndeuk=">AAACC3icbVC7SgNBFL3rM66vqKXNYBCswq4gaiEEbCyjuCaQjWF2MpsMmZ1dZmaFsO4H2PgrNhYqtv6AhWDnT9g7eRSaeGDgcM653LknSDhT2nE+rZnZufmFxcKSvbyyurZe3Ni8UnEqCfVIzGNZD7CinAnqaaY5rSeS4ijgtBb0Tgd+7YZKxWJxqfsJbUa4I1jICNZGahVLNvJVGrUyduLm15nI0S3KfJooxo2dsdwIJuWUnSHQNHHHpFQ5+P74AoBqq/jut2OSRlRowrFSDddJdDPDUjPCaW77qaIJJj3coQ1DBY6oambDY3K0a5Q2CmNpntBoqP6eyHCkVD8KTDLCuqsmvYH4n9dIdXjUzJhIUk0FGS0KU450jAbNoDaTlGjeNwQTycxfEeliiYk2/dmmBHfy5Gni7ZePy865W6pcwAgF2IYd2AMXDqECZ1AFDwjcwQM8wbN1bz1aL9brKDpjjWe24A+stx8Fc548</latexit>
i=1 |✏i |
Copyright 2014 RESTRICTED CIRCULATION ‹#›
Popular Cost Function : Sum of Squares

Pn 2= Pn 2
<latexit sha1_base64="1heDpMQ24iGWI0eA/4nsnJLZAj0=">AAACC3icbVC9SgNBGNyLRuP5F7W0WQyCVbgLiFoIARsLiyieCSRn2NvsJUt2947dPSEc9wA2Fr6IjYWKrS9gIdj5EvZufgpNHFgYZubj22+CmFGlHefTys3N5xcWC0v28srq2npxY/NKRYnExMMRi2QjQIowKoinqWakEUuCeMBIPeifDP36DZGKRuJSD2Lic9QVNKQYaSO1iyUbtlTC2yk9drPrVGQwbZFYUWbMlGZGqmQm5ZSdEeAscSekVN3//vg6y9/X2sX3VifCCSdCY4aUarpOrP0USU0xI5ndShSJEe6jLmkaKhAnyk9Hx2Rw1ygdGEbSPKHhSP09kSKu1IAHJsmR7qlpbyj+5zUTHR76KRVxoonA40VhwqCO4LAZ2KGSYM0GhiAsqfkrxD0kEdamP9uU4E6fPEu8Svmo7Jy7peoFGKMAtsEO2AMuOABVcApqwAMY3IIH8ASerTvr0XqxXsfRnDWZ2QJ/YL39ALCNn28=</latexit>
sha1_base64="PNTRuJ/0iTBHrp/6egaWoQGNSZo=">AAACC3icbVC7SgNBFL3rM66vqKXNYBCswm5A1EII2FhGMSaQXcPsZDYZMju7zMwKYdkPsPFXbCxUbP0BC8HOn7B38ig08cDA4ZxzuXNPkHCmtON8WnPzC4tLy4UVe3VtfWOzuLV9reJUElonMY9lM8CKciZoXTPNaTORFEcBp42gfzb0G7dUKhaLKz1IqB/hrmAhI1gbqV0s2chTadTO2Kmb32QiR5lHE8W4MTOWG6mSm5RTdkZAs8SdkFL18PvjCwBq7eK714lJGlGhCcdKtVwn0X6GpWaE09z2UkUTTPq4S1uGChxR5WejY3K0b5QOCmNpntBopP6eyHCk1CAKTDLCuqemvaH4n9dKdXjsZ0wkqaaCjBeFKUc6RsNmUIdJSjQfGIKJZOaviPSwxESb/mxTgjt98iypV8onZefCLVUvYYwC7MIeHIALR1CFc6hBHQjcwQM8wbN1bz1aL9brODpnTWZ24A+stx+CZZ6M</latexit>
sha1_base64="C39OhB+IczRcjLNINXH29e9lt8M=">AAAB2HicbZDNSgMxFIXv1L86Vq1rN8EiuCpTN+pOcOOygmML7VAymTttaCYzJHeEMvQFXLhRfDB3vo3pz0KtBwIf5yTk3hMXSloKgi+vtrW9s7tX3/cPGv7h0XGz8WTz0ggMRa5y04+5RSU1hiRJYb8wyLNYYS+e3i3y3jMaK3P9SLMCo4yPtUyl4OSs7qjZCtrBUmwTOmtowVqj5ucwyUWZoSahuLWDTlBQVHFDUiic+8PSYsHFlI9x4FDzDG1ULcecs3PnJCzNjTua2NL9+aLimbWzLHY3M04T+zdbmP9lg5LS66iSuigJtVh9lJaKUc4WO7NEGhSkZg64MNLNysSEGy7INeO7Djp/N96E8LJ90w4eAqjDKZzBBXTgCm7hHroQgoAEXuDNm3iv3vuqqpq37uwEfsn7+Aap5IoM</latexit>
sha1_base64="zD9zUVsJ2wgE1kTFhECS8AeF/WM=">AAACAHicbZDNSgMxFIXv1L86Vq1u3QSL4KrMdKMuBMGNywqOLXTGkkkzbWgmMyQZoYR5ADe+ihsXKj6FO9/G9GehrQcCh+/ckNwT55wp7XnfTmVtfWNzq7rt7tR29/brB7V7lRWS0IBkPJPdGCvKmaCBZprTbi4pTmNOO/H4epp3HqlULBN3epLTKMVDwRJGsLaoX2+4KFRF2jfs0i8fjCiRCWmuGLehYaVFrdJOeU1vJrRq/IVpwELtfv0rHGSkSKnQhGOler6X68hgqRnhtHTDQtEckzEe0p61AqdURWa2TIlOLBmgJJP2CI1m9PcNg1OlJmlsJ1OsR2o5m8L/sl6hk/PIMJEXmgoyfygpONIZmjaDBkxSovnEGkwks39FZIQlJtr259oS/OWVV03Qal40vVsPqnAEx3AKPpzBFdxAGwIg8AQv8AbvzrPz6nzM26o4i9oO4Y+czx+dlJnp</latexit>
sha1_base64="ZnQtm7fjqlAfsAZvYvQ7aaI1Iwg=">AAACC3icbVC9TsMwGHT4LeGvwMhiUSExVUkXYECqxMJYEKGVmlA5rtNatZ3IdpAqKw/AwquwMABi5QXYeBvcNgO0nGTpdHefPn8XZ4wq7XnfztLyyuraemXD3dza3tmt7u3fqTSXmAQ4ZansxEgRRgUJNNWMdDJJEI8Zacejy4nffiBS0VTc6nFGIo4GgiYUI22lXrXmwlDlvGfohV/cG1FAE5JMUWZNQwsrNQqb8ureFHCR+CWpgRKtXvUr7Kc450RozJBSXd/LdGSQ1BQzUrhhrkiG8AgNSNdSgThRkZkeU8Bjq/Rhkkr7hIZT9feEQVypMY9tkiM9VPPeRPzP6+Y6OYsMFVmuicCzRUnOoE7hpBnYp5JgzcaWICyp/SvEQyQR1rY/15bgz5+8SIJG/bzuXXu15k3ZRgUcgiNwAnxwCprgCrRAADB4BM/gFbw5T86L8+58zKJLTjlzAP7A+fwBTZqbaw==</latexit>
sha1_base64="WgxZ4019Ku9dBbG+lCwBiPPeHwM=">AAACC3icbVC9TsMwGHT4LeGvwMhiUSExVUkXYECqxMJYEKGVmlA5rtNatZ3IdpAqKw/AwquwMABi5QXYeBvcNgO0nGTpdHefPn8XZ4wq7XnfztLyyuraemXD3dza3tmt7u3fqTSXmAQ4ZansxEgRRgUJNNWMdDJJEI8Zacejy4nffiBS0VTc6nFGIo4GgiYUI22lXrXmwlDlvGfohV/cG1FAE5JMUWZNQwsrNQqb8ureFHCR+CWpgRKtXvUr7Kc450RozJBSXd/LdGSQ1BQzUrhhrkiG8AgNSNdSgThRkZkeU8Bjq/Rhkkr7hIZT9feEQVypMY9tkiM9VPPeRPzP6+Y6OYsMFVmuicCzRUnOoE7hpBnYp5JgzcaWICyp/SvEQyQR1rY/15bgz5+8SIJG/bzuXfu15k3ZRgUcgiNwAnxwCprgCrRAADB4BM/gFbw5T86L8+58zKJLTjlzAP7A+fwBTeqbbA==</latexit>
i=1 ✏i <latexit sha1_base64="soiTqCAPulw0DJVnaX3UsAMpTTk=">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</latexit>
sha1_base64="BMXMyI6Vk8gh35av66fvgsi7KzY=">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</latexit>
i=1 ( yi 0 1 X1i X
2 2i )

Here parameters of the cost function are betas ,


we’d like to determine values of betas for which
cost function is minimum

• Start generating random values of


An inefficient idea for finding betas
best betas • Retain new random values every
time cost function goes down

Copyright 2014 RESTRICTED CIRCULATION ‹#›


Gradient Descent

Copyright 2014 RESTRICTED CIRCULATION


Gradient and small changes

f( )
<latexit sha1_base64="B8frBtvbyLlMgIq6NktWLJ1QR/I=">AAAB7nicbZA9T8MwEIYdPkv5aIGRJaICylIlXYCtEgtjQYRWaqLKcS+tVccJ9gWpqvonWBgAsfJHEDsb/wb3Y4CWV7L06H3v5LsLU8E1Os63tbS8srq2ntvIb25t7xSKu3t3OskUA48lIlHNkGoQXIKHHAU0UwU0DgU0wv7lOG88gNI8kbc4SCGIaVfyiDOKxmpGZT8EpKftYsmpOBPZi+DOoFSr+iefH8eFerv45XcSlsUgkQmqdct1UgyGVCFnAkZ5P9OQUtanXWgZlDQGHQwn847sI+N07ChR5km0J+7vjiGNtR7EoamMKfb0fDY2/8taGUbnwZDLNEOQbPpRlAkbE3u8vN3hChiKgQHKFDez2qxHFWVoTpQ3R3DnV14Er1q5qDjXbql2Q6bKkQNySMrEJWekRq5InXiEEUEeyTN5se6tJ+vVepuWLlmznn3yR9b7D2DAkg8=</latexit>
sha1_base64="D41KalGnGA8nEss9SbaeAn1eV0I=">AAAB7nicbZC7TsNAEEXH4RXCK0BJYxEhQhPZaYAuEg1lQJhEiq1ovVknq6zXZneMFFn5CRoKQLR8Bt9Ax9+weRSQcKWVju6d0c5MmAqu0XG+rcLK6tr6RnGztLW9s7tX3j+410mmKPNoIhLVDolmgkvmIUfB2qliJA4Fa4XDq0neemRK80Te4ShlQUz6kkecEjRWO6r6IUNy1i1XnJozlb0M7hwqjbp/+gkAzW75y+8lNIuZRCqI1h3XSTHIiUJOBRuX/EyzlNAh6bOOQUlipoN8Ou/YPjFOz44SZZ5Ee+r+7shJrPUoDk1lTHCgF7OJ+V/WyTC6CHIu0wyZpLOPokzYmNiT5e0eV4yiGBkgVHEzq00HRBGK5kQlcwR3ceVl8Oq1y5pz41YatzBTEY7gGKrgwjk04Bqa4AEFAU/wAq/Wg/VsvVnvs9KCNe85hD+yPn4ACZiRDg==</latexit>

f
tan(✓) =
<latexit sha1_base64="YCQkbyDJ8xAfk0kO2Tqfia/A6BA=">AAACGXicbVBNSyNBFOzxY9XorlGPXhqDoJcws5ddD0JEDx5VjAqZEN503pjGnp6h+40QhujJ3+DFv+LFgwaPevLf2PkQdtWCB0VVPbpfRZmSlnz/zZuYnJr+MTM7V5pf+Plrsby0fGLT3Aisi1Sl5iwCi0pqrJMkhWeZQUgihafRxe7AP71EY2Wqj6mbYTOBcy1jKYCc1CoHBHqDh9RBAr7JQ77tJowNiCLcQ+XEuPfBwsiFeq1yxa/6Q/CvJBiTSm3n6ubah/5Bq/wStlORJ6hJKLC2EfgZNQswJIXCXinMLWYgLuAcG45qSNA2i+FpPb7ulDaPU+NGEx+q/24UkFjbTSKXTIA69rM3EL/zGjnFf5uF1FlOqMXooThXnFI+6Im3pUFBqusICCPdX7nogOuFXJslV0Lw+eSvpP67ulX1D4NK7YiNMMtW2RrbYAH7w2psnx2wOhPslt2zR/bk3XkPXt97HkUnvPHOCvsP3us7eSKing==</latexit>
sha1_base64="kDUcdzAaWoMmMh0nBdWLnQQ4yAc=">AAACGXicbVBNSyNBFHzjx6pR16hHL41B0EuY8aIehIgePKoYI2RC6Om8MY09PUP3GyEMES/+Bi/7V/biwV086sl/Y+dD2FULHhRV9eh+FWVKWvL9N29icmr6x8zsXGl+YfHnUnl55cKmuRFYF6lKzWXELSqpsU6SFF5mBnkSKWxE14cDv3GDxspUn1Mvw1bCr7SMpeDkpHY5IK43WUhdJM62WMj23YSx4aIIj1A5Me5/sDByoX67XPGr/hDsKwnGpFI7uL2/A4CTdvkl7KQiT1CTUNzaZuBn1Cq4ISkU9kthbjHj4ppfYdNRzRO0rWJ4Wp9tOKXD4tS40cSG6r8bBU+s7SWRSyacuvazNxC/85o5xbutQuosJ9Ri9FCcK0YpG/TEOtKgINVzhAsj3V+Z6HLXC7k2S66E4PPJX0l9u7pX9U+DSu0MRpiFNViHTQhgB2pwDCdQBwEP8Bue4I/3y3v0/nrPo+iEN95Zhf/gvb4Dr2ahRg==</latexit>

But tangent of a function is equal


to the gradient at that point
<latexit sha1_base64="HLkB/y4w+lbgcwCqpnSpIvkmo/g=">AAAB63icbZC7SgNBFIbPxluMt6hY2QwGwULCro3aBWxshCiuCSQhzE5mkyGzs8vMWSEseQYbCxVb38HnsLP2NSycXApN/GHg4//PYc45QSKFQdf9dHILi0vLK/nVwtr6xuZWcXvnzsSpZtxnsYx1PaCGS6G4jwIlryea0yiQvBb0L0Z57Z5rI2J1i4OEtyLaVSIUjKK1/GbAkbaLJbfsjkXmwZtCqXL8fvX9tbdZbRc/mp2YpRFXyCQ1puG5CbYyqlEwyYeFZmp4QlmfdnnDoqIRN61sPOyQHFqnQ8JY26eQjN3fHRmNjBlEga2MKPbMbDYy/8saKYZnrUyoJEWu2OSjMJUEYzLanHSE5gzlwAJlWthZCetRTRna+xTsEbzZlefBPymfl91rr1S5gYnysA8HcAQenEIFLqEKPjAQ8ABP8Owo59F5cV4npTln2rMLf+S8/QDVoZH3</latexit>
sha1_base64="zzaK6Rrtjp86XhlDNnQX49KJG3U=">AAAB63icbZA9SwNBEIbn/IzxK2ppcxgECwl3NmoXsLGSKJ4JJEfY28wlS/b2jt05IYT8BhsLFVv/g7/Dzn/j5qPQxBcWHt53hp2ZKJPCkOd9O0vLK6tr64WN4ubW9s5uaW//waS55hjwVKa6ETGDUigMSJDERqaRJZHEetS/Guf1R9RGpOqeBhmGCesqEQvOyFpBK0Ji7VLZq3gTuYvgz6BcPf28Aatau/TV6qQ8T1ARl8yYpu9lFA6ZJsEljoqt3GDGeJ91sWlRsQRNOJwMO3KPrdNx41Tbp8iduL87hiwxZpBEtjJh1DPz2dj8L2vmFF+EQ6GynFDx6UdxLl1K3fHmbkdo5CQHFhjXws7q8h7TjJO9T9EewZ9feRGCs8plxbv1y9U7mKoAh3AEJ+DDOVThGmoQAAcBT/ACr45ynp03531auuTMeg7gj5yPHydkj/Y=</latexit>

f f f
<latexit sha1_base64="9rIkL+nubX9COm2V5y/kmI0hYgc=">AAACK3icbVDLSgNBEJz1bXxFPXoZDIKnsOtFPQgRPXhUMUbIhtA76dXB2QczvUJYoic/xovf4U0QD0a8+h9OHoqvgoaiqpqZriBV0pDrdp2R0bHxicmp6cLM7Nz8QnFx6dQkmRZYFYlK9FkABpWMsUqSFJ6lGiEKFNaCy72eX7tCbWQSn1A7xUYE57EMpQCyUrO4x7kfahC530JFwMPOJ/MDJOhwn+/YGWb2vzL73zLNYsktu33wv8QbklJl9/r2xoWHw2bxyW8lIoswJqHAmLrnptTIQZMUCjsFPzOYgriEc6xbGkOEppH3j+3wNau0eJhoOzHxvvp9I4fImHYU2GQEdGF+ez3xP6+eUbjVyGWcZoSxGDwUZopTwnvN8ZbUKEi1LQGhpf0rFxdgeyHbb8GW4P0++S+pbpS3y+6RV6ocswGm2ApbZevMY5uswg7YIasywe7YI3thXefeeXZenbdBdMQZ7iyzH3DePwC1taqe</latexit>
sha1_base64="BUSr1hgEJ7rMjxPaLubVXtlEk+I=">AAACK3icbVDLSgNBEOz1bXxFPXoZDIKnsOtFPQiRePAYxaiQDWF20quDsw9meoWwRLz4MV78FUE8GPHqfzh5KL4KGoqqama6glRJQ67bc8bGJyanpmdmC3PzC4tLxeWVU5NkWmBdJCrR5wE3qGSMdZKk8DzVyKNA4VlwVe37Z9eojUziE+qk2Iz4RSxDKThZqVWsMuaHmovcb6MizsLuJ/MDJN5lPtuzM8ocfGUOvmVaxZJbdgdgf4k3IqXK/s3dLQDUWsUnv52ILMKYhOLGNDw3pWbONUmhsFvwM4MpF1f8AhuWxjxC08wHx3bZhlXaLEy0nZjYQP2+kfPImE4U2GTE6dL89vrif14jo3Cnmcs4zQhjMXwozBSjhPWbY22pUZDqWMKFlvavTFxy2wvZfgu2BO/3yX9Jfau8W3aPvFLlGIaYgTVYh03wYBsqcAg1qIOAe3iEF+g5D86z8+q8DaNjzmhnFX7Aef8A6/mpRg==</latexit>
= <latexit sha1_base64="kqlWq2BtLcwZpwJ+ZgeCU0RtkSU=">AAACJXicbVDJSgNBEO1xN25Rj14agyAewowX9SBE9OAxilEhE0JNp0Ybexa6a4QwRE9+iRc/RS8eogie/BU7i+D2oOD1q3pU1wtSJQ257rszMjo2PjE5NV2YmZ2bXyguLp2aJNMCayJRiT4PwKCSMdZIksLzVCNEgcKz4Gq/1z+7Rm1kEp9QO8VGBBexDKUAslKzuOsfoCLgIff5ri3O/VCDyP3WQO58MT9Agg7f4END/90sltyy2wf/S7whKVX2bu5uXXisNotdv5WILMKYhAJj6p6bUiMHTVIo7BT8zGAK4gousG5pDBGaRt4/s8PXrNLiYaJtxcT76ndHDpEx7SiwkxHQpfnd64n/9eoZhduNXMZpRhiLwaIwU5wS3suMt6RGQaptCQgt7V+5uAQbE9lkCzYE7/fJf0lts7xTdo+8UuWYDTDFVtgqW2ce22IVdsiqrMYEu2dPrMtenAfn2Xl13gajI87Qs8x+wPn4BNKmpuQ=</latexit>
sha1_base64="B565LXiHekZ69NzVhR0RAszZuFo=">AAACJXicbVDJSgNBEK1xN25Rj14agyAewowX9RCI6MGjijFCJoSeTo029ix01whhiHjxS7z4K148RBE8+St2FsHtQcHrV/WorhekShpy3XdnbHxicmp6ZrYwN7+wuFRcXjk3SaYF1kSiEn0RcINKxlgjSQovUo08ChTWg+uDfr9+g9rIJD6jTorNiF/GMpSCk5VaxYp/iIo4C5nPKrYY80PNRe63h3L3i/kBEu+yLTYyDN6tYsktuwOwv8QbkVJ1//b+DgCOW8We305EFmFMQnFjGp6bUjPnmqRQ2C34mcGUi2t+iQ1LYx6haeaDM7tswyptFibaVkxsoH535DwyphMFdjLidGV+9/rif71GRuFuM5dxmhHGYrgozBSjhPUzY22pUZDqWMKFlvavTFxxGxPZZAs2BO/3yX9Jbbu8V3ZPvFL1FIaYgTVYh03wYAeqcATHUAMBD/AEPXhxHp1n59V5G46OOSPPKvyA8/EJCPmljA==</latexit>
f = ⇤

Copyright 2014 RESTRICTED CIRCULATION ‹#›


Extrapolating the idea in higher dimension

f ( f
, f
, f
, ...) = rf
<latexit sha1_base64="1Ob8aK4W20kRF7RjFgQ0uy75Mbs=">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</latexit>
sha1_base64="4chp3OZp5TEX8YOeGvZ7aZqGVeQ=">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</latexit>
1 2 3
<latexit sha1_base64="HIcO6WcSxPuYjvBqWvhrGOq3CTo=">AAACBnicbZC7SwNBEMb3fMb4iloKshgEq3Bno3YRG8soRoVcCHObObNk78HunBCOaKOF/4qNhYqtpbWd/42bRMHXBws/vplhdr4gVdKQ6747Y+MTk1PThZni7Nz8wmJpafnEJJkWWBeJSvRZAAaVjLFOkhSepRohChSeBt39Qf30ArWRSXxMvRSbEZzHMpQCyFqt0pofahC530ZFwMP+F/kBEvR5q1R2K+5Q/C94n1Cu7l3eXLnwWmuV3vx2IrIIYxIKjGl4bkrNHDRJobBf9DODKYgunGPDYgwRmmY+vKPPN6zT5mGi7YuJD93vEzlExvSiwHZGQB3zuzYw/6s1Mgp3mrmM04wwFqNFYaY4JXwQCm9LjYJUzwIILe1fueiADYZsdEUbgvf75L9Q36rsVtxDr1w9YiMV2CpbZ5vMY9usyg5YjdWZYNfsjj2wR+fWuXeenOdR65jzObPCfsh5+QDGiJyF</latexit>
sha1_base64="DNotbfejWjDOY2PUJ508O0CVBIA=">AAACBnicbZA9SwNBEIbn/IzxK2opyGIQrMKdjdpFbCxVjAq5EPY2c8ni3ge7c0I4IhZa+FdsLFRs/Q12/hs3iYImvrDw8M4Ms/MGqZKGXPfTmZicmp6ZLcwV5xcWl5ZLK6vnJsm0wJpIVKIvA25QyRhrJEnhZaqRR4HCi+DqsF+/uEZtZBKfUTfFRsTbsQyl4GStZmnDDzUXud9CRZyFvR/yAyTeY81S2a24A7Fx8L6hXD24ub8FgONm6cNvJSKLMCahuDF1z02pkXNNUijsFf3MYMrFFW9j3WLMIzSNfHBHj21Zp8XCRNsXExu4vydyHhnTjQLbGXHqmNFa3/yvVs8o3GvkMk4zwlgMF4WZYpSwfiisJTUKUl0LXGhp/8pEh9tgyEZXtCF4oyePQ22nsl9xT7xy9RSGKsA6bMI2eLALVTiCY6iBgDt4hGd4cR6cJ+fVeRu2TjjfM2vwR877F/zMmy0=</latexit>

<latexit sha1_base64="DFrDokdGY7yDiSjJA6yaZgtlb1E=">AAACOHicbZA7SwNBEMf3fMb4SNTSZjGoEcJxFwu1EAJaWEYxJpALYW8zSZbsPdjdE8JxX8vGWuztBBsLFVs/gZtHkYcDs/z5zQyz83dDzqSyrDdjYXFpeWU1tZZe39jcymS3d+5lEAkKFRrwQNRcIoEzHyqKKQ61UADxXA5Vt3c5qFcfQEgW+HeqH0LDIx2ftRklSqNmtpx2roArgh0XBi++0JnHk7AZ2wkuzKBiUpgGJ0kBm6Z53MzmLNMaBp4X9ljkSkXn6OX5MFNuZl+dVkAjD3xFOZGybluhasREKEY5JGknkhAS2iMdqGvpEw9kIx5enuADTVq4HQidvsJDOjkRE0/KvufqTo+orpytDeB/tXqk2meNmPlhpMCno0XtiGMV4IGNuMUEUMX7WhAqmP4rpl0iCFXa7LQ2wZ49eV5Uiua5ad3YudItGkUK7aF9lEc2OkUldI3KqIIoekTv6BN9GU/Gh/Ft/IxaF4zxzC6aCuP3D59/q9I=</latexit>
sha1_base64="bmKyCBbWpa20K6LNEjuDQjHdgo4=">AAACOHicbZA7SwNBEMfnfBtfUUubxSBGCMddLNRCCGhhGcVoIBfC3mYSF/ce7O4J4bivZWPjZ7ATbCxUbP0Ebh5FTByY5c9vZpidvx8LrrTjvFozs3PzC4tLy7mV1bX1jfzm1o2KEsmwxiIRybpPFQoeYk1zLbAeS6SBL/DWvz/r128fUCoehde6F2MzoN2Qdzij2qBWvprzzlFoSjwf+y85NVkk47CVuhkpTaByVvoLDrMSsW37oJUvOLYzCDIt3JEoVMre/jMAVFv5F68dsSTAUDNBlWq4TqybKZWaM4FZzksUxpTd0y42jAxpgKqZDi7PyJ4hbdKJpMlQkwEdn0hpoFQv8E1nQPWdmqz14X+1RqI7x82Uh3GiMWTDRZ1EEB2Rvo2kzSUyLXpGUCa5+Sthd1RSpo3ZOWOCO3nytKiV7RPbuXQLlSsYxhLswC4UwYUjqMAFVKEGDB7hDT7g03qy3q0v63vYOmONZrbhT1g/v0hXqtE=</latexit>
= ( 1, 2, 3 , ...)

f
<latexit sha1_base64="kqlWq2BtLcwZpwJ+ZgeCU0RtkSU=">AAACJXicbVDJSgNBEO1xN25Rj14agyAewowX9SBE9OAxilEhE0JNp0Ybexa6a4QwRE9+iRc/RS8eogie/BU7i+D2oOD1q3pU1wtSJQ257rszMjo2PjE5NV2YmZ2bXyguLp2aJNMCayJRiT4PwKCSMdZIksLzVCNEgcKz4Gq/1z+7Rm1kEp9QO8VGBBexDKUAslKzuOsfoCLgIff5ri3O/VCDyP3WQO58MT9Agg7f4END/90sltyy2wf/S7whKVX2bu5uXXisNotdv5WILMKYhAJj6p6bUiMHTVIo7BT8zGAK4gousG5pDBGaRt4/s8PXrNLiYaJtxcT76ndHDpEx7SiwkxHQpfnd64n/9eoZhduNXMZpRhiLwaIwU5wS3suMt6RGQaptCQgt7V+5uAQbE9lkCzYE7/fJf0lts7xTdo+8UuWYDTDFVtgqW2ce22IVdsiqrMYEu2dPrMtenAfn2Xl13gajI87Qs8x+wPn4BNKmpuQ=</latexit>
sha1_base64="B565LXiHekZ69NzVhR0RAszZuFo=">AAACJXicbVDJSgNBEK1xN25Rj14agyAewowX9RCI6MGjijFCJoSeTo029ix01whhiHjxS7z4K148RBE8+St2FsHtQcHrV/WorhekShpy3XdnbHxicmp6ZrYwN7+wuFRcXjk3SaYF1kSiEn0RcINKxlgjSQovUo08ChTWg+uDfr9+g9rIJD6jTorNiF/GMpSCk5VaxYp/iIo4C5nPKrYY80PNRe63h3L3i/kBEu+yLTYyDN6tYsktuwOwv8QbkVJ1//b+DgCOW8We305EFmFMQnFjGp6bUjPnmqRQ2C34mcGUi2t+iQ1LYx6haeaDM7tswyptFibaVkxsoH535DwyphMFdjLidGV+9/rif71GRuFuM5dxmhHGYrgozBSjhPUzY22pUZDqWMKFlvavTFxxGxPZZAs2BO/3yX9Jbbu8V3ZPvFL1FIaYgTVYh03wYAeqcATHUAMBD/AEPXhxHp1n59V5G46OOSPPKvyA8/EJCPmljA==</latexit>
f = ⇤ <latexit sha1_base64="pm0ofA4x/HKnvvGZUk2MCKdCrPw=">AAACEHicbVA9SwNBEN3z2/gVFSubxSCISLizUQshoIWNoGJUyIUwt5nTxb29Y3dOCMG/YONfsdBCxdbSztq/YeHmo/DrwcDjvRlm5kWZkpZ8/90bGBwaHhkdGy9MTE5NzxRn505smhuBVZGq1JxFYFFJjVWSpPAsMwhJpPA0utzp+KdXaKxM9TG1MqwncK5lLAWQkxrFlXAXFQGPeci3XXEeaohUR1jlfS+MkKBRLPllvwv+lwR9Uqqs3e9/fixMHzSKb2EzFXmCmoQCa2uBn1G9DYakUHhdCHOLGYhLOMeaoxoStPV296NrvuyUJo9T40oT76rfJ9qQWNtKIteZAF3Y315H/M+r5RRv1ttSZzmhFr1Fca44pbwTD29Kg4JUyxEQRrpbubgAA4JciAUXQvD75b+kul7eKvuHQalyxHoYY4tsia2wgG2wCttjB6zKBLthd+yRPXm33oP37L30Wge8/sw8+wHv9QurWZ23</latexit>
sha1_base64="b4Fp+/7dqWYNFwbsC2HQq6NSZRw=">AAACEHicbVA9axtBEJ1z4liRnUR2SjdLRECYIO7cxC4MArtIFWQTxQadEHOrOWnR3t6xO2cQwn/Bjf+Ki6RIjNuU6fJvvPooEikPBh7vzTAzLym0chyGf4KNZ883X2xVXla3d169flPb3fvq8tJK6shc5/YqQUdaGeqwYk1XhSXMEk2Xyfh05l9ek3UqN194UlAvw6FRqZLIXurXGvEZaUaRilic+BIiNpjomXAgll6cEGO/Vg+b4RxinURLUm99+PYZPNr92u94kMsyI8NSo3PdKCy4N0XLSmq6qcalowLlGIfU9dRgRq43nX90I957ZSDS3PoyLObq3xNTzJybZInvzJBHbtWbif/zuiWnR72pMkXJZORiUVpqwbmYxSMGypJkPfEEpVX+ViFHaFGyD7HqQ4hWX14nncPmcTM8j+qtC1igAvvwDhoQwUdowSdoQwck3MI9/ICfwV3wPXgIHhetG8Fy5i38g+DXE/0Nm7Y=</latexit>
f = rf ⇤

Copyright 2014 RESTRICTED CIRCULATION ‹#›


A better way for determining best betas

<latexit sha1_base64="t8HPqatQ9STz+Dlb/5Utu9M0ilo=">AAACB3icbVC7SgNBFJ31bXytipWFg0EQ0bBroxZCQAsbQcWYQDaEu5O7Zsjs7DIzK4RgaeOv2Fio2PoLdtb+hoWTR6HRAzP3cM69zNwTpoJr43kfzsjo2PjE5NR0bmZ2bn7BXVy60kmmGJZYIhJVCUGj4BJLhhuBlVQhxKHActg66vrlG1SaJ/LStFOsxXAtecQZGCvV3bXgGIUBGoRo70O6E3TrFg0khAJoVHfzXsHrgf4l/oDki9uvp1+fK/Nndfc9aCQsi1EaJkDrqu+lptYBZTgTeJsLMo0psBZcY9VSCTHqWqe3yC3dsEqDRomyRxraU39OdCDWuh2HtjMG09TDXlf8z6tmJtqvdbhMM4OS9R+KMkFNQrup0AZXyIxoWwJMcftXypqggBmbXc6G4A+v/JeUdgsHBe/czxcvSB9TZJWsk03ikz1SJCfkjJQII3fkgTyRZ+feeXRenNd+64gzmFkmv+C8fQOmDJsc</latexit>
sha1_base64="3YXnM+IRu5ILlzf22jYiCHc8aYc=">AAACB3icbVA9SwNBEJ3z2/gVtbRwMQgiGu5s1EIIaGElUYwKuRDmNnO6ZG/v2N0TQrC08a/YWKik9S/Y+W/cJBZ+Pdidx3sz7M6LMimM9f0Pb2R0bHxicmq6MDM7N79QXFy6MGmuOdV4KlN9FaEhKRTVrLCSrjJNmESSLqP2Yd+/vCVtRKrObSejRoLXSsSCo3VSs7gaHpG0yMKI3H3AtsN+3WShwkgii5vFkl/2B2B/SfBFSpWt3gk4VJvF97CV8jwhZblEY+qBn9lGF7UVXNJdIcwNZcjbeE11RxUmZBrdwSJ3bN0pLRan2h1l2UD9PtHFxJhOErnOBO2N+e31xf+8em7jvUZXqCy3pPjwoTiXzKasnwprCU3cyo4jyLVwf2X8BjVy67IruBCC3yv/JbWd8n7ZPw1KlTMYYgpWYA02IIBdqMAxVKEGHO7hEZ7hxXvwnrxXrzdsHfG+ZpbhB7y3T/fAmRs=</latexit>
= ⌘ ⇤ rf

Copyright 2014 RESTRICTED CIRCULATION ‹#›


Gradient for Linear Regression
2 3
1 x11 x21 x31 . . . xp1
61 x12 x22 x32 . . . xp2 7
X = 6
4. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7
5
1 x1n x2n x3n . . .
<latexit sha1_base64="OvrP6qeXVnEp6VtBJFQP6szrhrc=">AAACz3icbVJNT9swGHbCNrrug8KOu1irmHaqkmwIOCBV4rLLJIbWUampKsd921o4TmQ7qFUI4sBlv2WnHfgj3PgF/ILd9zYBtLY8kqXHz+vnsV/bUSqFsZ5367hrz56/WK+9rL96/ebtRmNz66dJMs2hwxOZ6G7EDEihoGOFldBNNbA4knASnR7O6ydnoI1I1A87S6Efs7ESI8GZRWnQuOvSkB7gCCMYC5VHMbNaTIs6Rfj0I50Oct8vaIVyGuC0JJ9LEg4TayohRSEMF6zBojV4sAbL1uDRGk7m8ijR+c5KnFqMUw9xajlOFfUQ1PCxn0Gj6bW8EnSV+Pek2f7y9/rqz+/a0aBxg3E8i0FZLpkxPd9LbT9n2gouAdMzAynjp2wMPaSKxWD6efkgBd1GZUixBRzK0lL935Gz2JhZHOFKPN/ELNfm4lO1XmZHe/1cqDSzoHi10SiT1CZ0/rp0KDRwK2dIGNcCz0r5hGnGLf6BOl6Cv9zyKukErf2W991vto9JhRp5Tz6QT8Qnu6RNvpIj0iHc+eYY59wp3GN36l64l9VS17n3vCMLcH/9A2jq0wQ=</latexit>
sha1_base64="PpoM3A0nFfr63pTrTUQvDza45HU=">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</latexit>
xpn
2 3
y1
6 y2 7
Y = 6
4. .
7
5
yn
2 3
<latexit sha1_base64="dxlngY6mfJK58X3tKMhC1rzlqLA=">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</latexit>
sha1_base64="yir5TJ1fBpIvgq4cPcGHwwDDySw=">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</latexit>

0
6 1 7
= 6
4. .
7
5
<latexit sha1_base64="dEuGXO7VpJD9zovqzVh6FTytfzc=">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</latexit>
sha1_base64="zudNOD335aOrcur5IWEv9l0ZMSQ=">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</latexit>
p

Copyright 2014 RESTRICTED CIRCULATION ‹#›


Contd..

Pn 2
=
<latexit sha1_base64="soiTqCAPulw0DJVnaX3UsAMpTTk=">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</latexit>
sha1_base64="BMXMyI6Vk8gh35av66fvgsi7KzY=">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</latexit>
i=1 ( yi 0 1 X1i X
2 2i )

f = (Y
<latexit sha1_base64="rNWFGVhaw+OBHfTlr2YH3Ry4dpU=">AAACFnicbVC7TsMwFHXKq5RHA4wsFhVQBqKkCzAgVWJhLKihRU2oHNcpVh0nsh2kKupfsPArLAxQdUVs/A3uY4CWI13r6Jx7dX1PkDAqlW1/G7ml5ZXVtfx6YWNza7to7uzeyTgVmLg4ZrFoBkgSRjlxFVWMNBNBUBQw0gh6V2O/8USEpDGvq35C/Ah1OQ0pRkpLbdMKoQcvdZXhvX5PdTW9gCh08pDVBwti2yzZlj0BXCTOjJSqFe94NDwq1trml9eJcRoRrjBDUrYcO1F+hoSimJFBwUslSRDuoS5pacpRRKSfTe4awEOtdGAYC11cwYn6eyJDkZT9KNCdEVKPct4bi/95rVSF535GeZIqwvF0UZgyqGI4Dgl2qCBYsb4mCAuq/wrxIxIIKx1lQYfgzJ+8SNyKdWHZN06pegumyIN9cADKwAFnoAquQQ24AINn8ArewYfxYrwZQ2M0bc0Zs5k98AfG5w85d52Q</latexit>
sha1_base64="niC/HtK7TGmhH6JROaaa150OJbM=">AAACFnicbVC7SgNBFL0bXzG+Vi1tBoMYC8NuGrUQAjaWUbImkl3D7GQ2GTL7YGZWCEv+wsZfsVFQsRU7/8bJo9DEA3c4nHMvd+7xE86ksqxvI7ewuLS8kl8trK1vbG6Z2zs3Mk4FoQ6JeSyaPpaUs4g6iilOm4mgOPQ5bfj9i5HfuKdCsjiqq0FCvRB3IxYwgpWW2mY5QC4611VCt/o91tV0farw0V1WH86JbbNola0x0Dyxp6RYrbiHLwBQa5tfbicmaUgjRTiWsmVbifIyLBQjnA4Lbippgkkfd2lL0wiHVHrZ+K4hOtBKBwWx0BUpNFZ/T2Q4lHIQ+rozxKonZ72R+J/XSlVw6mUsSlJFIzJZFKQcqRiNQkIdJihRfKAJJoLpvyLSwwITpaMs6BDs2ZPniVMpn5WtK7tYvYYJ8rAH+1ACG06gCpdQAwcIPMATvMKb8Wg8G+/Gx6Q1Z0xnduEPjM8f4kCcjw==</latexit>
X )T (Y X )

T
rf =
<latexit sha1_base64="MOmn16Z/KzT9ZwH65z+1NSQuIRs=">AAACCXicbVA9TwJBEN3DL8QPUEubVaJiIbmjUQsTEhtLNCAYDsncsicb9vYuu3sm5EJt41+xsVBja4y9nf/G5aNQ9CWTvLw3k5l5XsSZ0rb9ZaVmZufmF9KLmaXlldVsbm39UoWxJLRGQh7KhgeKciZoTTPNaSOSFAKP07rXOx369VsqFQtFVfcj2grgRjCfEdBGaue2XAEeB+xjF5+YOig1rpPqABeuDhquRzXst3N5u2iPgP8SZ0Ly5ZK79/G+m620c59uJyRxQIUmHJRqOnakWwlIzQing4wbKxoB6cENbRoqIKCqlYxeGeAdo3SwH0pTQuOR+nMigUCpfuCZzgB0V017Q/E/rxlr/6iVMBHFmgoyXuTHHOsQD3PBHSYp0bxvCBDJzK2YdEEC0Sa9jAnBmX75L6mVisdF+9zJly/QGGm0ibZRATnoEJXRGaqgGiLoDj2gJ/Rs3VuP1ov1Om5NWZOZDfQL1ts3GluaiA==</latexit>
sha1_base64="d7QJ8YFAL/mWt1JvIxRxpWQ4Dq4=">AAACCXicbVA9SwNBEJ3z2/gVtbRZDWIsEu7SqIUQsLFUMRrJxTC32YtL9vaO3T0hHKlt/Cs2FipWgv/Azn/jJrFQ44OBx3szzMwLEsG1cd1PZ2Jyanpmdm4+t7C4tLySX1270HGqKKvRWMSqHqBmgktWM9wIVk8UwygQ7DLoHg38y1umNI/lueklrBlhR/KQUzRWauU3fYmBQBISnxzaKlXq19l5nxSvSnU/YAZ3W/mCW3aHIOPE+yaFasXfeQOAk1b+w2/HNI2YNFSg1g3PTUwzQ2U4Fayf81PNEqRd7LCGpRIjppvZ8JU+2bZKm4SxsiUNGao/JzKMtO5Fge2M0Nzov95A/M9rpCbcb2ZcJqlhko4WhakgJiaDXEibK0aN6FmCVHF7K6E3qJAam17OhuD9fXmc1Crlg7J76hWqZzDCHGzAFhTBgz2owjGcQA0o3MEDPMGzc+88Oi/O66h1wvmeWYdfcN6/AMMkmYc=</latexit>
2X (Y X )

Copyright 2014 RESTRICTED CIRCULATION ‹#›


Lets see it in action in Python

Copyright 2014 RESTRICTED CIRCULATION ‹#›

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