Core Manual 02 PDF

Conservation and Outdoor
Recreation Education
Working together for hunter safety.

Our cover page:
VANTAGE POINT — DALL’S SHEEP
These pure white sheep are found in the extreme northwest portion
of the province, with an approximate population of 500, moving back
and forth into the Yukon for part of the year.
The painting depicts two rams in their natural habitat with typical mountain
drops in the background, creating for the viewer a feeling of great height.
Joe Ferrante
2000 B.C. Ducks Unlimited Artist of the year
2001 Ducks Unlimited Canada Art Print Portfolio
2003 Ducks Unlimited Canada Art Print Portfolio
A resident of Prince George, B.C., Joe has painted nature and its creatures for the
past 20 years. He gets his inspiration from being in the outdoors, especially during
his many fishing and hunting outings. He is also an avid snowmobiler. He has
sold works to collectors in Canada, United States, Europe, Australia and Japan.
You can see Joe Ferrante’s work by visiting

his website at: www.joeferrante.com
E-mail: joeferranteart@yahoo.ca.
Toll Free at 1-866-962-7289.
10082 Old Summit Lake Road, Prince George, B.C. V2K 5T1.
The B.C. Wildlife Federation acknowledges Joe Ferrante’s permission

to use “Vantage Point-Dall Sheep” on the cover of the CORE manual.
B.C. WILDLIFE FEDERATION ART PRINTS
The B.C. Wildlife Federation sells an assortment of wildlife image limited edition
art prints. These include artists such as Liz Mitten Ryan, Bruce Muir, Yvette Lantz,
Wilf Schlitt, Peter Potapoff, Mark Hobson, Andrew Kiss and others. Proceeds from
art print sales support conservation projects in British Columbia.
For more information on art prints call

the B.C. Wildlife Federation at 1-800-533-2293.
Conservation & Outdoor Recreation Education B.C. Wildlife Federation
PREFACE: NOTICE TO READERS
The CORE manual is useful for anyone interested in outdoor recreation, wildlife,
and firearm safety. The CORE manual should be viewed as the foundation for any
outdoors recreational user. This manual is designed to ensure that prospective hunters
meet acceptable standards of knowledge and skill for their safe and ethical
participation in hunting recreation. By completing the CORE program you may be
eligible to obtain a B.C. Hunter Number Card. There is no requirement to become a
hunter. The question of whether to hunt or not is a personal one.
This book has evolved from the text Fish and Wildlife the Recreational Resource first
published in 1972 by the then Ministry of Recreation and Conservation. Liberal use
has also been made of the information and photographs found in the Alberta text,
Conservation and Hunter Education, published in 1986 by the Forestry, Lands and
Wildlife Ministry. The CORE manual was also revised in 1993 and it was updated in
1999 and 2001.
In 2002, a major review and update was completed on the CORE manual.
Information contained in the 1993 manual has been updated and additional
information installed. Material from the Introduction to Hunter Education course by the
International Hunter Education Association (IHEA) and other hunter education
programs, plus information from the Canadian Firearm Safety Course program has
been used in this review process. This is just part of the process of improving the
curriculum of the CORE program so that we strive to meet the IHEA standards for
hunter education programs.
An effort has been made to make this manual attractive and durable, one that will
have a life as a reference past its initial service as a student manual. We have striven
to improve the readability of this manual and hope it is compatible with the abilities
of students of age 13 or older. Goals, objectives, and reviews have been included so
that the substance and direction of program-related chapters are emphasized for
student and instructor alike.
As a result of new laws, technology, research, etc., the readers are encouraged
yearly to check the Migratory Bird Act and the B.C. Hunting and Trapping
Regulations Synopsis for new laws and changes to hunting regulations. Contact the
Canadian Firearm Centre for the most current information about the ownership
and use of firearms and ammunition. For medical procedures for treatment of
illness or injuries check with a competent medical authority or first aid organization.
Obtain additional information from your public library, provincial and federal
wildlife ministries or the Internet about wildlife identification.
Change is inevitable. Be prepared to obtain and study other resources

before your next outdoor adventure.
Any concerns about the content or format of this manual should be addressed to
the CORE Coordinator, BCWF, Unit 303-19292-60th Ave, Surrey, BC, V3S 3M2,
1-800-533-2293.
i
B.C. Wildlife Federation Conservation & Outdoor Recreation Education
National Library of Canada Cataloguing in Publication Data
Main entry under title:
Conservation and Outdoor Recreation Education:

CORE manual / Robert Paddon, coordinating editor.
ISBN 0-9732016-0-6
1. Hunting--British Columbia.
2. Outdoor recreation—British Columbia.
I. Paddon, Robert, 1958-
II. B.C. Wildlife Federation.
SK152.B7C66 2002 799.29711 C2002-911347-4
Copyright: The CORE Program c/o Ministry of Water, Land

and Air Protection (MWLAP), & the British Columbia Wildlife
Federation. Printer: Horizon Publications, 1983 Pandora Street,
Vancouver, BC, V5L 5B2
ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Credit is gratefully given to the following organizations for the use

of their material and graphics found in this manual:
Alberta Hunter Education Instructors Association (AHEIA)

Canadian Red Cross
Department of Justice – Canadian Firearm Centre
Government of Yukon, Canada
International Hunter Education Association
Izaak Walton League of America
Manitoba Wildlife Federation
National Wild Turkey Federation of America
Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources
Province of British Columbia
– Greg Belyea, Ministry of Forests
– Ministry of Water, Land and Air Protection
– Provincial Emergency Program
Province of New Brunswick, Ministry of Natural Resources and Energy
Saskatchewan Association of Firearms Educators
ArtToday.com
The CORE program would also like to thank the following people
for their assistance in upgrading the CORE manual in 2002:
Nina Armitage Sid Nielsen
Eric Baldini Shawn Odnokon
Carol Foott Robert Paddon
Berny Hugo Terri Paddon
Bob Jones Matthew Payne
Tim Lawhern Kevin Podrasky
Roegan Lloydd Herb Stumpf
Alanna Malanchuk Geoff Swannell
Sandra Nahornoff Pete Wise
Our apologies if we missed any organization or individual who provided

material and/or assisted with the 2002 rewrite of the CORE manual.
iii
AN OPEN LETTER TO CORE STUDENTS
The B.C. Wildlife Federation (BCWF) is responsible for the administration of the
CORE program, delivery of new CORE material, providing leadership and guidance
to examiners and students, maintaining records, monitoring examination
practices, supplying materials for teaching and testing, and maintaining the overall
standards expected under the CORE program. As the designated agency to
operate the CORE program, the BCWF reports to the Director of Fish and Wildlife,
Recreation and Allocation in Victoria as per the Hunter Safety Training Regulations.
The B.C. Wildlife Federation is the largest and oldest province-wide voluntary
conservation organization in British Columbia and is the voice of hunters and
anglers in the province. Every year tens of thousands of dollars and volunteer hours
are put into fish, wildlife and habitat enhancement and protection by the B.C.
Wildlife Federation and its valued members. Stream and creek restoration, fish
hatcheries, stock assessment, wildlife feeding, fencing and wildlife monitoring
highlight just a few B.C. Wildlife Federation projects.
The B.C. Wildlife Federation recognizes that public awareness and education is the
key to preserving B.C. fish, wildlife and habitats indefinitely. The Federation offers
programs such as CORE, Becoming an Outdoors-Woman, Wetlandkeepers,
National Wildlife Week, Oceans Day, Fishing Forever, etc.
We hope you will enjoy your participation in the Conservation and Outdoor
Recreation Education program and will consider joining a B.C. Wildlife Federation
affiliated club or becoming a direct member.
Yours in Conservation,
Robert Paddon
CORE Coordinator
B.C. Wildlife Federation

303-19292-60th Ave
Surrey, BC
V3S 3M2
604-533-2293
Toll-free in BC 1-800-533-2293
Fax 604-533-1592
Email rpaddon@bcwf.com
Website: www.bcwf.bc.ca
iv
"BECOMING AN OUTDOORS-WOMAN" (BOW)
The B.C. Wildlife Federation coordinates the

"Becoming An Outdoors-Woman" (BOW) program
in the province of British Columbia. The B.C. Wildlife
Federation is committed to offering education
programs that foster outdoor recreation with
emphasis on the conservation of wildlife and
habitat. The International "BOW" program has
taught workshops in outdoor skills related to
hunting, angling, and other outdoor activities to
more than 30,000 women throughout North America. The B.C. Wildlife Federation
embraces the concepts of the "BOW" program as a means to foster their commitment
to education and the encouragement of participation in conservation.
"BOW" workshops offer hands-on experience in a non-competitive atmosphere

conducive to learning outdoors skills. The B.C. Wildlife Federation is committed to
bringing the "BOW" program to all regions of the province to create as much
opportunity to participate as possible, and to try new activities that are specific to the
special features of each location.
At least twenty courses are offered at each "BOW" workshop; participants select four
courses. Courses offered may include: Archery, Bow Hunting, Rifle and Handgun
Marksmanship, Trap or Skeet Shooting, Black Powder Shooting, Basic Hunting Skills,
Wild Game Cleaning, Bird Dog Hunting, Beginner Fly Fishing, Float Tube Fishing, Fly
and Knot Tying, Trophy Fishing, Canoeing, Kayaking, Boat, Motor and Trailer, Off
Road Driving, Orienteering, Wilderness Survival Techniques, Wilderness First Aid,
Outdoor Photography, Horseback Riding, Hiking with Llamas, Camping and Outdoor
Cooking, Backpacking and Hiking, Chainsaw and Ax Use, Wetland Ecology and
Mountain Biking.
These workshops are for you if you:

• Have never tried these activities, but have hoped for an opportunity to learn
• Are a beginner who hopes to improve your skills
• Know how to do some of these activities, but would like to try some new ones
• Are looking for the camaraderie of like-minded individuals
For more workshop information or registration,

visit the B.C. Wildlife Federation Web Site at
www.bcwf.bc.ca or call/write:
B.C. Wildlife Federation

#303-19292-60th Avenue,
Surrey, BC V3S 3M2
1-800-533-2293 office
1-604-533-1592 fax
Email: wildlife@bcwf.com
v
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER ONE — INTRODUCTION
Goal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1
Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1
Part I. What is hunter education? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2
Goals of the CORE program: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2
Part II. CORE program study options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3
Test requirements: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4
The examination process: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4
Part III. Licence Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5
Brief outline for resident licences: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6
Core Examiners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10
Contact list Core Examiners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10
CHAPTER TWO — CONSERVATION
Goal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15
Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15
Part I. Hunter's heritage/History of wildlife management . . . . . . . .16
Part II. Ecology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .18
What is Ecology? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .18
Ecology terms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .18
The Importance of Habitat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .18
Food . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .18
Shelter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .18
Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .19
Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .19
Distribution and Adaptation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .19
The Balance of Populations: Limits to Abundance . . . . . . . . . . . . . .19
Stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .20
Succession (Habitat Change) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .21
Population Dynamics (cycle) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .22
Habitat in British Columbia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .22
Part III. Wildlife Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .24
How wildlife is classified . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .24
What is Wildlife Management? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .24
Wealth of Wildlife . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .24
Protection of Wildlife . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .25
Protection Through Reserved Lands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .25
Management of the Habitat. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .26
vi
Predator Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .26

Transplanting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .27
Management of the Hunt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .27
Types of Hunting Seasons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .27
Population Inventory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .28
Hunter Sampling Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .29
CHAPTER 3 — ETHICS
Goal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .33
Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .33
Part I. Outdoor and hunting ethics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .34
1. Terminology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .34
2. General outdoor ethics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .36
3. Hunting ethics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .36
4. Ethical relationships for the hunter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .37
a. Hunters and the public . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .37
b. Hunters and landowners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .38
c. Hunters and their hunting companions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .39
d. Hunters and wildlife . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .41
e. Hunters and their own personal ethics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .42
Part II. Game care and ethics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .44
1. Preparing for the hunt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .44
2. Hunting techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .44
3. Taking the shot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .46
4. Trailing an animal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .47
5. Now the work begins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .48
a. Field dressing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .48
b. Skinning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .49
c. Quartering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .49
d. Transporting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .50
e. Hanging and Cooling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .50
f. Preserving the Hide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .51
Supplemental information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .54
Procedure for field dressing a Non-trophy Animal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .54
Skinning procedures for Non-trophy Animals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .55
Skinning procedures for Trophy Animals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .56
Skinning procedures for Bears, Wolves, Coyotes, Cougars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .57
Processing Game Birds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .58
Processing Rabbits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .58
vii
CHAPTER 4 — LAWS & REGULATIONS

Goal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .63
Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .63
Part I: What are laws and who makes them? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .64
a. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .64
b) Federal laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .65
c) Categories of firearms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .65
d) Municipal bylaws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .66
Part II. Hunting laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .68
Promotion of sportsmanship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .68
a. Purpose of hunting laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .68
b. Enforcement agencies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .69
Part III: How to use the Hunting & Trapping Regulation Synopsis . . .72
Section A: Hunting Regulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .72
Section B: General Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .73
Section C: Resource Management Regions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .73
Section D: Trapping Regulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .74
CHAPTER FIVE — SURVIVAL
Goal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .81
Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .81
PART I: The Three Ps: Preparation, Planning, and Practice . . . . . . . . . .82
1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .82
2. Learn the risks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .83
a. People . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .83
b. Time of the year . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .83
c. Terrain and climatic conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .83
d. Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .83
e. Length of trip and remoteness of location . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .83
f. Wildlife . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .84
g. Injuries or illness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .84
3. Preparing yourself . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .84
a. Mentally . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .84
b. Physically . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .84
c. Medically . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .84
d. Safety and first aid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .84
e. Know the region . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .84
f. Plan with your hunting companions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .84
viii
4. Dressing yourself . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .85

The underwear layer . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .85
The insulation (clothing) layer .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .85
The shell (outer) layer . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .86
Boots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .86
Gloves and mitts . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .87
Hat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .87
Hearing and sight protection ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .87
Colour vision . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .88
5. Trip plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .88
6. Your equipment . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .92
a. Map and compass . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .92
b. Survival kit . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .92
c. First aid kit . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .94
d. Firearm and ammunition . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .95
e. Communication devices . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .95
Part II: Safety and Survival . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .98
1. Practicing safe behaviours . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .98
a. Plan your trip . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .98
b. Act with caution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .98
c. Know where you are . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .99
d. Hunt with a partner . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .100
2. Minimizing dangers around wildlife . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .100
a. Bear and cougar safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .100
b. Other creatures in the woods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .101
3. Survival Psychology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .103
Pain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .104
Cold . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .104
Heat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .105
Thirst . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .105
Hunger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .105
Fatigue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .105
Boredom and loneliness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .105
Insects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .105
Predatory animals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .105
4. Common survival situations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .106
a. So you are lost . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .107
b. Ice and water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .112
5. First Aid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .113
a. What is first aid? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .113
b. The objectives of first aid are: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .113
c. Three basic elements to first aid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .113
d. Treatment of life-threatening conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .117
e. Chest Injury Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .120
f. Common field injuries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .122
ix
PART III: ORIENTEERING EQUIPMENT AND ITS USAGE . . . . . . . . . . .130

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .130
2. Directional aids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .130
3. Maps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .130
a. Tourist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .130
b. Road . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .130
c. Recreational . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .131
d. Topographical . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .131
4. Compasses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .133
a. Using a compass without a map . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .134
b. Using maps and compass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .135
5. GPS (Global Positioning System) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .136
a. How does GPS work? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .136
Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .136
PART IV: COMMON FIELD EQUIPMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .138
1. Cutting instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .138
a. Knives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .138
b. Axes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .140
c. Saws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .141
2. Backpacking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .142
a. Packboards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .142
b. Packsacks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .142
3. Camping equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .146
a. Tents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .146
b. Sleeping bags . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .147
c. Setting up a campsite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .148
x
CHAPTER SIX — FIREARMS
Goal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .157
Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .157
PART I: Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .158
PART II: Evolution of Firearms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .159
1) Evolution of firearms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .159
2) Types of Modern Firearms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .161
3) Basic Firearms Actions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .174
PART III: Ammunition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .180
1) Rifle ammunition and its components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .180
2) Shotgun ammunition and its components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .187
3) Ammunition Safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .190
PART IV: Firearms Safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .194
1) Basic firearms safety rules & procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .194
2) Cleaning firearms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .197
3) Firearms Storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .198
PART V: Shooting Skills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .201
1) Rifle Marksmanship Skills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .201
2) Shotgun Marksmanship Skills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .210
3) Learn how to shoot and practice safety procedures while shooting . . . . . . . .213
PART VI: Hunting Safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .217
1) Safety in the field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .217
2) Field Carries and crossing obstacles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .219
3) Shooting in the field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .225
PART VII: Specialty Hunting Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .227
1) Muzzleloading firearms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .227
2) Archery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .233
Firearms Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .250
xi
CHAPTER SEVEN — MAMMALS

Goal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .265
Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .265
Part I. Animal identification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .266
a) Terminology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .266
b) Techniques of animal and bird identification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .268
Ungulate Tracks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .269
Key to ungulates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .270
Animal Droppings (during Hunting Season) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .272
Part II. Key to British Columbia ungulates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .273
a) The "Cattle" Family (Bovidae) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .273
Bighorn Sheep . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .274
Thinhorn Sheep . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .276
Mountain Goat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .278
Bison . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .280
b) The Deer Family (Cervidae) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .283
Mule Deer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .284
Black-tailed deer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .286
White-tailed Deer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .288
Fallow Deer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .290
Moose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .292
Elk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .294
Caribou . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .296
Part III. Key to large British Columbia carnivores . . . . . . . . . . . . .300
a) The Cat Family (Felidae) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .302
Cougar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .302
Lynx . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .304
Bobcat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .306
b) The Dog Family (Canidae) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .308
Wolf . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .308
Coyote . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .310
Red Fox . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .312
c) The Bear Family (Ursidae) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .314
Grizzly Bear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .316
Black Bear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .318
Part IV. Small Mammals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .322
Goal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .322
Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .322
a) Overview of small mammals, their classification and the law . . . . . . . . . . . . .322
b) Rodent Order (Rodentia) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .325
c) Carnivore Order (Carnivora) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .333
d) Lagomorph Order (Lagomorpha) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .336
e) Marsupial Order (Marsupialia) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .338
xii
CHAPTER EIGHT — BIRDS
Goal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .347
Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .347
Part I. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .347
a) Techniques for game bird identification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .348
Protected and Schedule "C" species . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .349
Scientific Classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .350
b) Terminology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .351
Part II. Resident upland game birds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .353
Upland Game Birds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .356
a) Ptarmigan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .356
b) Grouse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .357
Spruce Grouse ("Fool Hen") . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .358
Blue Grouse ("Blues") . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .359
Ruffed Grouse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .360
Sharp-tailed Grouse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .361
c) Introduced species . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .362
Ring-necked Pheasant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .363
Gray Partridge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .364
Chukar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .365
Quail . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .366
Wild Turkey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .367
Part III. Migratory game birds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .370
a) Wetland migratory game birds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .370
Swans . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .371
Geese . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .371
Canada Goose . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .372
Snow Goose . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .373
Ross’ Goose . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .374
White-Fronted Goose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .375
Black Brant . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .376
Ducks . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .377
Puddle or Dabbling Ducks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .380
Northern Pintail . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .381
Mallard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .381
Shoveller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .382
American Wigeon (Baldpate) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .382
Gadwall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .383
Wood Duck . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .383
Green-winged Teal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .384
Blue-winged Teal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .384
Cinnamon Teal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .385
xiii
Diving Ducks . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .386

Redhead . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .387
Canvasback . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .387
Greater Scaup . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .388
Bufflehead . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .388
Ring-necked Duck . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .389
Lesser Scaup . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .389
Barrow’s Goldeneye .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .390
Ruddy Duck . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .390
Mergansers . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .391
Sea ducks . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .391
Common Goldeneye .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .391
Old Squaw . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .392
Harlequin . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .392
White-winged Scoter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .393
Surf Scoter . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .393
Common Eider . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .394
Marsh and shoreline birds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .394
American Coot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .395
Common Snipe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .396
b) Upland migratory game birds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .397
Mourning Dove . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .397
Band-tailed Pigeon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .398
Part IV. Raptors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .401
Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .401
Habitats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .403
Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .404
Raptors and Humans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .404
Part V. Schedule "C" birds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .405
Part VI. Other protected birds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .405
xiv
REVIEW TESTS & CHAPTER TESTS

Introduction Chapter 1
Review Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8
Conservation Chapter 2
Part I. Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .17
Part II. Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .23
Part III. Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .29
Chapter Review Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .30
Ethics Chapter 3
Part I. Review questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .43
Part II. Review questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .53
Chapter Review Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .60
Law & Regulations Chapter 4

Basic law review: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .67
Hunting law review: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .71
Chapter Review test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .78
Survival Chapter 5
Part I: Review questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .96
PART II: Review questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .128
PART III: Review questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .137
PART IV: Review questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .150
Chapter Review Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .152
Firearms Chapter 6
Part I. & II. Rreview questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .179
Part III. review questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .193
PART IV: review questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .200
PART V: Review questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .216
PART VI Review questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .226
PART VII: Review questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .249
Chapter Review Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .259
Mammals Chapter 7
Part I. Quiz on the Family Bovidae . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .282
Part II. Quiz on the Family Cervidae . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .298
Part III. Quiz on B.C.’s Large Carnivores .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .320
Part IV. Quiz on Small Mammals . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .340
Chapter Review Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .342
Bird Chapter 8
Part I. & II. Review Questions ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .368
Part III. Review Questions . . . .... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .399
Part IV. Review questions . . . .... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .406
Chapter Review Test . . . . . . . .... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .410
xv
xvi
Chapter
Introduction 1
GOAL
The student will explain the hunter education requirements

and licence provisions of the Wildlife Act.
OBJECTIVES
The student will be able to: This chapter is divided into three parts:
1. State the purpose and goals of I. What is hunter education?
hunter education. II. CORE study options.
2. State CORE program study III. Licence requirements.
options and expected behaviour
in a classroom.
3. State the procedures for obtaining
a hunting licence.
1
Chapter 1 — Introduction Conservation & Outdoor Recreation Education
PART I.
WHAT IS HUNTER EDUCATION?
i
n Mandatory hunter education began in New 4. The student will identify game
t
York State in 1949. Since then it has become animals of British Columbia and
r
o a requirement across North America. In protected/endangered species through
British Columbia hunter education became knowledge of their characteristics,
mandatory in 1974. habitat, and distribution.
Because of hunter education, "hunting is 5. The student will identify game birds
safe and getting safer". Accident rates have of British Columbia and protected/
steadily declined and hunters and other endangered species using knowledge
outdoors recreational users have become of their characteristics, habitat,
more knowledgeable and skilled. Hunter and distribution.
education has been a very successful safety
education program. 6. The student will identify the laws
affecting hunters and firearm
The Conservation and Outdoor Recreation owners and the agencies
Education (CORE) program is useful for responsible for enforcement.
anyone interested in outdoor recreation,
wildlife, and firearm safety. The CORE 7. The student will explain acceptable/
programs should be viewed as the foundation unacceptable behaviours and
for any outdoors recreational user. You are attitudes used by hunters and other
encouraged after completing the CORE outdoor recreation users based
program to take additional training such on ethics.
as first aid, orienteering, etc. Additional
self-study and practice will help improve 8. The student will explain the relation-
your knowledge and skills so that you are ship between hunter heritage,
more prepared to venture into the outdoors. ecology, and wildlife management.
The purpose of CORE is to ensure that pro- B.C. residents who wish to obtain a
spective hunters meet acceptable standards of hunting licence require the CORE
knowledge and skill for their safe and ethical program. Individuals who have completed
participation in hunting recreation. another state/province hunter safety
program are exempt from the requirement
Goals of the CORE program: to complete the CORE examinations.
1. The student will explain the hunter Contact the government agent for more
education requirements and licence details or call the B.C. Wildlife Federation
provisions of the Wildlife Act. (BCWF) at 1-800-533-2293.
2. The student will identify procedures To complete the CORE program a

employed by hunters and other candidate must pass both a written test and
outdoor recreational users prior practical firearms handling examination.
to and during their venture into The CORE examinations are based on
the outdoors. information included in the CORE manual
and the Hunting and Trapping Regulation
3. The student will operate basic Synopsis. The Hunter Safety Training
firearm actions and explain primitive- Regulations prescribe the required fees of
hunting equipment commonly $10 for each test and $30 for the graduate
used for hunting, in a safe and administrative fee. Course fees and manual
responsible manner. costs are in addition to the prescribed fees.
2
Conservation & Outdoor Recreation Education Introduction — Chapter 1
PART II.
CORE PROGRAM STUDY OPTIONS
i
You have three study options in order to colleges, continuing education, or fish and n
t
prepare yourself for the CORE game clubs in your area.
r
examinations. It is advisable that you o
contact the local certified CORE examiner Individuals may choose the self-study method
to determine the CORE program resources to prepare for the CORE examinations. It is
available in your community. suggested that you allow approximately 24
hours to study the CORE manual and use of
CORE examiners’ names can be obtained the Hunting and Trapping Regulation Synopsis.
from offices of the government agent, The CORE manual has sample questions to
Ministry of Water, Land, and Air prepare you for the written
Protection (MWLAP), local sporting goods examinations. A combination
stores, fish and game clubs, and the BCWF of reading, previous firearm Study Options
at 1-800-533-2293 or check out the BCWF handling experience and
website at www.bcwf.bc.ca. See contact list training or tutoring may be • CORE Course
at the end of this chapter. required to prepare you for • Self study
the practical firearms- • Internet Course
CORE examiners are trained and handling examination.
knowledgeable in CORE subjects and its
examinations. CORE examiners are If you have completed the Canadian Firearm
certified under provincial regulation. They Safety Course (CFSC) program, you may wish
may conduct examinations and issue to consider the self-study option. The CORE
graduation certificates. They may be able program will exempt you from the CORE
to inform you of where courses and/or practical firearms-handling exam if you can
examinations are being conducted, and show proof you have completed the CFSC.
how to obtain the CORE manual and the You will still need to do the written exams,
Hunting and Trapping Regulation Synopsis in including the firearms and archery questions.
your community.
The BCWF website contains a self-study guide
Independent instructors offer CORE that can be downloaded. This self-study guide
courses. The student should ensure that is recommended for youth or individuals who
the course being offered is of the quality, have difficulty with comprehension.
content and length appropriate for them.
Instructors offering CORE courses should
provide complete examination Internet Course
preparation and may make arrangements
for testing by certified examiners. At the www.ihea.com/ihea/homestudy/index.htm
start of a CORE course the instructor
should provide a timetable or schedule An "Introduction to Hunter Education"
outlining the course dates and topics to internet study program is available via the
be covered and explain all fees related to International Hunter Education Association
the course and examinations. The website at www.ihea.com. You will find
instructor should also outline the many simularities between the IHEA
expected behaviour for the classroom and webcourse and this manual as British
the evaluation process. Discuss these Columbia worked with the IHEA on the
arrangements with the instructor. Internet project. The "Introduction to
Independent instructors may advertise Hunter Education" internet study program
CORE courses through the local media, was written as a generic program. Each
sporting goods stores, community state/provincial hunter education
3
coordinator has to determine what The practical firearms-handling

additional training may be needed by the examination requires the safe handling of
i student in order to meet their legislative two of the five types of firearm actions,
n requirements for hunter education. At the including the identification,
t
time of printing this manual in the fall of loading/unloading, and use of dummy
r
o 2002, it has not been determined what ammunition. A minimum score of 21 out
additional training e.g., field day for of 27 is required for a pass. The examiner
hands-on training, would be required in will provide the firearms.
order to prepare the student for the CORE
exams. For more details contact the BCWF Individuals who have completed the
at 1-800-533-2293. Canadian Firearms Safety Course practical
firearms-handling examination need not
Once you feel ready to take the complete the CORE practical firearms-
examinations, contact the certified CORE handling examination. However, a copy of
examiner in your area. CORE examiners your Canadian Firearms Safety Course
operate on their own schedule and should record sheet, Firearms Acquisition
be contacted well in advance of the desired Certificate (FAC) issued after January 1,
examination date to arrange a mutually 1995, or a Possession and Acquisition
agreeable time and location for testing. (PAL) licence must be provided to the
CORE examiner for inspection. A
Test requirements: Possession-Only Licence (POL) is NOT
The written examination consists of 85 acceptable for exemption from the CORE
multiple-choice and 15 alternate-response practical firearms-handling examination.
(true or false) questions based on the CORE
manual and the Hunting and Trapping The examination process:
Regulations Synopsis, used as a reference. Prior to starting the CORE examinations,
The multiple choice questions are in the the certified CORE examiner will have you
format "Choose the most correct answer." complete a registration form. Until both
Supplemental information from the CORE exams have been successfully completed,
manual is not tested. the registration form may be kept by the
student to be shown to an examiner each
The new written exams have two parts, time an examination is taken, otherwise
A & B. the record of the successful completion of
a test may be lost.
Part A has 70 questions on the
following subjects: There is a one-hour time limit for the
written examination. Upon completion of
Animals of British Columbia . . . . . . . . 18 the test, the examiner will provide the
Birds of British Columbia . . . . . . . . . . . 10 results to the student. A failed exam must be
Laws & Regulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 retaken on a date other than the day the test
Outdoor Ethics and Game Care . . . . . . . 8 was failed. Each time an examination is
Outdoor Survival, taken, a $10 fee is payable to the examiner.
First Aid & Field Craft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Conservation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 When both examinations have been
successfully completed, the examiner will
Part B has 30 questions on Firearms present the student with a CORE program
Handling and Archery Equipment. In order graduation certificate. There is a $30
to pass this exam a student must obtain a graduate administration fee payable to the
score of 23 out of 30 on Part B and achieve BCWF for the graduation certificate. The
a combined overall score of at least 75 examiner remits this fee to the BCWF
points for both Parts A & B. along with the registration form.
4
Example of a CORE Certificate

i
n
t
r
o
PART III.
LICENCE REQUIREMENTS
You will need to take your CORE graduation If the holder of a HNC changes his or her
certificate to the local government agent legal name, residential address, or ceases to be
and request a B.C. Hunter Number Card a resident, within 30 days of the address or
(HNC). There is no cost for the HNC. Before name change, or date at which they cease to
a HNC is issued, you will have to prove that be a resident, the Director of Fish and
you are a B.C. resident. Wildlife, Recreation and Allocation (FWRA)
must be notified. See the Hunting and Trapping
A B.C. resident is an individual who has had Regulation Synopsis for more information.
their permanent residence in this province
for seven months in the 12 months
immediately before applying for a HNC. A Example of
member of the Canadian Armed Forces Resident Hunter Number Card
enrolled in continuing full-time military
service, is eligible to obtain a HNC after
having permanent residence in British
Columbia for 30 days immediately before
applying for the licence.
A B.C. resident may only have and use one

HNC. If you lose your HNC, contact a
government agent in your area or the
Wildlife Branch in Victoria to obtain a
duplicate. DO NOT obtain a new HNC, as
this violates the Wildlife Act.
5
With your HNC you may purchase a hunting "Acknowledgement of Responsibility"

licence and enter the limited entry hunting form for his/her son, daughter or ward
i draw each year. Licence requirements and when purchasing a hunting licence.
n types are explained in detail in the Hunting
t
and Trapping Regulation Synopsis and the All youth under 19 years of age must be
r
o Limited Entry Hunting Regulation Synopsis. accompanied and closely supervised
while hunting by a person who is 19
Here is a brief outline years of age or older who holds a
for resident licences: hunting licence.
A junior hunting licence can only be issued
to a youth 10 years of age or older through A hunting licence allows a hunter to hunt
the age of 13. The junior hunter need not and carry a firearm. Species licences are
complete a hunter education course. No required for bear, bobcat, caribou, cougar,
species licence will be sold to a junior deer, elk, lynx, moose, mountain goat and
licence holder. sheep, wolf, and wolverine, in addition to
the hunting licence.
A person who is 10 years of age or older
may obtain a hunting licence if they have A Canadian Migratory Game Bird hunting
completed a hunter education program permit is required in addition to a B.C.
either in B.C. or in another province or hunting licence for hunting migratory
state. CORE is mandatory beginning at age birds, including some upland game birds,
14. The parent or guardian must sign an species, waterfowl, coots, and snipe.
Examples of Hunting Licences
Hunting Licence Migratory Bird Licence
6
NOTES
i
n
t
r
o
7
INTRODUCTION
i CHAPTER REVIEW TEST
n
t
The questions listed below are similar to those found in the CORE written exam.
r
o Take approximately 10 minutes to answer these questions without referring
back to the material found in this chapter. Use the answer sheet provided at the
bottom of the page to record your answers.
The answer key for this test is only provided to the CORE Examiners. Once you
have completely answered all the questions, you may wish to refer back the
material found in this chapter to check your answers.
Complete each Chapter Review Test before calling a CORE Examiner and
scheduling an appointment to challenge the CORE written and practical-
firearms handling exams. The CORE Examiner may request to see the
completed Chapter Review Test prior to accepting you for a challenge test.
1. In what year did hunter education become mandatory in British Columbia?

a. 1966
b. 1974
c. 1984
d. 1999
2. Hunting is safe and getting safer due to hunter education.

True
False
3. The Hunter Safety Training Regulation prescribes that the cost

for a written exam in the CORE program is:
a. Free
b. $5
c. $10
d. $20
4. The Hunter Safety Training Regulations prescribes that the cost for
the CORE graduate certificate is:
a. $10
b. $20
c. $30
d. $40
5. It is recommended that those individuals who wish to take the self-study

method when preparing for the CORE written and practical firearms-
handling exams spend_______ hours studying the CORE manual and the
Hunting and Trapping Regulations Synopsis.
a. 8
b. 12
c. 18
d. 24
8
i
6. Individuals who have taken the Canadian Firearm Safety Course are exempt
n
from taking the CORE practical firearm-handling exam t
True r
False o
7. You have completed the CORE program and wish to purchase a hunting licence.
You must first obtain a:
a. Resident Hunter Number Card
b. Driver’s licence
c. Possession-Only Licence
d. Care Card
8. What is the youngest age a person can obtain a hunting licence in British Columbia?
a. 8
b. 10
c. 12
d. 14
9. In order to hunt big game animals (e.g., moose, deer, etc.) you will
need a _______________licence in addition to a B.C. hunting licence.
a. Firearms
b. Driver’s
c. Big game
d. Species
10. In order to hunt waterfowl you will need _______________ permit in

addition to a BC hunting licence.
a. Migratory Game Bird
b. Waterfowl
c. Firearms
d. Drivers
ANSWER SHEET
1. _____ 2. _____ 3. _____ 4. _____ 5. _____ 6. _____ 7. _____ 8._____ 9. _____ 10. ____
9
CONTACT LIST INFORMATION SHEET

i
n The following pages contain the CORE Examiner Contact list as of November 1,
t
2002. These individuals have volunteered to have their names on this contact list.
r
o They may choose to remove their name at any time.
The examiners whose names appear on the contact list have agreed to make
themselves available within 30 days to provide examinations at a time reasonably
and mutually convenient to themselves and any potential student.
There is No obligation for the examiners to provide a CORE course.
Contact the BCWF at 1-800-533-2293 for an current contact list

or visit the website at www.bcwf.bc.ca.
CORE EXAMINERS
ExamCity Name Phone No ExamCity Name Phone No

100 Mile House Weber, Gordon (250) 791-7307 Campbell River Sidhu, Gurdeep (250) 287-0640
108 Mile Ranch Turner, Tom (250) 791-6231 Campbell River Swanson, Bill (250) 286-1907
Abbotsford Askola, Juha (604) 850-3908 Castlegar Dickson, Bob (250) 365-5781
Abbotsford Derryman, Ken (604) 855-6570 Cecil Lake Sears, John (250) 787-2443
Abbotsford Fairclough, Robert (604) 852-4350 Cecil Lake Stumpf, Herb (250) 827-3918
Abbotsford Hall, Don (604) 853-4151 Charlie Lake Shaw, Wes (250) 262-1346
Abbotsford Paddon, Robert (604) 850-8911 Chase Chestnut, Chuck (250) 679-2729
Abbotsford Sanders, James (604) 864-0985 Chase Erickson, Ernie (250) 679-0009
Abbotsford Swansborough, Dave (604) 854-5301 Chase Hudson, Terry (250) 679-3931
Abbotsford Tanner, Doug (604) 857-5481 Chetwynd Derby, Jim (250) 788-2046
Abbotsford Zuest, Dave (604) 850-6947 Chetwynd Evans, Bill (250) 788-2146
Agassiz Faulkner, Jerry (604) 796-0006 Chetwynd Hamilton, Gordon (250) 788-2169
Agassiz West, Gordon (604) 796-9541 Chetwynd Juergensen, Brent (250) 788-9691
Aldergrove Hatch, Barry (604) 856-6006 Chetwynd Weissbock, Reinhold (250) 788-3035
Armstrong Hickman, Pat (250) 546-8086 Chilliwack Edward, Ron (604) 792-3440
Ashcroft Brown, Ken (250) 453-9415 Chilliwack Frost, Gord (604) 823-4052
Atlin Holman, George (250) 651-7717 Chilliwack Glazer, Berkley (604) 824-2807
Atlin Sprado, Tobe (250) 651-7818 Chilliwack Mcduff, Ernest (604) 858-4154
Barriere Struthers, Colleen (250) 672-9983 Christina Lake Seymour, Richard (250) 447-9442
Bella Coola Suisdahl, Randy (250) 982-2465 Clearwater Murray, Steve (250) 674-2753
Black Creek Tipper, Dennis (250) 337-0021 Clearwater Schoenberger, Owen (250) 674-4099
Black Creek Todd, Norris (250) 337-8025 Clinton Eyer, Dodie (250) 459-2503
Black Creek Vandette, Tim (250) 337-1775 Clinton Eyer, Dave (250) 459-7004
Bridge Lake Citra, Larry (250) 593-4362 Comox Danylyshyn, Dave (250) 339-3693
Bridsville Martinoff, Michael (250) 446-2836 Comox Julyan, Rick (250) 339-7587
Burnaby Camele, Danny (604) 254-7513 Coquitlam Abram, Kelly (604) 941-6933
Burnaby Camele, Victor (604) 254-7513 Coquitlam Davey, Mike (604) 937-5930
Burnaby Hamilton, Sandy (604) 521-8623 Coquitlam Mi, Yiping (604) 207-2877
Burnaby Kremmer, Frank (604) 298-5112 Coquitlam No, Ken (604) 931-2351
Burnaby Reinmuth, Roy (604) 686-3086 Coquitlam Tanchak, Maurice (604) 939-3665
Burnaby Simmons, Al (604) 291-1952 Coquitlam Tiamzon, Ed (604) 685-1254
Burns Lake Mackereth, Bill (250) 692-3600 Coquitlam Yun, Kea (604) 944-5930
Campbell River 0rel, Edgar (250) 923-3878 Coquitlam Zuckerman, Chuck (604) 724-9275
Campbell River Bowers, Randy (250) 923-9902 Courtenay Adams, Mark (250) 792-0598
Campbell River Cornfield, Charlie (250) 923-2599 Courtenay Courtenay F & G Assoc, (250) 338-9122
Campbell River Cowling, Jim (250) 923-8009 8am To 10 Pm
Campbell River Fyfe, Bruce (250) 287-3727 Courtenay Jacobson, Randy (250) 338-6443
Campbell River Lochmanetz, Gord (250) 287-3503 Courtenay Sim, Kerry (250) 897-1004
Campbell River Nielsen, Sid (250) 923-5686 Courtenay Walker, Tom (250) 338-4048
10
CORE EXAMINERS
i Exam City Name Phone No. Exam City Name Phone No. i
n n
t
Courtenay Wortman, Wayne (250) 338-6310 Jaffray Odnokon, Shawn (250) 429-3757 t
Cranbrook Dolynchuk, Gary (250) 426-4144 Jaffray Plant, Bill (250) 429-3193
r r
Cranbrook Giles, Robert (250) 426-0924 Kamloops Cartwright, Stu (250) 372-1516
o o
Cranbrook Kirk, Robert (250) 489-2541 Kamloops Cook, Ken (250) 828-3123
Creston Harvey, Harv (250) 428-4426 Kamloops Farquharson, Alec (250) 376-3596
Creston Purdy, Bob (250) 428-3554 Kamloops Kelly, Jim (250) 314-1619
Creston Wayling, Tim (250) 428-2894 Kamloops Kowalchuk, Jim (250) 578-8288
Crofton Irwin, Robert (250) 246-9041 Kamloops Mcknight, George (250) 573-2428
Dawson Creek Hitchcock, Gordon (250) 782-8822 Kamloops Richardson, Anthony (250) 573-2514
Dease Lake Newton, Mike (250) 771-3816 Kamloops Smith, Bill (250) 376-7970
Delta Rodrigues, Richard (604) 583-8817 Kamloops Werner, Mark (888) 567-7867
Delta Temoin, Doug (604) 943-7167 Kamloops Wiggins, Jim (250) 376-6482
Delta Wood, Albert (604) 940-0042 Kaslo Mattes, Robert (250) 353-2671
Delta Zentner, Dennis (604) 946-1995 Kelowna Cadden, Rob (250) 861-4838
Duncan Bone, Jack (250) 748-2104 Kelowna Campbell, Stew (250) 765-0459
Duncan Kopp, Robert (250) 748-1887 Kelowna Chaffee, Dwayne (250) 861-4838
Duncan Schuckel, Bill (250) 748-1265 Kelowna Hardy, Chuck (250) 762-9001
Elkford Zimmerman, Jim (250) 865-4556 Kelowna Keller, Peter (250) 861-6522
Elko Rawson, Brian (250) 529-7775 Kelowna Kosarczuk, Jim (250) 766-1774
Fernie Bossio, Liz (250) 423-7686 Kelowna Newman, Dave (250) 860-6036
Fernie Rocca, Mario (250) 423-7281 Kelowna Rogers, Chris (250) 762-2656
Fernie Uphill, Don (250) 423-3874 Kelowna Van Dyke, Tim (250) 769-7696
Fernie Vallance, Larry (250) 423-6112 Kelowna Wasman, Brian (250) 765-6410
Forest Grove Derkson, Paul (250) 397-2567 Kimberley Blackwell, Daniel (250) 427-4986
Fort Nelson Woodcock, Warren (250) 774-3095 Kimberley Grant, Allan (250) 427-7203
Fort St James Gammon, Gareth (250) 996-7780 Kimberley Pelter, Wayne (250) 427-5308
Fort St James Houghton, Terry (250) 996-8423 Kitimat Hummel, Albert (250) 632-6424
Fort St James Mclean, Ken (250) 996-7933 Kitimat Walker, Mike (250) 632-4705
Fort St James Peterson, John (250) 996-7346 Kitwanga Hobenshield, Edwin (250) 849-5698
Fort St John Allen, Doug (250) 785-3706 Knutsford Dreger, Glenn (250) 372-3837
Fort St John Clarke, Barry (250) 827-3264 Lac La Hache Blackwell, Paul (250) 396-7286
Fort St John Lahaye, Guy (250) 785-1442 Ladysmith Hall, Jim (250) 245-5871
Fort St John Phibbs, David (250) 787-9315 Langley Baldini, Eric (604) 532-0783
Fort St. John Ekkel, Richard (250) 785-8531 Langley Goldsack, Glen (604) 534-9908
Francois Lake Skillen, Barb (250) 695-6552 Langley Goldsack, Marlene (604) 534-9908
Fruitvale Cournoyer, Lynn (250) 367-7344 Langley Hamilton, Robert (604) 534-3551
Fruitvale Ramsay, Brad (250) 367-2228 Langley Helsdon, Jim (604) 533-7922
Gabriola Cuthbertson, Stephen (250) 247-8801 Langley Langley R & G Club, (604) 816-0315
Gabriola Graf Van Westarp, George (250) 247-8868 8am To 8pm
Gabriola Island Kenchenten, John (250) 247-8804 Langley Stofoni, Stelios (604) 533-5363
Garibaldi Highlands Willgress, John (604) 898-5964 Lazo Trotter, Floyd (250) 339-5770
Gibsons Gazeley, Fred (604) 886-9131 Likely Ulrich, Keith (250) 790-2236
Gold River Mcnally, Morris (250) 283-2160 Lillooet Snucins, Vit (250) 256-7734
Gold River Patrick, Scott (250) 283-2484 Lister Palmer, Merrill (250) 428-7682
Golden Arlt, Grant (250) 344-2969 Logan Lake Daigle, Bob (250) 523-6992
Golden Cadden, Matthew (250) 344-5143 Logan Lake Werring, Dirk (250) 523-6704
Golden Hagman, James (250) 347-2307 Lone Butte Forsberg, Vince (250) 593-4004
Golden Tanner, Adrian (250) 344-5306 Lumby Aussem, Peter (250) 547-6708
Grand Forks Caravetta, Joe (250) 442-0600 Lumby Blain, Mike (250) 547-6403
Grand Forks Guthrie, Jim (250) 442-0020 Lumby Mcleod, Gerald (250) 547-6955
Grand Forks Kemprud, Denny (250) 442-8258 Lumby Vogan, Len (250) 547-2478
Grand Forks Mckay, Warren (250) 442-0600 Mackenzie L'heureux, Wilda (250) 997-4819
Greenwood Nelson, Stan (250) 445-6194 Madeira Park Cameron, John (604) 883-9153
Hanceville Joyce, Art (250) 394-4367 Mansons Landing Piggott, Ed (250) 935-6504
Heffley Creek Newman, Brian (250) 578-8569 Marysville Warkentin, Bill (250) 427-3525
Hixon Kirkland, Joanne (250) 998-4617 Masset Robinson, Ed (250) 626-5190
Hope Hislop, Robert (604) 869-9098 McBride Berndsen, Peter (250) 569-0208
Hope Jess, Ruth (604) 869-3361 McBride Hruby, David (250) 569-3292
Houston Mcdonald, Frank (250) 845-7030 Merritt Beech, Doug (250) 378-4379
Houston Perkinson, Sonny (250) 845-3156 Merritt Crack, Dave (250) 378-2734
Hudson's Hope Walker, Lou (250) 783-2321 Merritt Crack, Kathy (250) 378-2734
Invermere Stade, Brian (250) 342-3424 Merritt Davis, Bob (250) 378-2111
Invermere Trask, Byron (250) 342-9213 Metchosin Hutchinson, David (250) 704-0055
Jaffray Head, Steve (250) 429-3248 Midway Clapperton, Leo (250) 449-2463
11
CORE EXAMINERS
i ExamCity Name Phone No ExamCity Name Phone No

n Mission Hardy, Dave (604) 826-9821 Prince George Little, Lloyd (250) 962-2259
t Mission Kenyon, Gerry (604) 820-1757 Prince George Manning, Ron (250) 964-6624
r Mission Lochrie, Donald (604) 826-9096 Prince George Parfrey, Jim (250) 964-9767
o Montney Yendrys, Kelly (250) 827-3424 Prince George Petrisor, Dan (250) 614-4341
Nakusp Boswell, Dorian (250) 265-9911 Prince George Saunders, Lowell (250) 564-2725
Nakusp Scown, Hank (250) 265-4137 Prince George Storch, Steven (250) 964-7137
Nanaimo Ball, Robert (250) 758-1668 Prince George Tschampa, Joe (250) 964-4164
Nanaimo Bennie, Robert (250) 756-2090 Prince George Wilkins, Don (250) 967-4456
Nanaimo Forsyth, Robert (250) 754-4912 Prince Rupert Brant, Dick (250) 624-5834
Nanaimo Patchett, Andrew (250) 390-3596 Prince Rupert Derry, Ron (250) 624-6015
Nanaimo Wakelam, Tom (250) 741-9848 Prince Rupert Robinson, Wallace (250) 624-2777
Nanoose Bay Harris, Doug (250) 468-9798 Prince Rupert Sawchuk, Kelly (250) 624-7460
Nelson Millan, Dennis (250) 229-4401 Prince Rupert Trim, Michael (250) 627-8317
New Westminster Sapperton F & G Club, (604) 521-7568 Princeton Adams, Paul (250) 295-4191
North Saanich Cornish, Ken (250) 656-7885 Pritchard Swift, Don (250) 577-3461
North Vancouver Pitkethly, Barry (604) 929-4269 Qualicum Beach Blair, Larry (250) 752-0726
North Vancouver Walzak, Don (604) 987-2016 Quesnel Almond, Colin (250) 992-9649
Ocean Falls Dailey, Oliver (250) 289-3248 Quesnel Bentley, Jim (250) 992-9454
Okanagan Falls Mehrer, Dwayne (250) 497-8460 Quesnel Cooper, John (250) 992-5940
Oliver Mckay, Joan (250) 498-2040 Quesnel Jmaeff, Brian (250) 747-1020
Oliver Norton, Gregory (250) 498-4669 Quesnel Leer, Art (250) 992-2808
Oliver Shannon, Mel (250) 498-2660 Quesnel Logie, Rick (250) 249-0130
Peachland Mills, Ken (250) 767-0136 Quesnel Manning, Bob (250) 991-6512
Peachland Reisen, Roger (250) 767-2867 Quesnel Monk, Robert (250) 992-3101
Peachland Sheppard, Rod (250) 767-9358 Quesnel Ramage, Brian (250) 249-5801
Peachland Springer, Albert (250) 767-2287 Quesnel Standbridge, Mike (250) 249-5942
Pemberton Horth, Nicky (604) 894-1845 Quesnel Teed, Roy (250) 747-1925
Pemberton Knowles, Ivan (604) 894-6630 Radium Hot
Penticton Bergman, Don (250) 493-6065 Springs Schmidt, Willibald (250) 347-9731
Penticton Drobe, Brian (250) 493-5585 Revelstoke Angus, Matt (250) 814-0111
Penticton Ford, Ed (250) 770-3274 Revelstoke Lenzi, Todd (250) 837-4629
Penticton Kerr, David (250) 493-8326 Richmond Mackenzie, Gordon (604) 214-0749
Penticton Modrall, Howard (250) 492-3704 Richmond Palmer, Keith (604) 720-7363
Pink Mountain Coy, Allen (250) 772-5143 Richmond Richmond Rod & Gun, (604) 278-2142
Port Alberni Alberni District Sportsman Richmond Yu, Sandy (604) 551-8492
Assoc., Answer Machine (250) 724-1214 Roberts Creek Braun, Larry (604) 885-4756
Port Alberni Clark, Darlene (250) 724-4657 Roberts Creek Ross, Alex (604) 886-7966
Port Alberni Clark, Robert (250) 724-4657 Robson Hawley, Ivan (250) 365-2584
Port Alberni Diemert, Don (250) 724-2927 Rose Prairie Koop, Richard (250) 261-1456
Port Alberni Kearns, Rob (250) 723-2025 Salmon Arm Cowen, Doug (250) 832-3151
Port Alice Mckinnon, David (250) 284-6201 Salmon Arm Holmes, Trevor (250) 832-4105
Port Clements Haralson, Ron (250) 557-4255 Salmon Arm Kuna, Julian (250) 832-7914
Port Coquitlam Fehrenbach, Mike (604) 942-9880 Salmon Arm Paul, Lou (250) 833-4048
Port Coquitlam Gardner, Murray (604) 889-3822 Salt Spring Island Cameron, Ken (250) 537-1243
Port Coquitlam Krell, Darren (604) 944-9047 Salt Spring Island Knoblauch, Greg (250) 537-9815
Port Coquitlam Loewen, Peter (604) 941-3194 Sandspit Henry, Jim (250) 637-2292
Port Hardy Clare, Larry (250) 949-8957 Sandspit Sample, Richard (250) 637-2200
Port Hardy Fujino, Ken (250) 949-2809 Sayward O' Brennan, Linda (250) 282-3681
Port McNeill Martin, Allan (250) 956-3456 Sayward Watson, Roy (250) 282-3242
Pouce Coupe Bruhs, Peter (250) 786-5691 Sechelt Hardwick, Ivan (604) 885-8979
Powell River Beeching, Wendell (604) 483-9449 Sechelt Janis, Bob (604) 885-2830
Powell River Holgerson, Sverre (604) 487-4661 Sechelt Rankin, Beatrice (604) 885-9787
Powell River Miller, Gary (604) 483-9424 Sechelt Reynolds, Darryl (604) 885-9205
Powell River Misner, Larry (604) 485-3400 Sidney Merriman, Mike (250) 655-7065
Powell River Simonar, Bob (604) 485-2165 Slocan Park Anderson, Dave (250) 226-7803
Powell River Stride, Ivan (604) 483-4367 Smithers Dancey, Brian (250) 847-3110
Prince George Bell, Dennis (250) 561-2415 Smithers Hunter, Elton (250) 847-5467
Prince George Botham, John (250) 964-4775 Smithers Ulrich, Ken (250) 847-1442
Prince George Clare, Sheldon (250) 563-2804 South Hazelton Mason, Sharon (250) 842-6913
Prince George Collett, Gary (250) 962-6455 Sparwood Podrasky, Kevin (250) 425-2602
Prince George Hechenberger, Tony (250) 966-9392 Squamish Struthers, Darryl (250) 382-3609
Prince George Kelly, Bob (250) 564-8882 Squamish Wright, John (604) 892-5797
Prince George Ko, Russell (250) 964-4431 Stewart Hyslop, Jim (250) 636-2601
Prince George Lemcke, Roy (250) 964-3227 Summerland Kinloch, Ray (250) 494-7999
12
CORE EXAMINERS
Exam City Name Phone No. Exam City Name Phone No. i
n
Summerland Smith, Rory (250) 494-1302 Vanderhoof Forsdick, Doug (250) 567-3106 t
Sunset Prairie Neufeld, Gerald (250) 843-7493 Vanderhoof Wheeler, Mike (250) 567-4751
r
Surrey Di Salvoatore, Tony (604) 599-8636 Vernon Danby, Simon (250) 549-3327
o
Surrey Hugo, Berny (604) 585-2486 Vernon Hudon, Alan (250) 545-6413
Surrey Ross, Don (604) 589-9151 Vernon Wise, Pete (250) 545-8881
Surrey Slee, Ron (604) 574-6592 Victoria Carter, Douglas (250) 479-5010
Surrey Starr, Ernie (604) 582-6458 Victoria Fowler, Bill (250) 479-8184
Tatlayoko Lake Knight, Len (250) 476-1147 Victoria Mitchell, Richard (250) 478-3508
Telkwa Burlon, Bill (250) 846-5670 Victoria Oetting, Jerry (250) 474-5375
Terrace Hailey, John (250) 635-6542 Victoria Ogilvie, Robin (250) 472-1894
Terrace Pegg, Roland (250) 638-1082 Victoria Thornton, John (250) 721-1811
Tofino Amrhein, Michael (250) 725-3379 Victoria Towers, Tim (250) 474-1267
Tofino Tranfield, Al (250) 725-3973 Victoria Wright, Roger (250) 478-2739
Trail Smee, Jim (250) 368-5477 Westbank Brown, Keith (250) 768-3599
Trail Wright, Gordon (250) 368-5140 Westbank White, Harley (250) 768-5502
Tumbler Ridge Duperreault, Fernand (250) 242-4416 White Rock Galpin, Thomas (604) 536-1326
Ucluelet Thompson, William (250) 726-2998 White Rock Worfolk, David (604) 536-1202
Union Bay Wheeldon, James (250) 335- 2301 Williams Lake Jenkins, Judy (250) 392-6750
Valemount Mitchell, Ron (250) 566-4362 Williams Lake Jenkins, Barry (250) 392-6750
Vancouver Backus, Robert (604) 228-8676 Williams Lake Lucks, Ken (250) 398-9808
Vancouver Batista, Joe (604) 325-2303 Williams Lake Owens, Ken (250) 305-9868
Vancouver Camele, Joe (604) 254-7513 Williams Lake Reimer, P.j. (250) 305-1034
Vancouver Koverola, John (604) 299-4877 Williams Lake Riedel, Laurie (250) 392-7845
Vancouver Lavery, Bill (604) 325-5690 Winfield Armitage, Nina (250) 766-2618
Vancouver Lowen, Marshall (604) 730-0260 Winfield Taylor, Ronald (250) 766-2559
Vancouver Macdonald, Ross (604) 683-4787 Winfield Winton, Maurice (250) 766-4716
Vancouver Maynard, Mike (604) 436-5667 Winlaw Milton, Ron (250) 226-7459
Vanderhoof Davidson, Ross (250) 567-2080 Wynndel Sabo, Garry (250) 866-5749
Vanderhoof Erasmus, Gerd (250) 567-4055
13
NOTES
i
n
t
r
o
14
Chapter
Conservation 2
GOAL
The student will explain the relationship between hunter's heritage,

ecology and wildlife management.
OBJECTIVES
The student will be able to: This chapter is divided into three parts:
1. Identify hunter's heritage I. Hunter's heritage and the history
and hunter's role in wildlife of wildlife management.
management. II. Ecology
2. Define ecology and wildlife III. Wildlife management
management terms.
3. List the basic requirements of
all wildlife.
4. State how wildlife managers
protect and manage wildlife
and habitat.
15
Chapter 2 — Conservation Conservation & Outdoor Recreation Education
PART I.
HUNTER'S HERITAGE AND THE
HISTORY OF WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT
Hunting has been an important part of centres. While the bison fell victim to a well-
North American heritage for both executed covert policy to deny western plains
Aboriginal communities and European tribes their base of operation against the army
c
settlers. Animals were hunted for food, and settlers, the pronghorn was a mere
o
n clothing, and profit. In 1670 the Hudson's "by-catch" of this campaign.
s
e Bay Company was founded in Canada. Its
r
v chief interests for its first two centuries were As Teddy Roosevelt related his observations:
a
t
i
the fur trade, exploration and settlement. different big game species disappeared
o
n
sequentially from the plains, depending
Expansion towards the west in the United how easily they could be procured and how
States involved paddle wheelers on the rewarding it was to kill them. It appears
major rivers by the 1830's, and railway lines that after the army commanders in 1867
over land by the 1860's. In Canada, the had decided on the covert campaign
Canadian Pacific Railroad was founded in against wildlife, it took about two decades
1881 to build a railway linking Canada's to bring silence to the prairie. The bleached
eastern population centres with the vast, bones of bison still lay scattered over the
sparsely populated West. This huge land as a mute testimony of their former
engineering feat was completed on Nov.7, abundance, till these bones too could be
1885 - more than five years ahead of sold and were gathered and hauled away by
schedule - when the last spike was driven the box car full and used to refine sugar.
into the rail line at Craigellachie, BC. Tiny herds of pronghorns appear to have
survived over much of their range, to be
This movement west involved market seen briefly at some distance, only to
hunting with an utter freedom to plunder disappear into the countless gullies,
the continent's wealth. This, coupled with coulees, mesas and hills of the prairie.
the development of the modern breech
loading firearms and in the United States a By the turn of the century there was a
covert military policy to deprive native continental surge of activity that looked at
people of wildlife, had a big impact on how to conserve the dwindling natural
wildlife, and even on songbirds. Urban resources, in particular how to save wildlife.
development, habitat loss, and market Public debate organized in public hearings
hunting also played a big part in the loss of led to policies soon enacted in legislation in
waterfowl that migrates between Canada and both countries, and established the first
the United States. These activities virtually international wildlife treaties. Market
succeeded in exterminating wildlife by 1900. hunting was outlawed by the beginning of
the 20th century. The first International
As the bison declined, so did other big game Wildlife Treaties were signed, and
species. Market Hunters turned on such Continental Conservation Policies were
species as elk, deer and pronghorn. For developed. Teddy Roosevelt and Sir Wilfred
example, the demise of the pronghorn was Laurier, US President and Canadian Prime
rapid. Judge Caton notes that in 1855, Minister respectively, were key players in
pronghorns were extraordinarily common these early conservation issues.
in California, but by the 1870's were
exterminated. In the central Great Plains they These policies and wildlife treaties really
hung on longer. In winter, frozen pronghorn worked and the return of wildlife to North
carcasses were stacked like cordwood along America became the greatest environmental
railway lines to be shipped east to urban success story of the 20th century, the finest
16
Conservation & Outdoor Recreation Education Conservation — Chapter 2
system of wildlife conservation ever, the Wildlife management is a success story, a

only large-scale system of sustainable great achievement that North Americans
natural resource development, a great can be rightly proud of. Numerous species
contributor to the quality of everyday life of wildlife have rebounded. For example,
in North America, as well as a howling beaver was scarce in 1900 and now there
economic success in which private are millions; white-tail deer was at the
enterprise created wealth and employment 500,000 level in 1900, and today we have
from a public resource. Ironically, this over 35 million in North America. c
o
Public Good was the brainchild of some of n
s
the foremost capitalist entrepreneurs at the Hunters today support conservation each e
r
turn of the century, such as Sir Clifford time they buy a hunting licence with a v
a
Sifton, a multimillionaire, the brain surcharge for the Habitat Conservation t
i
behind the development of the Canadian Trust Fund in British Columbia. This trust o
n
west, the man who ran Canada's fund is used for both habitat and wildlife
Commission on Conservation for nearly a conservation projects. Hunters, fishers,
decade (1911-1919). His counterpart in the and other conservationists also support
US was the great Gifford Pinchot. and join organizations such as Ducks
Unlimited, Rocky Mountain Elk
North America's system of wildlife Foundation, BC Wildlife Federation and
conservation is ingenious! It has managed other conservation organizations. These
to captivate the enthusiasm and support groups and their membership help
of the common person, the blue-collar support conservation: the wise use of
workers, the rural people who, for many wildlife and habitat in British Columbia.
decades, have been paying dearly for
environmental protection, without
knowing that was what they were doing. It Species Abundance
returned most species from the edge of
extinction, increased wildlife abundance White-tail deer in
continually over 80 years, gave rise to new North America
American professions such as the public
Wildlife Manager, biologist, and 1900 500,000
conservation officers/game wardens. It
also organized citizens into a myriad of Today over
conservation organizations, and taxed the 35 million
users of wildlife on behalf of wildlife.
PART I.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. List four items that contributed to the loss of wildlife in North America prior to 1900.
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
2. List two things a hunter can do to support conservation efforts in British Columbia.
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
17
PART II.
ECOLOGY
In this part you will read about: The Importance of Habitat

• What is ecology? All living things have four fundamental
• Ecology terms needs: food, water, shelter, and space. An
• The importance of habitat animal’s habitat or "address" must provide
c
• Distribution and adaptation these four basic needs. Each species of animal
o
n • The balance of populations: has its own habitat requirements. It seems
s
e Limits to abundance obvious that wild animals need adequate
r
v • Stability habitat in order to survive; yet many people
a
t
i
• Succession (habitat change) don’t understand the vital role of habitat,
o
n
• Population dynamics although they are keen to protect animals.
• Habitat in British Columbia Without protecting habitat, protecting
individual animals becomes meaningless.
What is Ecology?
Ecology is the science of the environment; Food
the study of how the world functions as a All animals need food to meet their energy
unit. It is important to understand the needs: to grow, reproduce, escape predators,
basics of ecology, as we humans are only and survive chilling winters or long
one of approximately 1,300,000 types of migrations. Each species selects very
organisms that share the planet. particular foods from many items that are
present in its environment. Not just any
Ecology terms. kind of food will do. For a bighorn sheep to
Organism: refers to all plants and animals, survive, for example, there must be enough
including humans. These living units grass to last the winter, and the grass must
include not only large organisms such as also have sufficient nutritional value. The
trees and whales but also the simpler species quality of food, as well as the amount
such as fungi, bacteria, and protozoa. present, is important for survival. Food
quality may vary with the season, or even
Population: a group of individual organ- the location. Food must also be accessible to
isms (such as moose or fir trees) of the the animals. In winter, deep, crusted snows
same kind (species). A population may be may bury much of the food supply. An
local or global, depending on the size of important objective for wildlife management
the area under study. is to conserve important feeding areas, and
to increase the amount and quality of food
Community: the populations of plants
available for wildlife. Winter food shortage is
and animals living and interacting with
the most important limiting factor for many
one another in a given locality.
wildlife species in British Columbia.
Habitat: the place where an organism
Shelter
lives in a community, its “home”. Habitats
Birds and mammals need shelter or cover to
may vary widely in size, from an entire
forest to a puddle. An organism’s habitat hide in, and to protect them from bad weather.
contains its four essential needs for sur- Dense vegetation is the most common kind of
vival: food, water, shelter, and space. cover, but cover may also include rock piles,
burrows in the ground, holes in logs, or water
Ecosystem: a community of living things bodies. Some small animals, like beaver and
interacting with one another and with muskrats, build their own cover in the form of
their physical environment (air, water, houses. Plant cover is removed by many
soil, wind, etc.). An ecosystem can be a modern land uses like logging, cattle grazing,
planet, a forest, a lake, or a fallen log. and open pit mining.
18
Water Most species need more than one kind of

All animals need water. Many of our habitat, and the best arrangement is where
wildlife species get enough water from the many patches of the various habitat types
food they eat, such as succulent plants, occur fairly close together. Extensive tracts
but some also need to drink water, of a single kind of habitat don’t support as
particularly in dry regions like the much wildlife. When there is a good
Okanagan Valley. Fortunately, water is interspersion of different habitats, many
well distributed in British Columbia, and individuals will have ready access to all of c
o
usually not in short supply. their needs, and the area will support a n
s
larger population. e
r
Space v
a
Animals need space to survive. The Balance of Populations: t
i
Overcrowding leads to severe competition Limits to Abundance o
n
for food and breeding sites and eventually No matter how good a habitat is, and no
to malnutrition and rapid spread of matter how much protection is given to
disease and parasites. Most animals are the animals in it, a given area will only
territorial to some extent; that is, they will support so many animals.
occupy specific sites. Their territoriality
tends to ensure spacing and prevent over- The number of animals that an area
crowding. Because of the need for space, a will support without damage to the
given area will only support so many habitat or to the animals is called the
animals, no matter how much food, water "carrying capacity."
or shelter is available.
The uppermost limit on the size of a
Many wildlife species have very population is most often determined not
particular needs for breeding sites. Dense by the animals themselves but rather by
forest cover is needed by cow elk to the availability of food. In general the
conceal their newborn calves and by tree- growth of plants depends on the supply
nesting birds to hide their nests. Bald of nutrients and solar energy. The
eagles need large old trees to support quantity of plant material produced
their bulky nests, and these trees must be determines, in turn, the maximum
near the shorelines where they feed. possible population of herbivores (plant
Hole-nesting birds need snags and old eaters). The numbers of these animals
trees in which to excavate nests, falcons will then set a limit to the numbers of
need cliff ledges, and seabirds that nest in carnivores (meat eaters).
colonies need secluded islands. Some
mammals, like wolves and bears, need There may be factors other than food
particular soil conditions for digging which limit the growth of a population,
their maternity dens. Wildlife managers and so the maximum size of the population
try to protect breeding sites, and to may never be reached. There may, for
improve them where possible. example, be enough food to support a
thousand birds in a certain area but only
Distribution and Adaptation suitable nesting sites for one hundred.
The distribution of various species is
determined by both local conditions and Birds and mammals can increase in
overall geographical features. Local numbers very quickly, and may
conditions will determine where certain temporarily exceed the carrying capacity
species are to be found. The arrangement of their habitat. This results in social
of food, cover, water, space, and stress, competition for food, starvation,
particularly breeding sites determines greater exposure to disease, predation and
wildlife numbers and their distribution. parasites, poor reproductive success, and
19
Carrying Capacity of the Habitat It is the combination of available

food and home range size that helps
define the upper limits to population
growth. Many animals occupy
specific home ranges or territories in
order to ensure that they have
enough food, cover, and breeding
c
sites to raise their young. The
o
n territory size reflects the carrying
s
e capacity of the habitat; territories
r
v function to limit the number of
a
t
i
animals supported in an area.
o
n
Most animals are food for other
animals, and when their population
increases, so does the number of
predators. Once the prey population
has been reduced, there may be less
food for some predators: their
numbers will decline and equilibrium
may again be restored.
Stability
Organisms, populations, and all
natural systems have some ability to
withstand or to recover from
externally imposed changes or stresses.
In other words, they have some degree
of stability. Nature is remarkably
resilient. For example, plants can
eventually recolonize an area
devastated by volcanoes, fires, and
damage to the habitat. For example, even paved parking lots. It is not known
multiplying muskrats can very quickly eat how most ecosystems maintain their
all the vegetation in a marsh, and then die stability, and there are a number of theories,
out. Subsequently the damaged habitat but one factor is thought to be complexity.
has a reduced carrying capacity. A good Complexity relates to the number of species
trapper will watch the effects that and the interdependence of those species
muskrats are having on marsh vegetation with each other and their environment.
and harvest the excess population before With many different species and ecological
it damages the habitat. niches, impacts are more widely shared, and
the system has more ways to respond to
In British Columbia, the carrying environmental changes. A parallel to this
capacity of many wildlife habitats is idea is the fact that a city with a variety of
determined by winter weather. There may industries is more stable economically than
be an excess of available food, cover, and one where the economy is based only on
space in summer, but not enough in one or a small number of products. In other
winter. This is particularly true for species words, "variety is the spice of life."
that eat plants because the vegetation
dies back in winter, may be covered by Unfortunately, we humans often simplify
snow, and is less nutritious. the complex systems of nature for our
20
own benefit and use. Every dam, cornfield, Succession can also be human-caused. A
highway, pipeline, and use of insecticides disturbance such as a forest fire, logging,
makes ecosystems more simple. We burn or land clearing will accelerate the natural
or bulldoze fields and forests containing processes of change. For example, after
thousands of interrelated plants and logging or a fire in a coniferous forest, a
animals and cover the lands with rich growth of grasses and other herbs
buildings, roads, or fields usually becomes established along with the
containing single crops, such as wheat, animal species favoured by them. c
o
corn, or alfalfa. However, due to their n
s
simplicity, fast-growing, one-crop systems They are gradually replaced by shrubs and e
r
are highly vulnerable. They must be seedling trees, often by fast-growing species v
a
protected with chemicals, time, money such as willow or lodge pole pine, and still t
i
and energy resources. Just a single disease other animals. These are eventually o
n
or pest can wipe out an entire crop unless replaced by a dense growth of conifers,
we protect it with pesticides and which then grow into a mature forest that
herbicides, and support the crops growth supports associated animals. Succession can
with chemical fertilizers, irrigation, or take decades, or even centuries, depending
other means to overcome natural limits. on the plant and animal species involved
and site characteristics such as soil,
Succession (Habitat Change) elevation, and climate.
Communities are always changing and
dynamic, never static. Most of the natural Human-caused succession may also
changes in a system result from the include the prevention of natural
interactions between the soil, plants, and wildfires, and livestock grazing.
animals in the area. These changes are
known as "succession." An example of long Fire is recognized as a valuable tool for
term succession is the gradual change of a wildlife forest managers. On the other
lake, first to a marsh, then to a meadow, hand, prevention of natural fires often
and finally to a forest. The process may take results in vegetation community, which is
thousands of years as the lake gradually fills of low value to many types of wildlife.
with sediment and one kind of community Also, the accumulation of deadfall and
replaces another. Shorter-term successional dry underbrush, which would have
changes are more apparent to people, undergone normal, periodic burning, can
because dramatic differences can be seen result in severe massive blazes that can
within a lifetime or less. impair long-term productivity by
Stages of Succession
1 2
3 4
21
diminishing the soil base. However, measures such as winter feeding of starving
logging and prescribed burning can deer or moose only intensifies the real
replace natural wildfire on most sites. problem of bringing the population into
balance with its habitat. Birth rate and death
Excessive livestock grazing may maintain rate are two processes of major importance in
grasslands in a perpetual early vegetation population dynamics. Since most animals
stage by removing organic material and produce many offspring, and we do not see
c
thereby limiting soil development e.g., the population numbers constantly
o
n guinea pigs in yard. Tastier plant species increasing, it follows that the death rate is
s
e are eaten first, before the less palatable also high. Those with the highest birth rates
r
v ones. Plants that are short-lived and that also have high death rates. The causes of
a
t
i
produce many seeds are often passed over death, such as starvation, disease, predation,
o
n
in favour of the longer-lived species; accidents, weather, and hunting are called
many of the grassland weeds are annual mortality factors. For example, weather can
grasses and herbs. cause great variation in both the production
and the survival of young. Any of the
Population Dynamics (cycle) mortality factors may be important in
Population dynamics refers to the changes particular places at particular times.
in structure and composition that occur in Wildlife biologists take the different birth
populations. Density, age, and and death rates into account when
productivity are the three main managing wildlife populations.
considerations of population dynamics.
Habitat in British Columbia
There are many environmental factors It should be obvious by now that suitable
necessary for the growth of an animal habitat is a critical requirement for the
population. Food, water, breeding areas, and survival of wildlife. Most management
a variety of other factors combine to limit decisions are subject to the limitations of
the carrying capacity of a habitat. Animal living space for the animals.
populations respond to a change in the
carrying capacity with a corresponding British Columbia has fourteen distinct
change in numbers: if conditions improve, climates, which are superimposed on six basic
the population will increase; and if land systems. When combined, they form 26
conditions degrade or habitat is lost, the distinct regional ecosystems. For simplicity’s
population will decrease. Wild animals can sake the province can be separated into six
never be "stockpiled" in excess of the kinds of land, each with a different climates,
carrying capacity of a habitat; temporary soils, habitats and land uses:
(1) The lowlands, which are composed of

Population Cycle – Seasonal Comparisons the large basins, the Rocky Mountain
Trench and the Fraser Delta. They have
Peak Population count after
birth of young the warmest and driest climates and the
Animal Numbers
most productive soils in the province.

Losses to
starvation These areas have the most productive
and other soils, the most productive big game
factors winter ranges, and the greatest diversity
of wildlife species in the province.
Unfortunately, these areas are also the
Survivors
Breeding Stock most sought-after by humans for
(Breeding Stock)
habitation, industrial, agricultural and
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
forestry activities, and for construction
of roads, railway lines and power lines.
22
(2) The plateaus and valley bottoms (5) The Northeast or Alberta Plateau of the
within the mountains. These areas northern boreal plain. The extensive clay
are generally used as summer ranges and silt soils that were laid down in large
by big game, but there is some winter glacial lakes coupled with the long, sub-
range potential along the floodplains, arctic summer days are suitable for cereal
on the southern slopes, and in the grain production. This area has productive
old-growth forests. The primary oil and natural gas reserves. There are
land use is logging. Nearly all moose, mule deer, white-tailed deer and c
o
hydroelectric reservoirs are built in elk winter ranges in the lowland areas, n
s
this setting, and agriculture is most while the uplands are used as both e
r
often marginal. summer range and extensive winter range v
a
for moose and caribou. t
i
(3) The isolated coastal inlets, islands and o
n
estuaries. These are often steeply (6) The northern wilderness. These areas are
forested, rocky areas with little access to boreal or sub-arctic mountains and
the large population centres except by plateaus. Few people live here, and the few
boat or over logging roads. Camps or established communities are small and
small towns are usually located on the scattered. The main land use practices are
productive estuaries. Land use is mainly guide-outfitting and mining. These areas
logging, although there is some mining. represent the largest wilderness in the
Productive wildlife habitat is restricted province and are the domain of Stone’s
to the estuaries, the seepage zone above sheep, woodland caribou, mountain goat,
the ocean and isolated islands. wolf, grizzly bear and moose.
(4) The southern roadless mountainous In measuring habitat, we must consider

areas. These areas are the rugged, quality as well as quantity of land. Many of
upper mountain areas and high- the areas critical for wildlife are also in great
elevation basins. They contain some of demand by humans for other reasons. Valleys
the most rugged and inhospitable land are good habitat for many animals but,
in the province: the Coast, the Selkirk unfortunately, also make the best agricultural
and the Purcell Mountains. There is areas or good reservoirs. Delta areas essential
very little human land use, except for for waterfowl breeding often have high real
the occasional mine. The most estate potential. Where we share areas used by
prevalent big game species are wildlife, as in cattle ranching, we often ignore
mountain goat, grizzly bear and black- the needs of the native wildlife for the sake of
tailed deer and mule deer. other land use interests.
PART II.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. List the four fundamental needs for all living things.

______________________________________________________________________________
2. Define the word following terms:

a. Habitat __________________________________________________________________
b. Carrying capacity ________________________________________________________
c. Succession ______________________________________________________________
3. List the six basic land systems found in British Columbia. ________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
23
PART III.
WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT
In this part you will read about: Endangered species. These species are in
• How wildlife is classified danger of extinction, as humans (or some
• What is wildlife management? natural process) have encroached upon or
• Wealth of wildlife destroyed their habitat. British Columbia
c
• Protection of wildlife animals on the endangered species list
o
n • Protection through reserved lands include the white pelican, the burrowing
s
e • Management of the habitat owl, and the Vancouver Island marmot.
r
v • Predator control
a
t
i
• Transplanting Threatened species. These species are also in
o
n
• Management of the hunt danger but their position is not so acute. Both
• Types of hunting seasons endangered and threatened species are
• Population inventory protected under the Wildlife Act.
• Hunter sampling techniques
What is Wildlife Management?
In the following section, the main Wildlife management is a bewildering term to
principles and practices of wildlife many people. Part of the reason for this is that
management are outlined, as well as the field as we know it today is relatively new:
some of its challenges and limitations. the first provincial wildlife biologist was hired
as recently as 1947. Many people do not
How wildlife is classified understand the concepts and practises behind
Wildlife species are classified into the wildlife management. Why would a moose or
following categories: a robin need to be managed? Can’t we just let
nature take its course? In a wilderness setting
Game animals are defined by law and sometimes we can, but sadly, there is little true
are generally valued for food, for wilderness left, even in a province as large as
particular products, such as hides or British Columbia. There are no places where
feathers, and for the hunting we humans have not intruded in some way,
opportunities they provide. Big game changing the environment and using natural
animals include bear, caribou, deer, resources to suit our own purposes. The
elk, mountain goats and sheep, and concept "wild" creates some problems, for
moose. Upland game birds include "wilderness" and "wild" generally mean "in the
grouse, ptarmigan, ring-necked absence of humans". In attempting to manage
pheasant, and others. Migratory game wildlife, we, as humans, are obviously
birds include ducks, geese, band-tailed influencing them, but a measure of our
pigeons, and some shore birds. success is the degree to which we keep
wilderness and wildlife "wild." In British
Furbearing animals are defined by law Columbia, wildlife management is a
and are generally valued for furs. Other complicated, many faceted field that involves
parts of the animals such, as the meat, the public, the users, private industry,
are usually unimportant. Furbearing government managers, and lawmakers.
animals include lynx, coyote, pine
marten, and mink. Wealth of Wildlife
British Columbia has more diversity in its
Non-game animals are those not landscape than any other province in
hunted for sport or trapped for their furs. Canada. British Columbia’s large size,
Songbirds, predatory birds, small coastal location, and mountain ranges
mammals, reptiles, and amphibians are present a great variety of terrain and
included in this category. contrasting climates. There is also a great
24
diversity of plant life. Within the province wildlife management programs in British
there are grasslands, shrublands, alpine Columbia are primarily the responsibility of
tundra, arid areas and swamps, lake-land the Wildlife Branch. However, the provincial
and river bottoms, as well as many kinds Wildlife Branch has little control over the
of forests such as coastal rain forests, land and habitat upon which wildlife
boreal, and subalpine forests. depends. Much of the province’s land base is
either controlled by other government
In this geographic and climatic mix there agencies (92%) or privately owned (7.5%). c
o
are many different sorts of habitats, or Even on the best habitat where the land has n
s
places for wildlife to live, and many kinds been assigned to the Wildlife Branch (less e
r
of animals are able to live in British than 1%), prior resource commitments, such v
a
Columbia - considerably more species of as timber or range, impede wildlife habitat t
i
birds and mammals than in any other management. Thus, a major component of o
n
province. Seventy-one percent of all the the Wildlife Branch management strategy is
kinds of birds that nest in Canada, and the participation in cooperative planning
74% of the mammal species that live in processes with other government agencies
Canada, are found in British Columbia. and with private developers.
Many people benefit from British Many government ministries and resource
Columbia’s diverse wildlife heritage. laws are designed to promote development
Wildlife provides food; income for trappers, and profit on an individual resource
hunting and tour guides, fur traders, and management level. Often these efforts are
taxidermists; recreational hunting for city conflicting or contradictory, and require
and country dwellers alike; opportunity for government intervention and an overall
scientific research; study for naturalists; and integrated provincial land-use planning
aesthetic pleasure for everyone. policy. Without such a process, wildlife
habitat will be protected and managed only
Wildlife, like forests, water, fisheries, and on a local area basis. However, through
soils, is a natural resource. Wildlife is used coordinated planning, there are a number
directly by many people and influenced of options open for wildlife managers
directly and indirectly by the numerous through cooperation with other ministries,
ways humans use other natural resources. private foundations, and other agencies.
Wildlife management employs our
understanding of how animals, their Protection Through Reserved Lands
environment, and people interact. It British Columbia’s over 600 species of
operates through programs such as habitat birds, reptiles, amphibians and mammals
protection and improvement, harvest receive protection in a number of parks
regulation, and wildlife protection to ensure and reserves set aside for general
the present and future welfare of wildlife. conservation purposes, and also in places
set aside specifically for wildlife.
Wildlife management falls into several
categories, such as protection and Additional lands in and around the fringes
management. This section will review the of many towns are closed to hunting,
main objectives and procedures that form mainly for human safety, but nevertheless
the basis for managing wildlife. provide effective year-round rest areas for
many kinds of wildlife. Many regional and
Protection of Wildlife municipal parks, particularly on the Lower
The protection of wildlife involves both Mainland and Vancouver Island, provide
provincial and federal legislation, planning safe refuges and protect wildlife habitat.
agreements, and enforcement. Under Local sanctuaries operated by conservation
authority of the provincial Wildlife Act, groups also provide small refuges.
25
Reserved lands represent one end of the Livestock grazing can be damaging to
spectrum of wildlife management, where ground-nesting birds by the removal of
species and their habitats are preserved cover and through trampling. However,
to the benefit of hikers, campers, by changing the grazing period to follow
photographers, birdwatchers, and all the nesting season, grazing and wildlife
students of nature. can be compatible. By reducing the
number of livestock that graze a range, or
c
Management of the Habitat. by better stock distribution through
o
n The state, age, and condition of a specie’s proper fencing, and waterhole and salt
s
e habitat are critical to wildlife abundance. development, there can be forage for both
r
v Through natural causes, important livestock and wildlife.
a
t
i
wildlife habitat may become unsuitable
o
n
for the production of some animals, as Predator Control
when a burned-over forest that can Of all activities that a wildlife manager or the
provide ample winter forage for moose government does in the name of wildlife
becomes dominated by second-growth management, none is more controversial
lodgepole pine, and the forage production than predator control. There are several ways
is reduced to near zero. to consider animals: as individuals,
populations, or as part of an ecosystem.
Logging and burning are responsible for
significant changes in wildlife distribution Control of livestock predators such as
and abundance. Forest harvesting which wolves, cougars, and coyote is conducted
displaces one or more species often leads to regularly in agricultural areas. Black bear and
major improvements in habitat conditions lynx are also controlled. Society has deemed
for other species. Certain species, such as that the protection of livestock comes first in
woodland caribou, pine marten and these cases. Predators are also controlled
pileated woodpeckers, are dependent upon around fish and poultry farms.
old growth or mature forests, while other
species such as moose, snowshoe hares, Predators may also be reduced to protect big
and blue grouse do best in shrublands. game stocks when the wildlife manager is
Logging or burning, removes the forest faced with trying to manage one species
canopy, exposes the soil surface to (deer, moose, caribou, etc.) while another
sunlight, releases nutrients, thereby (wolves, cougar, coyotes, etc.) is causing
increasing growth of herbaceous plants. excessive mortality. The choices are not
Thus, while the habitat of old growth, simple, for the management of one species
forest-dependent species may be destroyed or population may be in conflict with the
by logging or fire, other species that are management of others. Also, various sectors
dependent upon early shrub communities in our society place different values on
often benefit. However, generalizations are predators and game species.
often misleading, since some species may
require both old growth and shrub
communities, depending upon such
factors as human disturbance, snow-
depth, winter and summer temperatures,
and season of use. The great diversity and
complexity of habitats and wildlife
requirements in British Columbia, coupled
with the complexities of individual species
requirements, makes it essential that
wildlife management be incorporated into
forest management.
26
Transplanting harvestable surplus. The only populations

Animal populations have often been that do not have such a surplus are those
wiped out in areas through human that are declining due to diminishing
activities, or sometimes habitat may be habitat or those that have only adults that
vacant naturally, simply because a species are past their reproductive years.
never found it. Through the capture and
transplant of individuals to these ranges, Humans hunt only select species of wildlife,
new populations can become established. for their fur, meat, trophy value, or the c
o
Several herds of California and Rocky challenge they bring to the hunt itself. n
s
Mountain bighorn sheep, and Rocky e
r
Mountain and Roosevelt elk have become Hunting seasons can take many forms, from v
a
established in British Columbia in this open, autumn-long seasons on grouse and t
i
way, which helps to augment our natural ducks, to more restricted seasons on males, o
n
populations. In most cases, these e.g., pheasants. Animals with high
transplants have been so successful that reproductive rates that are sought after for
hunting seasons have been permitted. food generally have a longer season than do
animals that are hunted as trophies or that
Management of the Hunt have low reproductive rates. However, some
In pioneer days, British Columbia settlers animals, such as elk and moose, may belong
could shoot almost any wildlife anywhere, to both groups, food as well as trophy
any time. Gradually, restrictions on animals. General Open Seasons on the males
hunting have increased to protect and often reduce the number of both young
conserve the province’s wildlife. males and mature or prime breeding males.
Regulations are based on estimated The number of yearling or mature females
population numbers, habitat evaluations, that are harvested can be similarly effected.
and external pressures on the populations. Restrictive seasons must be placed in order to
provide adequate numbers of breeding
The number of young produced by each females to maintain the herd, while hunters
wildlife species varies. Frogs and toads can pursue the harvestable surplus.
produce thousands of tadpoles. Grouse,
ducks, and varying hares produce 8 - 14 Types of Hunting Seasons
young per year. Deer, moose, and elk, In British Columbia there are two main types
while capable of producing twins and of hunting seasons: General Open Seasons
even triplets, average one young per adult and Limited Entry Hunting. General Open
female each year. Female grizzly bears Seasons provide equal opportunity for
generally only produce one cub every two anyone with a valid hunting licence and the
years. Therefore, the number of each appropriate species licences to hunt. Harvest
species that can be harvested and still not restrictions are placed on the length of
diminish the population varies with the season, sex, and age of animals to be hunted.
reproductive capacity of that species. There is no restriction on the number of
hunters who may participate, or where they
Animals produce more young than the can hunt within a Management Unit.
habitat can sustain into adulthood.
Through diseases, starvation, predation or Limited Entry Hunting provides equal
accident, no more animals will attain opportunity for anyone with a valid
adulthood than the habitat can sustain; Hunter Number to submit his or her name
through habitat manipulation and the for entry in any draw in the province.
elimination of predators this number can However, the number of eligible permits
be increased, but there still will be more has been predetermined by the Wildlife
animals born than will be maintained as Branch's Regional Wildlife Biologists. As
adults. This principle is called the with General Open Seasons, harvest
27
restrictions are placed on the length of improvement in optics, primarily night-

season, sex, and age of animals to be vision scopes; by the advancement of
hunted. In addition, the number of each remote sending imagery; and by the
sex or age and the length of season for development of electronic technology,
each permit can be assigned. particularly computers and radio
transmitters. It has also been enhanced
Limited Entry Hunting provides an through new knowledge about the game
c
opportunity for hunting big game of species’ biology, behaviour, and habitat
o
n limited supply which would otherwise requirements. For many species, it is easier
s
e have to be closed in General Open Season to measure and assess habitat components
r
v hunting. Limited Entry Hunting also than to attempt actual population
a
t
i
provides for better hunter distribution and inventories. This is due to several factors
o
n
better selection of animals of specific age such as the seasonal fluctuations of
and sex. General Open Seasons provide the populations, the difficulty and expense
hunter with opportunistic hunting, with of observing and or tracking individual
less planning and a greater choice of animals, and the complexities of
hunting areas. external influencing factors such as
predation and competition.
Population Inventory
In order to exert careful control over the Therefore, wildlife managers need to look
level and nature of the harvest of game, for an appropriate mix of population and
wildlife managers need a great deal of habitat evaluations to support their
information about game populations. Most management decisions. Once wildlife
important, they need an estimate of the habitat is classified, selective population
number of animals in the hunted surveys can be done to monitor
population, and the number taken each population status, and to provide
year. Estimating the number of animals benchmark carrying capacity estimates.
present is called "inventory." Biologists use Long-term monitoring of wildlife
aerial surveys for most big game animals, populations can be done through a
particularly in interior and northern British combination of habitat assessment and
Columbia. The animals may be counted and periodic population surveys.
classified on sample plots or entire winter
ranges. When leaves have fallen from the
trees and snow is on the ground, dark
animals like moose are fairly easy to spot.
However, animals like coast black-tailed

deer, grizzly bears and blue grouse, which t
Checklis
occur year round in fairly dense cover, are Species
e
much harder to spot. A different approach ❒ Moos
must be used for them. Managers use
❒ Deer
clues such as trends in observed animals,
hunter success, or the ages of harvested ❒ Elk
animals to provide an index of the status ❒ Sheep
of a population. ❒ Bear
To be realistic, an inventory should also

assess the land base that sustains the
population. Our ability to inventory has
been enhanced by the use of aerial surveys,
using airplanes and helicopters; by
28
Hunter Sampling Techniques Mailed questionnaires and telephone

Several hunter sampling techniques are surveys assist the Wildlife Branch and
important inventory tools in determining the Canadian Wildlife Service in
the age and numbers of animals determining the numbers of hunters in
harvested. Information about animals each Management Unit, the length of
harvested is gained through compulsory their hunts, and their success. Thus,
reporting, mailed questionnaires, changes in harvesting and hunting
telephone surveys, and other programs. pressure can be detected. c
o
n
s
The Wildlife Branch requires that species An important method of aging the e
r
that are in limited supply or that have harvested animals is through the tooth v
a
critical population limits, such as cougar, return program. By grinding the tooth t
i
grizzly bear, mountain goats, and root lengthwise, the annual growth rings o
n
mountain sheep, be inspected by a can be counted to determine the animal’s
Wildlife official. The purpose is to age. Hunters provide these teeth to the
determine the age and sex of the animals Wildlife Branch. Check the Hunting and
being harvested as a means of monitoring Trapping Regulations Synopsis for the rules
the population. for the Tooth for the Truth program.
PART III.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. List five examples of game animals found in British Columbia. __________________

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
2. List two examples of game birds found in British Columbia. ______________________

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
3. List three examples of a furbearing animals found in British Columbia.____________

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
4. List one example of an endangered species found in British Columbia. ____________

______________________________________________________________________________
5. What branch of the Ministry of Water, Land and Air Protection is primarily responsibility
for Wildlife Management in British Columbia? __________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
6. List two types of hunting seasons found in British Columbia. ____________________

______________________________________________________________________________
29
CONSERVATION
CHAPTER REVIEW TEST
The questions listed below are similar to those found in the CORE written exam. Take approximately
10 minutes to answer these questions without referring back to the material found in this chapter.
Use the answer sheet provided at the bottom of the page to record your answers.
The answer key for this test is only provided to the CORE Examiners. Once you have completely
c
o
n
answered all the questions, you may wish to refer back the material found in this chapter to
s
e
check your answers.
r
v
a
t Complete each Chapter Review Test before calling a CORE Examiner and scheduling an appointment
i
o to challenge the CORE written and practical-firearms handling exams. The CORE Examiner may
n
request to see the completed Chapter Review Test prior to accepting you for a challenge test.
1. Wildlife population levels have been increasing in North America for most game species due to
the conservation efforts by hunters, governments and other organizations since the early 1900s.
True
False
2. A community of living things interacting with one another and with their
physical environment is called:
a. Organism
b. Population
c. Ecosystem
d. Habitat
3. What are the four fundamental needs for all living things?
a. Food, shelter, water, space.
b. Food, space, water, friendship.
c. Shelter, space, stability, succession.
d. Stability, succession, food, shelter.
4.In British Columbia, the carrying capacity of many wildlife habitats is determined
by ______________weather?
a. Spring
b. Summer
c. Fall
d. Winter
5. Wildlife survival depends primarily upon protection from predators.

True
False
30
6. Which animal is considered an endangered species in British Columbia?

a. Beaver
b. Vancouver Island marmot
c. Moose
d. Coyote
7. The protection of wildlife falls solely under provincial legislation. c

o
True n
s
False e
r
v
a
8. In a General Open Hunting Season you can shoot as much wildlife as you wish. t
i
o
True n
False
ANSWER SHEET
1. _____ 2. _____ 3. _____ 4. _____ 5. _____ 6. _____ 7. _____ 8._____
31
NOTES
c
o
n
s
e
r
v
a
t
i
o
n
32
Chapter
Ethics &
Game Care
3
GOAL
The student will explain acceptable/unacceptable behaviours and attitudes

by hunters and other outdoor recreation users based on the use of ethics.
OBJECTIVES
The student will: This chapter will be broken

1. Define terms related to ethics, into two parts:
hunting techniques, and game care. I. Outdoor and hunting ethics
2. State examples of ethical and II. Game care and ethics
non-ethical behaviours employed
by outdoor users and hunters.
3. Explain shot placement, hunting
techniques, and game care methods
used by hunters that help promote
respect for wildlife.
33
Chapter 3 — Ethics & Game Care Conservation & Outdoor Recreation Education
PART I.
OUTDOOR AND HUNTING ETHICS
No matter what choice of outdoor group. People are judged by their actions.
recreational activity you participate in, How we behave and how we act affects
such as fishing, hunting, camping, bird other people. Ethics are sustaining and
watching, etc., unethical behaviour will important guidelines for living with the
sour the public’s opinion of that support of others around us.
recreational activity. It will bring pressure
to bear on that activity and could even lead Very often groups of people share the
to its abolishment. same ethical beliefs. When any group or
organization has concerns about the
Part one is broken into the behaviour of individual members, a Code
following sections: of Ethics is often developed as a guide.
e 1. Terminology Such ethics are often written down, or
t
2. General outdoor ethics may simply be well known and followed
h
i 3. Hunting ethics by each member acceptable to the group.
c 4. Ethical relationships for hunters A member that violates the Code of Ethics
s is often penalized in some way and will
1. Terminology not benefit from the support of the group,
Ethics are standards of behaviour which and perhaps even from those outside it.
are generally considered to be morally In that way hunters are a group similar to
right. Personal ethics begin with standards most others. Hunters have a Code of Ethics
of behaviour held and used by individuals. and they are judged in society by the values
Such standards allow individuals to enjoy and deeds of each member and those of the
the privileges of the group to which he or hunting group as a whole. Without the
she belongs and also enable the group to be Code of Ethics developed by hunters over
acceptable to society as a whole. A personal the years, today's society would not tolerate
decision about what behaviour is right or hunting for long in spite of its long and
wrong must be made by each person in the significant role in human history.
Code of Ethics for Hunters
1. Ethical hunters respect the animals we hunt,

and, when we hunt, we do so responsibly.
2. Ethical hunters are students of nature

– learning as much as possible about the game pursued,
its habitat, habits, and life cycle.
3. Ethical hunters support the concept of "fair chase."
4. Ethical hunters are skilled in the use of the tools of hunting.

When we shoot, we do so accurately and safely.
5. Ethical hunters are true conservationists who believe in the

sustainable use of natural resources. Our interest in wildlife
and the environment includes non-game and endangered species.
BCWF May 24, 2000
34
Conservation & Outdoor Recreation Education Ethics & Game Care — Chapter 3
Some groups even have created a pledge for their members to take and follow
which reflects that group's Code of Ethics.
A Hunter’s Pledge
Responsible hunting provides unique challenges and rewards.

However, the future of the sport depends on each
hunter’s behaviour and ethics.
Therefore, as a hunter, I pledge to:

• Respect the environment and wildlife.
• Respect property and landowners.
• Show consideration for non-hunters.
e
• Hunt safely. t
h
• Know and obey the law.
i
• Support wildlife and habitat conservation. c
s
• Pass on an ethical hunting tradition.
• Strive to improve my outdoor skills and understanding of wildlife.
• Hunt only with ethical hunters.
By following these principles of conduct each time I go afield, I will give my best to the
sport, the public, the environment and myself. The responsibility to hunt ethically is mine:
the future of hunting depends on me.
Pledge courtesy of the Izaak Walton League - www.iwla.org
Laws are created by governments and set these actions might be ethically correct,
a standard of behavior that everyone the law generally does not. It is illegal in
must follow or face the penalties provided British Columbia to be in possession of
in the legislation. Sometimes laws are wildlife or kill wildlife without a licence or
made to reflect or enforce the ethics of permit. How would you react if you got
society as a whole. Today’s hunting laws, into this situation?
in part, reflect the ethics of hunters and
non-hunters alike.
There may be times when a situation arises

in which ethics conflict with the law. This
is what we call an ethical dilemma. For
example, a driver hits and injures an
animal with a vehicle. The driver may feel
that it is an acceptable course of action to
take the animal for treatment. Depending
on the animal's condition, the driver
might even consider that it is morally or
ethically right to end the animal’s suffering
by killing it. While most people would say
35
2. General outdoor ethics e. Respect all plant and animal life.

With increasing numbers of people using Don't needlessly kill other animals
the outdoors for recreation, it is essential such as snakes. Don't damage land
that everyone develops a sound sense of or vegetation. Don't cut trees,
outdoor ethics. Without respect for the remove bark, build fires near trees,
environment or courtesy towards fellow dig up plants, or destroy natural
outdoor recreational users, there will be little vegetation. Use your axe only
chance for individual enjoyment by anyone. when necessary.
Here are some common ethical guidelines Respect all species

that, if used, will demonstrate respect for
the environment and others:
a. Respect trespassing laws. This includes
Photo by: Greg Belyea

e Crown lands that you may access by
t
private roads or active logging roads.
h
i Respect old buildings, such as
c abandoned farmsteads or linesmen's
s sheds. These can provide valuable The Bull Snake, Pituophis melanoleucus,
shelter in an emergency. is a hissing constrictor from North
America. This snake is also called the
b. All-terrain vehicles are especially gopher snake in western North
destructive to the environment. Don't America. It is a constrictor, a snake
drive vehicles where you may damage that kills by squeezing prey until the
vegetation, cause erosion, or destroy victim can no longer breathe. The Bull
the aesthetic beauty of an area. Some Snake makes a hissing noise; because
ecosystems, such as tidal flats and of this noise, people sometimes
alpine meadows, are so delicate that mistake it for a rattlesnake.
vegetation can take up to a century to
recover from damage. Stay on the
designated trails. f. Be careful with fire. Make sure your
fire pit is constructed so the fire will
c. Try to leave only your footprints not spread to tree roots, trees, dry
behind on the trail, don't litter. Take grass, or other vegetation. Use dead
everything out of the wilderness that or fallen wood for your fire.
you took in. Use a litterbag and don't
leave behind such things as plastic 3. Hunting ethics
sheeting, shotgun shells, cases, cans, Good hunting ethics are essential for the
glass or film wrappings. Besides spoil- personal satisfaction of each hunter.
ing the appearance of the area, they They are also important as a means to
can be dangerous to wildlife. gain the respect and understanding of
non-hunters. The lack of ethics will
d. In a campsite, watch your noise, pets, often result in the loss of hunting
and litter. Properly dispose of human opportunities and stricter controls over
wastes; these can be a dangerous con- the use of firearms and hunting.
taminant and an unpleasant nuisance. It
is particularly important to dispose of You may have heard of terms such as
garbage especially where bears are a con- hunter, slob hunter and poacher. What
cern. Do not make a campsite dangerous is the difference? A hunter is someone
by providing attractants or feeding bears. who employs hunting ethics. Basically,
A good camp should leave no trace. hunting ethics are a code of conduct
36
that distinguishes the sportsman from the death that is part of nature. They may not
slob hunter. Hunting ethics support understand hunting as a part of nature and
behaviour that emphasizes the quality of human history.
the hunting experience and the way the
hunt is conducted. Many people may have no experience with
firearms. They may be uncomfortable
The slob hunter is someone who hunts around firearms, or may have a negative
within the rules of law but their actions image from TV or films. They may not want
will likely offend the general public, e.g., to see hunters carrying firearms in their
driving down the street with a dead vehicles or in the countryside around the
animal on the hood of the car. This type of general public.
action does not bring general public
support to the hunting community. Improved transportation and increased
recreational time allow non-hunters to
A poacher is a person who purposely goes visit and use areas formerly used only by e
t
out to break the hunting laws and hunting hunters. Hunters are no longer alone in
h
ethics. A poacher is not a hunter. the wilderness. i
c
4. Ethical relationships for the hunter Many people have a concern for s
A high standard of ethics is reflected in a environmental quality and endangered

safe, courteous, and respectful relationship wildlife. Sometimes this concern is not
between hunter and companions, wildlife, backed by knowledge of the reasons for
and other individuals. the problems. The concern can easily be
directed at hunters who are seen as "killing
Ethical hunters must develop positive the wildlife." Such attacks on hunting
relationships and demonstrate ethical divert attention away from the real
behaviour if they wish to problems facing wildlife such
continue to participate in as the increasing loss of
the hunting heritage. Ethics crucial habitat.
should be considered,
developed, and employed These reasons show that there
with the public, is a need for a common
landowners, hunting understanding between
companions, wildlife, and hunters and non-hunters.
even yourself. Understanding, courtesy, and
respect can help bridge the gap.
a. Hunters and the public
A positive public attitude It is the responsibility of every
towards hunting is essential hunter to improve and
if the opportunities for maintain the image of hunting
quality hunting are to be and hunters. Demonstration of
maintained. There are your own standards of hunting
several reasons why many people find it ethics will help. There are a number of
difficult to understand or accept hunting. simple things you can do towards this end:
It is important to understand these
reasons so you can help build a good • Respect the sensibilities of others. Don't
relationship with the non-hunting public. display firearms or freshly killed game
where they may offend other people.
Many people now spend their entire lives What may appeal to you or other
in or around a city. These people have hunters may be repulsive to
little contact with nature and the life and non-hunters.
37
• If you are transporting a carcass, don't guidelines that, if used, will demonstrate
display it unnecessarily. Don't tie a deer respect for landowners:
carcass to your car or leave a gut pile by
the roadside. • Always ask permission to hunt on or
travel across private land. Try to ask
• Don't display your firearms in your vehi- before the season opens so you do not
cle. When you carry one in public, carry disturb the landowner early in the
it in a case or broken down and wrapped. morning of your hunt, and so you
know well in advance where you can
• Don't shoot where it may alarm or offend hunt. If you are refused, respect this
others, near buildings or where people decision gracefully.
may be engaged in other activities.
• If given permission to hunt, make sure
• Obey the rules of safe firearms handling the landowner knows how many people
e and the laws governing hunting and you are bringing; keep your party small.
t
firearms. Encourage others to do the same. Written permission is best as a
h
i Conservation Officer may ask to see it.
c • On public lands, show the same respect Many states/provinces have created a
s for other users of the land and their standard form that can be presented to
property that you show to private the land owner for signature. See the
landowners. Don't litter and don't harm example given below.
the vegetation. Use your vehicle only
on roadways and designated trails, and • Never assume that, because other
limit its use to travel to and from your hunters have obtained permission to
hunting area. hunt on a particular piece of property,
the invitation extends to you. Obtain
• Don't use alcohol or drugs when you are permission yourself every time you will
hunting. If you consume alcohol after hunt in a particular area.
hunting make sure your firearms are
safely stored first. Limit your
drinking in camp and ensure that Landowner/Hunter Form
your actions do not offend others.
• Try to understand the position or Permission to hunt.

beliefs of non-hunters. Accept the
fact that they are sincere in their
I grant permission for the following hunter
beliefs. Show them an example of
good hunting behaviour. to hunt on my property.
From (landowner): _____________________________

b. Hunters and landowners
Hunting on private property is a To (hunter): ___________________________________
privilege and not a right. The
continuation of this privilege depends
entirely on the understanding and Landowner’s Signature: _________________________
respect of the landowner. Each time
another landowner is offended Property Address/Location: ______________________
hunters lose more potential hunting __________________________________________
area. Good hunter-landowner
relations are based on courtesy. Date: _________________________________________
Here are some common ethical
38
• When hunting, take extra care

to avoid disturbing livestock.
When entering a farmyard,
always unload your firearms.
• Never shoot in the vicinity

of the landowner's buildings
or livestock.
• Never harass or damage any

domestic animals or
equipment. If you hunt with a
dog, ensure that it does not
harass cattle, chickens, or other
animals (including the e
t
landowner's dog).
h
i
• Leave all gates as you find them. If they • Before you leave, thank the landowner c
were closed, make sure they are securely for the privilege of hunting the s
latched again behind you. Never cut a property. Offer to share your bag, or
fence. When you cross fences, avoid offer to help out on the property.
loosening the wires or posts. Send a thank you card or Christmas
card to show you appreciate the
• Don't litter the land with empty shell landowner’s generosity.
boxes, shells or cases, cans, bottles,
cigarette packages, or other forms Remember, a landowner has no respect
of garbage. for those who trespass. For the time it
takes to ask, why not feel welcome and
• Be sure neither you nor your dog run know you may come back again.
over seeded land or growing crops.
When driving, keep your vehicle on c. Hunters and their hunting
the trail or road at all times. Don't companions
leave ruts on hillsides that may cause True sportsmanship begins with your
soil erosion. fellow hunters. Being courteous,
cooperative and safe will make a
• When parking your vehicle, don't block hunting trip enjoyable for all.
others' access to buildings, equipment Tension and discomfort will ruin a
or roadways. hunt for everyone.
• If you notice anything wrong on the Safety is also important for everyone on
property, such as vandalism, a broken the hunt.
fence or injured livestock, report it to the
landowner as soon as possible. Some common ethical guidelines which,
if used, will demonstrate respect for
• Limit the amount of game you and your hunting companions are:
companions take from the property.
Take less than the bag limit, since the • Show consideration for your
landowner may also be a hunter. companions. Be on time and ready
to go at the start of the hunt. Don't
• Don't hunt on one piece of property so invite people to join your group
often that you wear out your welcome. unexpectedly.
39
• Don't do anything to interfere with A well-trained dog can make a

another's hunt. Don't shoot into an area wonderful hunting companion. For
where you know or think others may be some types of migratory and upland
hunting. Don't try to intercept game game bird hunting and retrieval, a
others are hunting. Work out disputes trained dog is almost a necessity for a
calmly if they arise. successful and productive hunt. You may
use a dong in the hunting and trailing of
• Don't take an unfair number of the shots. some big game species, keeping in mind
Give your companions the advantage of the restrictions described in the current
getting a good shot whenever possible. Hunting and Trapping Regulations Synopsis.
Show special consideration for
inexperienced or handicapped hunters by These are some common ethical
allowing them to hunt from the most guidelines which, if used, will
advantageous position. demonstrate respect for hunting
e companions and the use of dogs while
t
• Invite a novice hunter to hunt with you each hunting:
h
i season. Share your hunting knowledge and
c experience and introduce the new hunter to • Only use dogs when it is lawful for the
s the enjoyment of hunting ethically. game you are hunting.
• Don't shoot over your bag limit to fill the • Use only well-trained dogs. Puppies and
bag limit of others. Don't shoot more untrained dogs should be left at home.
game than you plan to use.
• Never feed, touch, play with, or give
• Observe the rules of safe gun handling at commands to someone else's dog
all times. Insist that everyone you are with without the owner's permission.
follow the same safety rules.
• Make sure your dog is not in the line
• When travelling, confine your firearm of fire, and does not interfere with
and equipment to the smallest space other hunters.
possible. Don't rest your firearm against
anything that may be harmed or against a • Keep your dog in top condition and
companion's firearm, dog, or equipment. teach it to be well mannered in camp.
Don't leave dogs unattended or in locked
• Do your share of the work around vehicles when it is hot.
your camp. Don't grumble about the
details of who does what or how
much your share is.
• Respect your companions' equipment;

do not handle another person's firearm
without permission.
• Do not settle down for shooting in a

marsh or field less than 200 yards from
the nearest hunter and do not intrude on
the range over which he will be shooting.
When a flight of geese or ducks is
expected from a particular direction,
always locate yourself parallel to the
hunter who was there before you.
40
d. Hunters and wildlife • Never kill anything that you do not

Ethical hunters enjoy and respect the intend to use as food. Don't kill animals
animals being hunted and the variety of such as bears or other predators because
other living things encountered in the you think they are dangerous.
bush. True sportsmen enjoy wildlife year
round, not only during the hunting season. • Kill only the animals you are actually
hunting. Never shoot at any animal for
A hunter’s pursuit of game should "target practice."
always be governed by the
"fair chase" principle. Simply
stated, this principle or ethic
demands that a hunter shall
always give his quarry a "fair"
chance to escape.
e
t
Some common ethical
h
guidelines which, if used, i
will demonstrate respect c
for wildlife are: s
• Be certain your firearm is

accurately sighted in before
you go hunting. Practice before
a hunt, and learn the distance
at which you can be most
confident in killing game
quickly and humanely.
• Use the appropriate firearm

and ammunition for the game
you are after.
• Never waste game meat. Don't kill more
• Never shoot at a group of animals than you will use or are able to bring
or flock of birds simply hoping you back to camp. Consider the time and
might hit one. how far you will have to carry out game
meat before you make the decision to
• Don't shoot until you have a clear shot shoot. Don't allow meat to spoil through
at a vital part of the animal. Get as close careless handling or storage.
as possible to the animal. Strive to make
every kill a clean one. • Save other usable parts of the animal
such as antlers or the hide to give to
• If you wound a bird or animal, make someone who will use them.
every effort possible to find it. Don't
allow a wounded animal to suffer. If a • Enjoy nature. Let your interest in and
companion wounds an animal, help knowledge of wildlife extend beyond
look for it. If you miss a shot, carefully game animals to the variety of other
examine the place where the animal was species that live in the wilderness. Know
to ensure that it was not hit. and study nature's ways and enjoy it all
year. Become involved in wildlife causes
• Don't use illegal hunting methods. and organizations, and help protect
Always give game animals a "fair chase." wildlife and its habitats.
41
e. Hunters and their own hunter too as "success" will not depend
personal ethics on getting an animal on that particular
Your personal code of ethics will be hunt. The whole hunting experience
developed as you gain hunting itself is the prize worth going for.
experience. They are based on your
respect for people, property, all living Which of the above behaviour stages do
things, the environment, and your own you fall into? You do not have to start at
image of yourself. stage one. The hunter's personal code of
ethics will often change as the hunter
Your personal code of ethics and your passes through these five behaviour stages.
hunting behaviour will likely change
through the years. It is not uncommon for a Some common ethical guidelines that, if
hunter to go through five behaviour stages: used, will help you create a positive
personal code of ethics are:
e 1) First is the "shooter stage"
t
— a time when shooting firearms is • Realize that it is your responsibility to
h
i of primary interest. know how to take care of yourself in
c the outdoors. Respect your own
s 2) Next is the "limiting out stage" limitations. Take a first aid course and
— when the hunter wants, above all, prepare yourself for what may be
to bag the legal limit of game. needed on the trip.
3) The third stage is the "trophy stage" • Read, watch videos, take additional
— here the hunter is selective, primari- training on topics related to hunting,
ly seeking out trophy animals of a par- wildlife, and conservation. The CORE
ticular species such as those that he or program only gives you the basics.
she considers are the best eating, the Learning more can be a wonderful and
most difficult to hunt, or of a particu- rewarding life-long pursuit.
lar size, age, or colour, etc.
• Never place your own or another's life in
4) Then there is the "technique stage" jeopardy by failing to notify someone
— the emphasis is on HOW the where you intend to hunt and how long
hunter hunts rather than WHAT a you will be gone. If you change your
hunter hunts. Hunter satisfaction, at plans, leave a note on your vehicle.
this stage, comes from outwitting the
game in its natural element. The fair • Know and respect your fitness strengths
chase principle of hunting where the and limitations. Have regular medical
hunter goes one-on-one with the ani- checkups. Exercise to get yourself fit
mal is very important to the hunter in before hunting season. Make sure your
this stage. The hunter may take great glasses or contact lenses are correct for
satisfaction from successfully decoy- any visual impairments.
ing a flock of Canada geese or from
tracking a deer.
5) The last stage is called the "mellowing-

out stage" — this is a time of enjoy-
ment derived from the total hunting
experience - the hunt, the companion-
ship of other hunters and an apprecia-
tion of being outdoors. This stage is
very important to the beginning
42
PART I.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Define the word "ethics". ______________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
2. List one example of unethical hunting behaviour and indicate what possible
consequences might come from such behaviour. ________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
e
t
h
3. List two examples of ethical behaviour that demonstrate respect for landowners. i
______________________________________________________________________________ c
s
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
4. List two examples of ethical behaviour that demonstrate respect for hunting partners.
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
5. List two examples of ethical behaviour that demonstrate respect for wildlife.
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
43
PART II.
GAME CARE AND ETHICS
You must keep hunting ethics in mind • If I get an animal, do I know how to
when you determine the type of hunting treat it with respect and how to care for
technique to use, and while on the hunt the meat?
itself. In this part we will take you through • Do I know the legal procedures for
the process of preparing for the hunt, the transporting game, reporting the
various hunting techniques used, and the game caught, and how to cancel my
pursuit and capture of game. species licence?
Part two is broken into the 2. Hunting techniques

following sections: The hunting technique employed by a
1. Preparing for the hunt hunter will say a lot about a hunter's
e 2. Hunting techniques personal code of hunting ethics. Using an
t
3. Taking the shot all-terrain vehicle or 4-wheel drive truck to
h
i 4. Trailing an animal scout for wildlife is generally deemed
c 5. Now the work begins acceptable by ethical standards. Cutting
s additional trails, driving recklessly, and
1. Preparing for the hunt scaring game from other hunters is an
There is much to consider when you are unethical use of these devices.
preparing for a hunt. You have completed
the CORE program and have obtained a The hunter on foot will generally pursue
resident hunter number card. You have game using four common hunting
bought your hunting and species licences. techniques. They are:
Are you ready to go? • Still-hunting
• Stalking
Consider what was discussed above in the • Stand-hunting
outdoor and hunting ethics sections of • Driving
this chapter. Ask yourself these questions:
The species you are hunting, the area in
• Do I have enough knowledge and skill which you are hunting, and issues such
for a safe and enjoyable hunt? as safety must be considered when
• Who will be my hunting companion selecting a hunting technique.
and what relationship have I established Ethics also play an important role in
with that person? hunting techniques.
• Have my hunting companion and I
thoroughly prepared for the trip and hunt? a. Still-hunting is a technique in which
• Is my rifle suitable for the species we you move slowly and deliberately
plan to hunt, is it sighted in, and can I through prime game territory, stopping
use it safely and effectively? often to watch and listen.
• Where will we go hunting, public or
private land? If private land, do I have The hope is that game will come into your
the owner’s permission and have I hunting area while you are standing
developed a positive relationship with motionless and you will get a shot before
the landowner? the animal even knows you are there.
• Can I identify the animals or birds I am Sometimes, game will come into your
hunting, other game that I might see, area, but not close enough to shoot. In
and do I know their vital areas? these situations, you may need to
• If I take the shot will I be able to combine still-hunting with another
recover the animal? hunting technique called stalking.
44
b. Stalking is the slow, patient movement cattails, grasses, or other natural materials
of the hunter into a good shooting found in your hunting location. Or, they
position after game has been located. can be made out of tarps, burlap, or other
man-made materials. Bird hunters and
Like still-hunting, stalking is best bow hunters like to use blinds.
accomplished in areas of quiet ground To be successful, the most important part
cover, where you can walk without about stand-hunting is selecting a good
making noise. It is also helpful to have location with as wide a view as possible,
trees, shrubs, grass, or other items that you such as the intersection of several game
can move between and hide behind as you trails, feeding, gathering, or other well-
attempt to sneak up on your quarry. used areas. Wind direction is often very
Perhaps most important is wind direction. important, too. Try to position your blind
Always try to move into the wind, so the downwind from the animals' location.
wind carries your sound and scent away
from the animal you are stalking. Using a stand may also require the hunter e
t
to be able to call in the wildlife. Duck
h
Stalking can be dangerous if there are hunters will put duck decoys out in front i
several hunters who are stalking the same of their blind and call in the ducks so that c
animal without knowing the other hunter they will fly towards the blind. Turkey s
is in the area. hunters will put turkey decoys in front of

their blind. Turkey hunters have been shot
When still-hunting and stalking, your when some other hunter misidentified a
emotions, tempered with your level of turkey decoy and shot at it. Never use the
hunting experience, can affect the manner stalking hunting techniques when
in which you pursue the game. An ethical hunting a turkey.
hunter always identifies the target and the
area beyond the target before shooting. In some states and provinces in North
This is done for the safety of your hunting America it is legal and is ethically acceptable
companions, the public, and the wildlife. to bait an animal, e.g., the bow hunter puts
Ethical hunters never shoot at sounds or bait below his stand to attract a bear. In
what they only think may be a legal British Columbia, that practice is illegal for
animal. An ethical hunter will strive to bears and migratory bird hunting and is
make every kill a quick and clean one. deemed unethical by many hunters for any
species. Check the hunting regulations.
c. In stand-hunting, or hunting from a
blind, you select a location where you d. Driving is the term used for a situation
can see an area that is used by game in which one or more hunters (called the
animals, and you stand (or sit) there drivers or pushers) walk through an area
until game comes along. trying to push game ahead of them into
areas where other hunters (called blockers,
Pre-season scouting is critical to finding a posters, or standers) are waiting.
good stand location. This is an important
time for the ethical hunter to develop Driving can be effective in certain
positive relationships with landowners. situations, but it can also be dangerous!
Remember, in this situation, you have
Stands can be as simple as a spot behind a hunters facing each other looking for shot
fallen log or rock, or as elaborate as a opportunities. The hunters must be totally
covered platform in a tree or on stilts. A alert and careful at all times.
blind is a stand that is designed to hide
the hunter from the game animal. Blinds The only way this method can be used
can be made out of sticks or tree branches, safely is if the hunters can see the others
45
clearly as they approach, and if the shooter 1) Have I properly identified the species?
is careful not to shoot if the animal is near
or in front of another hunter. 2) If yes, is it legal to shoot this species
e.g., is it a six-point elk?
If you want to try this method, select
open areas with a lot of visibility, and wear 3) Is it completely safe to take the shot?
blaze orange so you and others will be
clearly seen. 4) Do I have an opportunity for a good
shot, e.g., a quick, clean kill?
The ethical hunter will allow other hunters
the opportunity to shoot while they share 5) If I shoot, can I recover the animal
the workload in driving the game. considering its location, the time of
day, and the time that may be
3. Taking the shot needed for retrieval?
e While hunting you have heard elk and
t
have bugled to call them into your Only once the ethical hunter has
h
i location. The animals have not come in answered these questions correctly,
c close enough and you have had to stalk should the hunter shoot. A safe and
s them in order to get in close enough range ethical hunter will attempt a shot
to shoot. You are within a distance that at the vital area of the animal. If in
you think you can make the shot. Before doubt, pass up that opportunity
you take the shot, an ethical hunter will to shoot.
ask the following questions:
Vital Target Areas
Heart and Blood Vessels

Spine and Brain
Lungs
Approx. 12"
(30 cm)
Shoulder Blade
Approx. 10"
(25 cm)
Leg Bone
Side View Front View
46
4. Trailing an animal blood sign does not always mean a miss.

When the shot is taken, it is expected that Bleeding may be internal.
the bullet will hit the vital area of the
animal. We should expect that the energy Use all available information to judge
of the bullet would knock the animal what you need to do next. Determine if it
down almost immediately and ensure a is safe to go after the animal. Going into
clean kill. Sometimes this is not the case. thick brush after a wounded bear by
The animal may still be able to run off yourself without backup from your
after being shot. It may only travel a short hunting partner is not a good idea. It
distance but if pushed by hunters chasing might be dusk light conditions in the
after it, it may go a considerable distance open field, but pitch dark in the woods
and be lost. due to the overhead canpoy of the forest.
If you are losing sunlight, you may need
If the animal is shot and runs off, the to mark the spot and come back the next
ethical hunter will need to note the morning to find the animal. e
t
departure direction of the game and wait
h
a few minutes, then go to the location Once you have determined it is safe to go i
where the animal departed. When you after the game, as an ethical hunter you c
get to that location, check for blood, will need to use your knowledge of animal s
hair or other signs to ascertain whether behaviour, and your ability to find and
you hit the animal or not. Not finding a follow the blood trail.
Examples of Blood Signs
Examples of blood signs that indicate the type and severity of a wound are:
a) Blood that is frothy with bubbles usually indicates a lung hit.
b) Very dark blood may indicate a liver or kidney hit.
c) Blood mixed with vegetable material, often greenish in colour, indicates a "gut"
or viscera shot.
d) Blood with bubbles may indicate a neck hit where the neck arteries or the windpipe
has been cut.
e) Blood in a spattered pattern may indicate a rapidly moving animal or one in which major
blood vessels have been cut.
f) Blood on both sides of the trail usually indicates a pass-through wound. In some instances a
one-opening wound may produce this sign if the animal doubles back on its trail.
g) The height of blood sign on vegetation is an indication of wound location.
h) Blood splatter drops usually point out the direction of travel of a rapidly moving
animal, like the fingers of a hand.
47
When you are trailing after an 5. Now the work begins

animal, follow these basic rules: You have found the animal and it is dead.
Before you start to handle the animal, you
a) Mark the trail as you go, must cancel your species licence.
especially in wet weather. Mark
the location of blood signs until You must cancel your licence
the quantity of blood becomes an upon retrieval of game
obvious marker.
Species Licence – front
b) Don't disturb the trail; stay to one
side. Don't trail with more than
three people.
c) If the blood signs disappear, mark

e the last sign and check all main
t
trails for at least half a mile.
h
i Also check to see if the animal
c doubled back. Species Licence – back
s
d) Sit down and listen. Often birds

such as crows will be attracted to a
downed animal.
e) Wounded animals tend to go

downhill, not uphill. Gut-shot
animals may head towards water.
Heart-shot animals can travel
a long distance with little
external bleeding.
An ethical hunter does not waste game
f) Be wary and alert while trailing meat. Do not allow meat to spoil through
larger animals. Sometimes a careless handling or improper
wounded bear or moose will charge transporting and storage methods. A
a hunter when it is being pursued. hunter must learn some techniques of
field dressing, quartering, skinning,
g) Look at specific objects such as transporting, hanging, cooling, hide
rocks, grass, or leaves for blood preparation, and butchering.
spots; don't just scan the whole
trail. Rub reddish spots to see if they a. Field dressing
are blood or just colour on leaves. Field dressing is the procedure performed
by a hunter to remove the entrails and
h) When you find the downed hide from the game to make the best use
animal, approach it quietly and of it. Some animals, such as grouse, are
cautiously. If the eyes are glazed or really simple to field dress. For big game
unblinking, it is safe to approach if animals you will require some tools to
it has been several hours, or field dress the animal.
overnight since you shot the
animal. Approach it cautiously For a big game animal you will require a
with your firearm and ensure the hunting knife and sharpening stone. In
carcass has not been claimed by addition, an axe or small meat saw, nylon
another large predator. rope (30 ft. - 9 m), cheesecloth, twine and
48
some red flagging material will

be useful. Black pepper and/or
vinegar will help keep flies away
from the meat after dressing, and
salt will help preserve the hide
from spoilage.
Remember that appropriate

evidence of the animal's sex is
required to be left attached to
portions of hide or carcass.
Before you field dress an animal,

you should decide what you
want to save for taxidermy or e
t
mounting. What you want may
h
change the method used to field i
dress the animal. c
s
Field dressing procedures for a non-trophy step is to remove the head. Cut the neck as
big game animal can be found at the end of close to the head as possible. Many
this chapter. hunters remove the head by cutting too
close to the chest, thus wasting many
b. Skinning pounds of valuable stew meat.
Game should be skinned as soon as
possible after the animal is dead. Skinning The next step is to halve the carcass by
is easiest when the carcass is warm. If cutting around the "waist" of the animal.
possible, move the animal to an area of With the blade facing outward, place the
level ground or to your hunting camp back of your knife against the backbone, on
before removing the skin. This will the inside of the gut cavity, just below the
prevent dirt and other debris from getting lowest rib. Plunge the knife out through the
on the meat while it is being transported. flesh and hide. Cut upward – from the back
towards the belly – following the rib as a
Check the information at the end of the guide. Repeat this procedure on the
chapter for the various procedures for opposite side. Saw through the backbone
skinning trophy and non-trophy animals. and use your knife to cut the remaining
If you are keeping the carcass just for meat flesh and hide. The carcass is now in two
you may wish to quarter the carcass before halves: front and hind.
you skin it.
You now need to split the halves. Saw
c. Quartering straight down the backbone of the front
For some big game animals, such as moose, and hind halves separating the underlying
you might decide to quarter the animal. flesh and hide with your knife. You now
Quartering is cutting the carcass into four have four quarters.
sections. This will aid in handling and
transporting the meat out of the woods. It You are now ready to transport your
will also assist in rapid cooling of the animal to your hunting camp. In
carcass in order to prevent meat wastage. retrieving the quarters, it is advisable to
leave the hide attached. The hide protects
To quarter a carcass you will need knives, a the meat from dirt and flies and prevents
bone saw, axe and other tools. The first drying during the aging process
49
d. Transporting e. Hanging and Cooling

If you are backpacking game from field to It is not always possible to skin out big game
camp, tie red flagging on your packsack. If animals immediately. However, all big game
the animal has antlers or horns, tie red is best kept off the ground during and after
flagging around them as well so you will field dressing. The carcass is insulated by its
not be mistaken for game by other hide and by the ground on which it is lying.
hunters. A bell tied to your pack frame will Unless it is cooled, it will quickly spoil. The
also help others recognize you as a hunter best way to cool the carcass is to hang it in a
returning from the field. shady, cool place. A small block and tackle
or hoist is the easiest way to lift a large
To prevent damaging the hide, do not drag animal. If this is not available, improvise a
game along the ground or roll it downhill. If winch using nylon rope.
an animal must be dragged, lay it on a
blanket or coat, or put a layer of brush or You will need some kind of "handle" for
e boughs underneath the animal. Pull the hanging quartered animals. For hanging a
t
animal along by its head. hindquarter, punch a hole between the
h
i muscle of the upper leg and the heavy
c When carrying an animal or hide on tendon that runs out to the hind "elbow".
s horseback, be careful that ropes used to For hanging front quarters, punch a hole,
hold it in place do not rub the skin and about a hand-span from the spine,
damage the hide. A blanket, cloth, or layers between the third and fourth bottom ribs.
of grass placed between the ropes and hide
will prevent damage. If the animal cannot be hung until later,
prop the body cavity open with sticks.
A burlap bag is useful for carrying a hide or Place it belly down over some logs or rocks
meat from field to camp. and cover it with spruce boughs to keep
flies and birds away.
When transporting game by vehicle, be sure
to keep the carcass away from heat, gas, In warm weather, black pepper can be
sunlight, and road dust to prevent its spoilage. sprinkled over the carcass to keep flies off;
Examples of transporting game
50
towards the skin side. Keep it cool until it is

Puncture Points delivered to the taxidermist; even freeze it
for Hanging & Cooling if it will be some time before you get there.
Don't place it in a plastic bag or closed
container while transporting it.
Bear skins require a little extra care when

salting. As much excess fat as possible
cut leg here should be removed from the skin before
salting. Open the ears, nose and lips and
cut away as much fat as you can. Be careful
make holes not to cut the hair, which is rooted to the
here inner surface of the bear skin.
quarter animal
here The feet should be skinned out to the last e
t
joint of the toes and the bones disconnected.
h
Cut away all fatty tissue. Use plenty of salt i
and rub it in well. If there appears to be an c
excessive amount of grease, rub wood ashes s
into the greasy areas to absorb it.
Salting a skin is always preferable to

cut leg here
stretching and air drying it. Only when salt
is not available should you cure a skin by
vinegar, used to wipe the exposed meat stretching it in a frame or pegging it on the
areas, also helps. Once the animal has been ground. Pegging will leave holes in a skin's
skinned, it should be covered with edges which must be trimmed away,
cheesecloth to keep it clean while it cools. wasting part of the skin.
f. Preserving the Hide Even though a skin may be stretched larger

If you plan to keep the hide, it is essential than its original size, it will revert to its
to salt it thoroughly soon after its removal normal size when tanned. After curing,
to preserve it for taxidermy purposes. Use treating and tanning is complete, a skin that
common table salt or pickling salt in the has been stretched and air dried will probably
amounts indicated in the table below. be smaller than if it had been salt cured.
Lay the hide flat on the ground, fur side

Preserving the Hide
down and stretch it to its fullest extent.
Sprinkle salt freely and evenly over the
entire hide. Rub the salt vigorously into GAME AMOUNT OF SALT REQUIRED
the skin with the flat of your hand. Be Species Cape only Whole hide
certain the edges of the skin are Antelope 1 lb. ( .4 kg) 3 lb. (1.2 kg)
thoroughly salted. Work salt into the Mountain Sheep 2 lb. ( .9 kg) 4 lb. (1.8 kg)
lips, ears, nose and other difficult areas
Deer 2 lb. ( .9 kg) 5 lb. (2.2 kg)
to ensure it covers them completely.
Caribou 3 lb. (1.2 kg) 8 lb. (3.6 kg)
Salt draws the moisture out of the Elk 4 lb. (1.8 kg) 15 lb. (6.6 kg)
hide. After leaving the salted hide Moose 5 lb. (2.2 kg) 20 lb. (9.0 kg)
exposed to the air for 24 hours or Black bear 3 lb. (1.3 kg) 10 lb. (4.4 kg)
more, sprinkle salt lightly over the Grizzly bear 5 lb. (2.2 kg) 20 lb. (9.0 kg)
hide once more. Then fold it up
51
g. Butchering cut, wrap and freeze your meat with

Butchering is the cutting up and minimum waste. If you wish to butcher
processing of the carcass into steaks, your game yourself you will need
hamburger, sausage, roasts, etc. The additional instruction and references in
most effective way to cut up your game order to avoid wastage. Meat cutting
is to have it done at a butcher shop that guides are available at many bookstores
will handle game meat. A butcher will and some public libraries.
Basic Meat Cuts
e
t
h
i
c
s
52
PART II.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. List the four general hunting methods used by hunters. __________________________

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
e
t
______________________________________________________________________________
h
i
c
s 2. What hunting method should NOT be used when hunting turkeys? ______________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________ e
______________________________________________________________________________ t
h
______________________________________________________________________________
i
c
s
3. The Vital Target Area on most animals contains what two organs? ________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
4. List three things you should consider when approaching downed games. __________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
5. Depending on the species, what must you leave on the game animal
when field dressing it? ________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
53
SUPPLEMENTAL INFORMATION
Procedure for field dressing (2) Be careful not to puncture the

a Non-trophy Animal intestines or the stomach and avoid
Lay the animal on its side or, if possible, getting hair in the body cavity. Split
on its back. It is not necessary to bleed the the breastbone with your knife or axe.
animal as sufficient bleeding will occur Loosen the organs in the body cavity
from the bullet wound and the cuts made by cutting all connecting tissue
to dress the animal. including the diaphragm.
With a sharp hunting knife, cut through (3) Cut carefully around the vent in the
the skin and abdominal wall from the rump being careful not to puncture the
crotch to throat, as close to the head as intestine.
possible. (1) Be sure to leave evidence of
e sex on the animal until you get it to the (4-5) Loosen the intestine enough to
t
butcher or, if you are going to butcher it pull it out after tying the vent closed
h
i yourself, until you get it home. This will with a piece of string. This will prevent
c also be necessary for any animal body wastes in the intestine from
s requiring compulsory inspection (check spilling onto the meat when you
the regulations synopsis). remove the entrails.
54
e
t
h
i
c
s
e
t
h
i
c
s
(6) Now with the carcass on its side, turn Cut off the tarsal (scent) glands from the
its head uphill. (7) Cut the windpipe free inside of the legs first, then clean your knife
at the throat. Hold the windpipe in one thoroughly to prevent contamination of
hand and pull backward. With the other the meat. Cut along the inside of each leg
hand, free any internal organs by cutting from above the knee joints to the belly
through the tissue that attaches them to incision. Next cut around each leg at the
the animal. Strip all the entrails from the knee. Then cut completely around the
body cavity. Recover the liver and heart, if neck, as close to the head as possible, to
desired. Prop the chest cavity open by join the cut made along the throat when
spreading the rib cage apart with a stick. the windpipe was removed.
With a dry, clean cloth, wipe blood and
other waste matter from the inside of the Cut the meat and tissue around the knee
carcass. Trim away all damaged parts. If joints to remove the lower legs. Discard
possible, clean the body cavity with damp them. Now use your knife carefully to free
cloths; using vinegar will help discourage the skin from the body by cutting the
flies. Be sure to thoroughly dry the body connecting tissue in between. Once the
cavity after washing as a dry surface will hide has been peeled back from the hind
help stop spoilage of the meat. legs, cut through the tail bone. This will
enable you to remove the hide in one piece.
Skinning procedures
for Non-trophy Animals Retain the hide by trimming away excess
The steps in skinning most big game fat and tissue and salting it to prevent
animals that have antlers or horns are the spoilage. The hide can be tanned later to
same. If possible, hang the animal off the make leather for gloves, jackets and
ground upside down; otherwise, skin it other clothing or it can be donated to
where it lies. others for such use.
55
e
t
h
i
c Skinning procedures Once the skull is free, work carefully
s for Trophy Animals toward the base of the ears. Skin over the
When skinning an antlered or horned muscle at the base of each ear until yellow
animal for mounting, do not cut the skin cartilage is visible. Cut down and forward
of the throat because this will ruin the through this cartilage to the skull to free
cape. Start by circling the shoulders. Begin the ears. Continue skinning along the
at a point on the back between the head to the base of the antlers or horns.
shoulder blades and cut down each side to With the point of your knife, cut upward,
a point behind the front legs. Next, cut a close to the skull and around the base of
curve over the two front legs to connect the antlers or horns, freeing the skin
with the breast incision. Then make a cut attached to them as you proceed. Once
along the back of the neck to a point the skin has been freed and pulled
between the ears and the base of the forward, insert the forefinger of your left
antlers or horns. Cut from this point to hand under the rear edge of the eyelid
the base of each antler or horn to form a from the outside. Pull taut and cut the
"T" shaped cut on the top of the head. tissue between the eyelid and bone until
the tear duct is reached. Continue
Now free the hide around the neck and skinning close to the bone until you reach
shoulders by pulling the hide away from
the body while cutting all the
connecting tissue with a knife.
At this point, the remaining Skinning Trophy Heads
steps necessary to skin out the
head can be greatly simplified If you are unsure about your ability to skin out a trophy
by cutting off the animal's head. head properly, you can leave the cape intact on the
head and neck and have a taxidermist skin it out for a
To remove the head, cut through nominal fee. It is not worth wasting a once-in-a-lifetime
the muscle covering the large mount by doing a poor job. Salt it down well, or even
neck joint immediately behind freeze it, until you are able to get it to the taxidermist.
the skull. Bend the head back to
expose the first vertebra where it Also, if you skin a trophy head, be extra careful when
joins the skull. Cut as much cutting around the lips, eyes, ears, and nose to avoid
tissue free around this joint as cutting through the skin.
you can. Then twist the head off.
56
the corners of the mouth. Insert your cutting with the knife as necessary and
forefingers in the mouth and lift the lips. turning the ear inside out as you skin. A
Sever the cheek muscles about three- long, blunt pointed stick is helpful in
quarters of an inch (2 cm) from the corner turning the ear. Extreme care is necessary
of the mouth. Skin close to the bone until while separating the skin from the
the lower lip is free, being very careful not cartilage or the ear will tear.
to split the lip. Leave the upper lip
attached for the time being. Salt the cape thoroughly as described
e elsewhere in this chapter.
t
h
Skin out the muzzle up the nostrils. Then
i insert your finger in the nostrils to guide
c you as you cut through nose cartilage to
s
the bone. Skin close to the bone until the
nose and upper lip are free.
e
t
Skin out the remainder of the carcass as
h
described for non-trophy animals. i
c
Use a bone saw to cut the top off the skull s
with the antlers or horns attached. Leave a

fairly large portion of skull attached to the
antlers for use in mounting your trophy.
The cut works for both a full-head mount Skinning procedures
or a “European” (antlers-only) mount. for Bears, Wolves, Coyotes, Cougars
Check the regulations first to see if
evidence of sex is required to be attached
to the skin or the carcass. To skin a bear,
cut from the tip of the tail along the
centre of the abdomen to within about
three inches of the lower lip. Cut the
hind legs starting from the inside edge of
the pad near the heel, along the centre of
the leg until the cut meets the incision in
the abdomen. Sever the foot from the
carcass, leaving it attached to the hide.
B.C. game laws may require you to submit

the skull or a portion of the lower jaw or
other body parts to a compulsory
reporting centre. Be sure to recover them.
Once the hide is back in camp, finish
skinning it out as soon as possible. Open
the lips and nose by slitting the fleshy
parts from the inside. Remove excess fat
and flesh from the hide. Cut away the
flesh from the base of the ear cartilage.
Separate the skin from the cartilage only at
the back of the ear. To do this, cut the
tissue connecting the skin to the cartilage,
57
Repeat this procedure for the front legs. For some grouse you can put the bird on its
Now peel the skin off the carcass working back and spread the wings. Place your feet
from the hind end forward. Remove the on the wings, close beside the chest cavity.
skin around the head in the same fashion Grasp the two legs and pull upwards. The
as for antlered animals except avoid head will go through the chest cavity. All
cutting the hide on the top of the neck, the skin and feathers will be pulled off the
shoulder and head. carcass. You will be left with a bare breast
with the two wings attached.
Cougars, coyotes, wolves and similar large
animals are skinned like a bear. Open the Processing Rabbits
long tail along the centre line on the To field dress a rabbit, cut off its head and
underside with the tip of a sharp knife. Be remove its feet at the ankle joints. Pinch
careful to cut in a straight line; do not the loose skin on its back between your
zigzag from side to side. Leave the feet and fingers and insert your knife through the
e claws on the pelt, especially if the skin will skin, cutting across the back. Now grasp
t
be used as a rug. the hide on both sides of the cut and pull
h
i it away in opposite directions. Peel the
c Processing Game Birds hide completely off and remove the tail.
s Game birds should be field dressed as soon Cut the abdomen open and remove the
as possible. Be sure to retain evidence of the entrails. Trim away any shot-damaged
bird's sex and specie. One wing must be left meat, wash the carcass and wipe it dry to
on the carcass until you get home. For some prevent spoilage. Keep it cool while
game birds you may wish to skin the carcass transporting it home.
in order to remove the feathers. Some game
birds you will need to pluck the feathers or
pull them off the bird. Waterfowl should be
rough plucked in the field.
58
NOTES
e
t
h
i
c
s
59
ETHICS
CHAPTER REVIEW TEST
The answer key for this test is only provided to the CORE Examiners. Once you have
completely answered all the questions, you may wish to refer back the material found
in this chapter to check your answers.
Complete each Chapter Review Test before calling a CORE Examiner and scheduling an
appointment to challenge the CORE written and practical-firearms handling exams. The CORE
Examiner may request to see the completed Chapter Review Test prior to accepting you for a
e
challenge test.
t
h 1. Ethics employed by an individual are referred to as:
i
a. Personal ethics
c
s b. Code of Ethics
c. Law
d. Hunter’s pledge.
2. Which of the following is an example of acceptable outdoors-ethical behaviour:

a. Randomly killing snakes because they hiss at you.
b. Cutting new trails with your vehicle.
c. Containing your fire to your fire pit only.
d. Tearing down old buildings for firewood.
3. A positive public attitude towards hunting is essential if the opportunities

for hunting are to be maintained.
True
False
4. An ethical hunter will shoot over his or her daily bag limit so that he can help fill
their hunting partner’s bag limit.
True
False
5. In order to select a good site for stand-hunting you should:

a. Cut down trees to obtain a better view.
b. Scout for good locations before the season.
c. Place your stand in front of the other stands.
d. Place your stand up-wind of the animals' location.
60
6. The vital target area for most big game animals is the:
a. head
b. butt
c. heart
d. neck
7. If you shoot a game animal and it runs away, you should:

a. Chase after it right away.
b. Look for blood signs, then trail after it.
c. Forget it and look for another game animal to shoot.
d. Take a few shots into the bush before going after the animal.
8. What first action must you do when you recover your game animal.
a. Take a picture of it. e
b. Cancel your species licence. t
h
c. Field dress the animal.
i
d. Skin the animal. c
s
9. Cutting the game animal into the basic meat cuts is called:
a. Skinning
b. Field dressing
c. Quartering
d. Butchering
10. In order to preserve the hide you should sprinkle ________ on it:
a. Salt
b. Vinegar
c. Pepper
d. Ketchup
ANSWER SHEET
1. _____ 2. _____ 3. _____ 4. _____ 5. _____ 6. _____ 7. _____ 8._____ 9. _____ 10. ____
61
NOTES
e
t
h
i
c
s
62
Chapter
Laws & Regulations 4
GOAL
Identify the laws affecting hunters and firearm owners

and the agencies responsible for enforcement.
OBJECTIVES This chapter is broken into three parts:

I. What are laws and who makes them?
The student will be able to: a) Introduction
1. Explain federal firearm and b) Federal laws
wildlife laws related to gun c) Firearm categories
ownership and the use of firearms d) Municipal laws
while hunting. II. Hunting laws
2. Explain how municipal laws a) Promotion of sportsmanship
affect hunting and the discharge b) Purpose of hunting laws
of firearms. c) Enforcement agencies
3. Explain the laws and regulations d) Observe, Record and Report
that govern the use of firearms III. How to use the regulation synopsis
and archery equipment, and a) Section A: Hunting Regulation
hunting in B.C. b) Section B: General Information
4. Obtain information from the c) Section C: Resource Management
Hunting and Trapping Synopsis and Regions
LEH Regulation Synopsis. d) Section D: Trapping Regulations.
63
Chapter 4 — Laws & Regulations Conservation & Outdoor Recreation Education
PART I:
WHAT ARE LAWS
AND WHO MAKES THEM?
a. Introduction Governor (for provincial). This can be

In our society, laws are defined as rules that a slow process that may involve
regulate and control many areas of our lives committees, public hearings,
by setting a minimum standard of amendments, and other procedures.
behaviour. Laws are made by federal,
provincial, and municipal governments, and A statute is the primary legal document and
cover a variety of subjects. All three levels of generally is written in very vague or broad
government make laws that affect the terms. The Wildlife Act, for example, deals
ownership/usage of firearms and hunting. with many aspects of wildlife management
in British Columbia. Section 18 of the
For example, at a road check you may be Wildlife Act deals with the requirement for
approached by a provincial Conservation a hunter education course.
Officer. The Conservation Officer will ask
you for your provincial hunting licence.
The Conservation officer is checking to see Wildlife Act
if you are legally allowed to carry that
l
a firearm and hunt under provincial law. 18. The Lieutenant Governor in Council
w
may make regulations as follows:
&
The RCMP member will ask you for your
r federal firearms licence and the registation
e (a) requiring that a person, before
g certificate for that firearm. The RCMP
s being entitled to hunt or receive a
member wants to make sure you are in hunting licence or a firearms licence,
legal possession of that firearm and that it successfully complete examinations
is registered as per the federal law. on conservation, outdoor recreation
and safety approved by the director;
A local Bylaw Officer may approach you to
inquire into the whereabouts of your (b) prescribing fees for any examina-
hunting. They may have a report of tions required by or under the Act;
individuals shooting within the municipal
boundary. This might be an infraction (c) designating the persons required
under the municipal No Discharge of to pay the fees;
Firearms bylaw.
(d) respecting the conduct of
It is important as gun owners and hunters examinations.
to study and find out all the laws that
affect your ownership/usage of firearms
and hunting. Ignorance of the law is not
an excuse the judge will accept. Regulations are part of the law or statute
under which they were created.
Laws can have two parts; a statute and A regulation is an extension of the statute
regulations. A statute is an act or bill and gives more specific information, e.g.,
passed by a governing body. It requires a the Hunter Safety Training regulation B.C.
certain number of readings (usually three) 53/98 is the extension of section 18 of the
and must be passed by a vote of the body Wildlife Act. This regulation is 4 pages
during a regular sitting. It becomes a law long and describes all aspects of the CORE
after being signed by the Governor program, British Columbia's Hunter
General (for federal) or Lieutenant Education program.
64
Conservation & Outdoor Recreation Education Laws & Regulations — Chapter 4
A provincial regulation is a law that is shipped as per the Transportation of

adopted or approved by the Governor in Dangerous Goods Act. If you bring the
Council. It is specific to a statute that ammunition in from the U.S.A., you will
authorizes that a regulation on a certain have to deal with the Customs Act.
issue may be made. Provincial regulations
are easier and quicker to create or change How much ammunition and gun powder
and therefore usually deal with areas that you can have at your home is controlled
need to be changed frequently, such as under the Explosives Act. What type of
hunting seasons and bag limits, licence shotgun ammunition you can use to hunt
fees, and similar things. geese with is controlled under the Migratory
Bird Convention Act and its regulations.
b) Federal laws
Let’s take a minute c) Categories of firearms
and look at a few As a hunter you will most likely hunt with a
federal laws that affect firearm. Take a few minutes to understand
gun ownership/usage the categories of firearms and how the
and hunting. The Criminal Code of federal and provincial laws may affect the
Canada defines what a firearm is and the ownership and use of that firearm.
penalties for its misuse. It is illegal to own a
firearm in Canada unless you have a The Criminal Code of Canada defines a
l
licence issued under the Firearms Act or firearm as a barrelled weapon from which a
w
have another statutory excemption. any shot, bullet, or other projectile can be
&
discharged and that is capable of causing
Once you obtain a federal firearms licence, serious bodily injury or death to a person. r
e
you may wish to buy your own firearm and It includes any frame or receiver of such a g
s
ammunition. If you buy the ammunition in barrelled weapon and anything that can be
Canada and want it shipped from the store adapted for use as a firearm. Certain items
in Calgary by a commercial carrier, it will be are deemed not to be a firearm: any
antique firearm, signaling device, or a
firearm that shoots a projectile less than
Federal Laws (a few to remember) 152.4 m per second or 500 feet per second.
Some pellet guns and BB guns, therefore,
Criminal Code of Canada - Defines what are not firearms under federal law.
a firearm is and the offences for misuse. However, pellet and BB guns are a firearm
under provincial law for the purposes of
Firearms Act - Deals with authorizations the Wildlife Act. You need a licence to
(permits), licences, and registering of guns. carry them in British Columbia.
Customs Act - Import of firearms and The Criminal Code of Canada classifies
ammunition. firearms and devices as non-restricted
firearms, restricted firearms, prohibited
Transportation of Dangerous Goods Act firearms, antique firearms, and prohibited
- Shipment of ammunition. devices. To own a firearm, except an antique
firearm, you must have a federal firearms
Explosives Act - Limits the amount of licence, that is, one of a Firearms Acquisition
powder and primers you can own. Certificate (FAC), Possession-Only Licence
(POL), or a Possession and Acquisition
Migratory Bird Convention Act Licence (PAL). To obtain a licence
- Controls hunting for migratory birds, application or information about licencing
e.g., geese, ducks. requirements, call 1-800-731-4000 or check
out the Website: www.cfc.gc.ca.
65
Most common sporting rifles and rounds. Anything over that means you are
shotguns are defined as non-restricted in possession of a large capacity magazine,
firearms. They may be used for hunting which is a prohibited device.
and sporting purposes. You need no
federal permit or authorization in order to The Migratory Bird Act (federal law) limits
move them. Restricted and prohibited the carrying capacity of shotguns. You
firearms require a legal purpose to own can only have two shotshells in the
them, such as target shooting, and you magazine and one in the chamber. The
need an Authorization to Transport in Wildlife Act (provincial law) also limits
order to move them. Due to these the magazine capacity of a shotgun
requirements, restricted and prohibited using a pump, repeating (bolt or lever
firearms cannot be used for hunting. action with magazine), or auto-loading
(semi-automatic) action to two shotshells
in the magazine and one shotshell in
Modifying firearms
the chamber.
d) Municipal bylaws
Municipal governments in British
Columbia generally make two types of
bylaws that affect the shooting of firearms
l
a within their boundaries. Check with your
w
local government for a copy of these
&
bylaws. It is important to see how the
r bylaw defines a firearm. It may include a
e
g bow and pellet guns.
s
Types of Bylaws
If you decide that your shotgun is too long
to fit in the truck and you cut the stock of 1. Noise and Nuisance bylaws
a shotgun so the overall length is less than - limits the hours for shootings
660 mm (26 in.) or cut the barrel to less a firearm.
than 457 mm (18-1/2 in.), then you have
made a prohibited firearm. If you purchase 2. No discharge of firearms bylaws
a shotgun or rifle with a factory issue - where you can shoot.
barrel less than 457 mm, then the firearm
should be classified as a non-restricted
firearm as long as it is not a semi-
automatic action. If in doubt about the
legal classification of your firearm, call 1-
800-731-4000 and obtain the name of an
approved verifier in your community.
Most gun shops and gunsmiths should
also be able to assist you in this matter.
While most common sporting rifles and

shotguns are non-restricted firearms, you
must be concerned about the magazine
capacity on semi-automatic rifles or
shotguns that use centre-fire ammunition.
The magazine limit in this case is five
66
BASIC LAW REVIEW:
1. Name the three levels of government in Canada that make laws that affect the use of
firearms and hunting. ________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
2. Name the federal law that defines what a firearm is. ____________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
3. Municipal governments in British Columbia can make what two types of bylaws that
affect gun usage? ______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
l
4. Most sporting and hunting rifles and shotguns are classified as non-restricted firearms. a
w
True or false. __________________________________________________________________ &
r
e
g
s
67
PART II.
HUNTING LAWS
It is the responsibility of every hunter to 3. having possession of, placing, or setting

know the laws (federal, provincial, and poison for the taking of any game;
municipal) which apply to hunting in
British Columbia. This does not mean that 4. using pit lamps or lights of any
you have to memorize all the laws, but you description at any time for the pur-
do need to know and understand the laws pose of hunting game;
that govern hunting, and where to find the
ones that apply in your case. 5. hunting black or grizzly bear by
placing bait;
Ignorance of existing laws is not an
acceptable defence in a court of law. If a 6. hunting, taking, wounding, or killing
person plays hockey and breaks a rule of the big game while it is swimming, unless
game, he is penalized. Likewise, he is it has been previously wounded.
expected to know the rules of the game and
to abide by them. The same thing applies to a. Purpose of hunting laws
hunting. If a person decides to hunt, he is Laws are made for the benefit and protection
expected to know the laws governing of the people they serve. Hunting laws serve
l
a hunting and must obey them. hunters and non-hunters alike. They
w
generally fall into one of three categories:
&
Promotion of sportsmanship protection of people, property, and wildlife.
r To qualify as an outdoor sport, hunting must
e
g include limits which prevent the hunter Safety and Protection
s
from having an excessively unfair advantage Safety is an essential part of outdoor
over his quarry. Over the years, sportsmen recreation. Where there are situations of
have developed their own code of hunting obvious danger, as with the use of firearms,
behaviour which includes a respect for the laws are set to prevent endangering
game they hunt. sportsmen or the people they may come in
contact with.
To apply this code to modern
management, laws and regulations have Laws to Protect Life
been set which prohibit any hunting The benefit of years of experience with gun
methods which allow the taking of handling is built into firearms and hunting
improper numbers or kinds of game. laws. Each restriction is the result of a safety
problem that has been found in particular
The concept of "fair chase" is the basis for situations. For example, laws prohibit:
many of these laws and regulations. What this
means is that the hunter must not resort to 1. the carrying of loaded firearms in
artificial means of chasing or luring animals a vehicle;
into a situation where they are easily taken.
2. the discharge of firearms under
Some of these laws prohibit: conditions where visibility makes it
1. the discharge of firearms from an auto- unsafe to do so;
mobile, snowmobile, boat, or other
vehicle on or off a highway; 3. pointing a firearm, whether loaded or
unloaded, at another person;
2. hunting game from any aircraft, or
hunting or transporting hunters or 4. the unsafe handling, carrying, or
wildlife by helicopter; storage of firearms.
68
Experience has shown that these practices If you are caught breaking a hunting or
have produced unnecessary risk to hunters firearm law, you may be warned of your
and other people. offence or charged under a specific law.
Laws to Protect Property If you are warned, it may be because the

Other activities may be damaging to offence was not very serious, you made a
property if not to human life. The mistake, or no real damage was caused. A
privilege of movement over private warning serves to make you aware of the law
property carries with it a responsibility for and the correct procedure for future use.
the sportsman to respect the rights of the
landowner, and this is supported by law. A charge is an accusation in legal terms. If
For example, it is unlawful: you are charged with breaking the law, one
of three things will happen. You may be
1. to hunt or trap in enclosed land issued a ticket that asks you to make a
or private property without the voluntary fine payment. You may be
owner’s permission; advised of a date that you must appear in
court, or you may be taken into custody.
2. to damage, or allow a dog to damage, You may also have property seized in any
any seeded or planted area; of these three situations.
l
3. to discharge, dump, discard, or If you are charged with an offence, you may a
w
dispose of litter on any land or plead guilty and be sentenced. If you plead
&
fresh water; not guilty, you will have a trial at which time
the prosecuting lawyer will introduce the r
e
4. to deface any notice posted under evidence of the officer who charged you, as g
s
authority of the Wildlife Act. well as any other witnesses and evidence. You
will be allowed to introduce any evidence
Laws to Protect Wildlife and witnesses you have on your own behalf.
Most wildlife is protected by law. These The judge will listen to both sides and make a
laws and regulations are usually of two finding of guilty or not guilty.
types: those that directly protect wildlife
and those that protect wildlife habitat. If you are found guilty or plead guilty, you
Game animals for which hunting is will be sentenced to a fine or imprisonment
allowed are protected in many ways, depending on the offence. You may also be
including restrictions as to hunting subject to forfeiture of (have to give up)
methods or season, number, location, and property such as firearms, vehicles, and
the sex or age at which the game animal game. You may lose your right to hunt and
may be hunted. to possess a firearm. Because of the
seriousness of the consequences, you
Wildlife conservation and management is should consult a lawyer if you are charged
discussed in more detail in another chapter. with an offence.
b. Enforcement agencies Observe, Record and Report

Hunting laws are enforced through The public has a responsibility to report
various government agencies. In British law breakers. A governmental program
Columbia, Conservation Officers have the called "Observe, Record, Report" sets out
primary responsibility to enforce laws guidelines to help you report persons who
applying to the environment. Other violate hunting laws. Under this program
enforcement officers include the RCMP, you cannot make a "citizen's arrest" and
forestry and parks officers, and other should not confront a violator. However,
persons who may be appointed. you can use the guidelines to report them.
69
Observe This includes:

Familiarize yourself with current 1. Time, date, location, and
regulations. Some common violations are: weather conditions.
1. Killing game during a closed season. 2. Identification or accurate description

(size, clothing, hair colour, etc.) of
2. Killing female or young animals dur- the violator and his companions.
ing a male-only season.
3. Vehicle licence and description.
3. Exceeding the daily bag limit.
4. Evidence at the scene (head or viscera
4. Angling in closed areas. of animal, empty cartridges, etc.).
5. Property damage (shooting power- 5. Actions of the violator (number of

line insulators, road signs, industrial shots, etc.).
equipment, etc.).
Report
6. Night hunting or "pitlamping". Report the infraction as soon as possible to
the nearest agencies responsible.
Record
l
a Record your observations in note form The longer you wait, the more difficult it
w
as soon as possible after observing the will be to investigate the violation.
&
incident. Photographs provide an
r extremely useful addition to these Always give your name, address, and
e
g observations if they can be taken phone number to verify that your
s
without alarming the violator. Take intentions are serious.
note of any features that will be of
use to the enforcement officer in The proper official will lay charges when
his investigations. they have enough evidence.
Who to report to
Hunting Conservation Officer 1-800-663-9453
Migratory Bird Environment Canada 604-666-5892
Fishing Fisheries and Oceans Canada 1-800-465-4336
70
HUNTING LAW REVIEW:
1. Who are the primary officials for enforcing hunting laws? ______________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
2. What is the purpose of the observe, record, and report program? ________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
3. Name three reasons for hunting laws. __________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
l
a
w
4. List six illegal hunting activities.________________________________________________
&
______________________________________________________________________________
r
______________________________________________________________________________ e
g
______________________________________________________________________________ s
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
71
PART III.
HOW TO USE THE HUNTING AND
TRAPPING REGULATIONS SYNOPSIS
The Hunting and Trapping Regulations Section A: Hunting Regulations

Synopsis is a guide to the hunting laws, not Major Regulation Changes is one of the
a legal document. The information most important sections to read each year.
contained in this part of the chapter is This page highlights the important
based on the 2002/2003 edition of the changes such as the new definition of
Hunting and Trapping Regulations Synopsis. 4-point white-tailed deer.
As with most books, the first place to start The Definitions part provides a list of the
is the table of contents. The table of words as they are used in the regulations
contents is your menu of where to find and synopsis. You don't have to memorize
information in the various chapters these, but you should know where to find
(sections) of the book. The synopsis their definitions. You will learn animal
contains 4 sections. Make sure you read all and bird identification in the CORE
sections of the synopsis. manual. You will know what a bighorn
sheep is but you will need to read the
Definitions part to find out what the law
l The Hunting and Trapping
a defines as a full curl bighorn sheep.
w Regulations Synopsis
&
It is Unlawful part provides a list of the
r Section A: Hunting Regulations most common regulations that guide
e
g • Major Changes hunting. You must know and obey these.
s
• Definitions Read each of the 50-plus paragraphs
• Its is Unlawful starting with the phrase "It is Unlawful".
• Licence Requirements Read this list carefully. Can you see how
• Hunting Methods some of the laws relate to safety, wildlife
• Complusory Inspection management, or private property rights?
Section B: General Information A major part of the hunting regulation

• Site Restrictions section deals with information regarding
• Highway No Shooting and No the CORE program, B.C. Resident Hunter
Hunting areas Number Card, licence requirements and
• Possession and Transportation fees. Do you know the requirements for
• Designated Wildlife getting a licence, age limits, resident and
non-resident restrictions, licence fees, and
Section C: Resource Management special licence fees?
Regions
What is the fee for a resident hunter?
Section D: Trapping Regulations
What is the fee for a junior
hunting licence?
The Hunting Methods part contains

information regarding the types of
equipment (bow and muzzleloader), dogs,
falcons, and retrieval requirements that
must be used when hunting. Can you use
a handgun for hunting?
72
Depending on the species you are hunting, The Possession and Transportation
make sure to read the information regarding part of Section B is important to read.
Complusory Reporting and Inspection. What evidence of sex must you leave
Certain species of game must be reported at on the various species of game animals
designated compulsory reporting centres. and birds? If you give your game to
These include: caribou, grizzly bear, cougar, your hunting partner to transport
mountain sheep, mountain goat, bobcat, home, what must he or she have to be
lynx, wolverine, and, from certain areas, legal? What must you provide to the
wolf and elk. Certain body parts are taxidermist or butcher when you drop
required for inspection. off the carcass or hide?
This information allows the authorities to Do you know that there is some wildlife
keep particularly close track of the in British Columbia that the government
characteristics and numbers of harvested wants you to destroy as they are
animals so they can determine the detrimental to property and native
population characteristics and bag limits wildlife? Read the Designated Wildlife
for the following year. section for more information.
Section B: General Information Section C:

The General Information section starts off Resource Management Regions
l
with Site Restrictions, Highway No British Columbia is broken into a
w
Shooting and No Hunting Areas. In various Resource Management
&
Canada it is illegal to have a loaded firearm Regions. Each region starts with a
except in a place where it can be legally be map of the region outlining the r
e
discharged. Check out this section for the management units within that g
s
rules. Note that some highways have a 15- region. It also provides the major
metre no-shooting areas while others have regulation changes for that region
400-metre no-shooting area. and government office information.
Management Regions
Region Name
1 Vancouver Island
2 Lower Mainland
3 Thompson
4 Kootenay
5 Cariboo
6 Skeena
7A Omineca
7B Peace
8 Okanagan
73
In each resource management region you An entry such as "2" for big game (except
will need to look up the specific restrictions ungulates) and small game in the
for the use of vehicles in that regions and schedules means the season bag limit and
what parks and recreational areas are open possession limit is two animals.
for hunting. Check the maps provided for
the no-shooting area restrictions. An entry such as "10(20)" for upland game
birds and migratory game birds in the
schedules means the daily bag limit is 10
No Shooting Areas while the possession limit is 20.
Possession limit is the maximum number

of a species or type of wildlife a person
may have in his possession while hunting
or returning from hunting. You must be
aware of the possession limit for the
species you are hunting.
Section D: Trapping Regulations

Some animals are classified as fur-bearing
animals. See Definitions in the synopsis.
l
a This section deals with the trapping of
w
animals, which is different from the
&
hunting of animals. This section provides
r the definitions for trapping, educational
e
g requirements in order to get a trapping
s
licence, licence fees and royalty payments,
open seasons, etc.
Conclusion
The hunter will need to check on the open The British Columbia Hunting and Trapping
season for the species he or she is hunting Regulations Synopsis is printed every year
for in that region. Unless seasons are by the Ministry of Water, Land and Air
indicated, there are no open seasons on Protection. Each year, hunters should pick
any game animal. Make sure to go back up a copy from a sporting goods store,
and see the Designated Wildlife rules in Government Agent’s office or visit the
Section B. government website at
http://wlapwww.gov.bc.ca/wld/
Bag limits are the total number of animals hunting.htm.
of a species that a hunter may take in one
licence year. Bag limits vary from species to Read the synopsis carefully. Seasons,
species and from region to region and are limits, and hunting areas may change
shown in the regional schedules. from year to year. The synopsis will be
discussed in detail later in this chapter.
Bag limits are printed in a different type,
usually bold. Where no bag limit is in The B.C. Hunting and Trapping Regulations
effect, the abbreviation NBL appears. Synopsis includes the information
required for hunting migratory birds. If
An entry such as "2(1)"for ungulates in the you want, you can see the specific
schedule means the season bag limit is migratory bird regulations by checking
two animals of that species in total, one of out the website at http://www.cws-
which may be anterless. scf.ec.gc.ca/publications/reg/index_e.cfm.
74
Chart Open Season Region 4

2002/2003 Hunting and Trapping Regulations Synopsis
l
a
w
&
r
e
g
s
Sample
75
Chart Open Season Region 4

2002/2003 Hunting and Trapping Regulations Synopsis
l
a
w
&
r
e
g
s
Sample
76
NOTES
l
a
w
&
r
e
g
s
77
LAW AND REGULATION

CHAPTER REVIEW TEST
The questions listed below are similar to those found in the CORE written exam. Take
approximately 10 minutes to answer these questions without referring back to the material
found in this chapter. You may use the Hunting and Trapping Regulations Synopsis to
assist in answering the question.
The answer key for this test is only provided to the CORE Examiners. Once you have
completely answered all the questions, you may wish to refer back the material found
in this chapter to check your answers.
appointment to challenge the CORE written and practical-firearms handling exams. The
CORE Examiner may request to see the completed Chapter Review Test prior to accepting
you for a challenge test.
1. Provincial legislation becomes law when it is signed by the:

a. Governor General
l b. Lieutenant Governor
a
w c. Major General
& d. Premier
r
e
g 2. The federal legislation that deals with what a firearm is is the:
s a. Criminal Code of Canada
b. Firearms Act
c. Customs Act
d. Migratory Bird Convention Act
3. For the purposes of the Wildlife Act of British Columbia, a pellet gun shooting
a projectile under 500 feet per second is considered a firearm.
True
False
4. If you cut your shotgun too short so it fits under the driver’s seat, you may have
turned it into a:
a. Non-restricted firearm
b. Restricted firearm
c. Prohibited firearm
d. Prohibited device.
5. The _________________ officer is primarily responsible for enforcing the

Wildlife Act of British Columbia.
a. RCMP
b. Customs
c. Game
d. Conservation
78
6. It is unlawful to use live birds as decoys to hunt game birds.

True
False
7. Fox are classified as big game animals.

True
False
8. What is the bag limit for skunks in Region 2?

a. No Bag Limit
b. 1
c. 2
d. 5
9. What is the latest date for hunting Black Bear in Region 2?

a. October 15
b. October 30
c. November 30
l
d. December 31 a
w
&
10. In Region 2, it is legal to discharge a shotgun using lead shot on any dyke or the water
r
side if you are going after upland game birds. e
g
True s
False
ANSWER SHEET
1. _____ 2. _____ 3. _____ 4. _____ 5. _____ 6. _____ 7. _____ 8._____ 9. _____ 10. ____
79
NOTES
l
a
w
&
r
e
g
s
80
Chapter
Outdoor Survival 5
and Safety
GOAL
The student will identify procedures employed by hunters and other outdoor
recreation users prior to and during their venture into the outdoors.
OBJECTIVES
The student will: This chapter is divided into four parts:
1. Explain safety concerns/risks found I. The Three Ps

while participating in outdoors- II. Safety and survival
recreational activities and the III. Orienteering equipment
reasons for pre-trip planning and its and its usage
related procedures. IV. Common field equipment
2. State procedures/steps used during
emergency situations and basic first Part one is broken into the following
aid treatment employed by outdoors- sections:
recreational users. 1. Introduction
3. Identify orienteering equipment and 2. Learn the risks
its usage. 3. Preparing yourself
4. Identify common field equipment 4. Dressing yourself
used by hunters and campers during 5. Trip plan
outdoors-recreational activities and 6. Your equipment
explain that equipment's proper
usage and related safety concerns.
81
Chapter 5 — Outdoor Survival and Safety Conservation & Outdoor Recreation Education
PART I:
THE THREE Ps: PREPARATION,
PLANNING, AND PRACTICE
1. Introduction Fourteen Lions Bay SAR and six North

British Columbia offers great opportunities Shore Rescue members responded to
for outdoors-recreational users such as a search for a family of six tourists missing
hunter, fisher, day hiker, etc. It does not on a day hike in the Harvey Creek area.
matter how short or long a time you are Subjects were located in a steep gully and
going to spend on your next trip to the removed from the area by helicopter. The
outdoors, outdoor safety and survival father had been injured after sustaining a
begins with preparation, planning and 30-foot fall.
practice. Do you know what the safety
hazards or concerns are in the outdoors? Three snowmobilers were caught in an
Have you taken adequate training to avalanche at the Powder King Ski Resort
prepare yourself for your next outdoor east of Mackenzie. One snowmobiler
adventure? Have you practiced the skills managed to escape, and one was located
you have learned from various courses and deceased. On 30 December, 45 persons
prepared your equipment? assisted in the search for the one
missing snowmobiler. The body was
Each year many individuals get lost or injured located, recovered, and both victims
in the outdoors. RCMP and municipal police were flown to Mackenzie.
forces, Search and Rescue (SAR) volunteers
and their organizations spend countless hours Even hunters run into trouble in the
assisting individuals who have run into woods. From August 22, 2001, to January
trouble in the outdoors and in the recovery of 15, 2002, there were 22 Search and
s bodies. The following are just a sample of SAR Rescue incidents involving hunters.
u
r attempts in British Columbia: There was one death.
v
i
v Twenty-two Comox Valley SAR members Dogs chased bear and hunter chased
a
l responded to search for two hikers overdue dogs. Hunting partner reported him
from a hike to Comox Glacier. They were overdue the next morning. Subject
located and escorted off the mountain. hunter became disoriented and stayed
They got lost and encountered problems put for night. Walked out in the morning
with their cellular phone. as SAR Team was deploying.
Nine Pemberton SAR members responded to Dease Lake SAR member responded to
search for a missing canoeist in the Tennis assist the RCMP with the search for
Narrows area of the Lillooet River. Subject three hunters overdue after their boat
had attempted to retrieve his canoe after it was disabled in the Klappan area near
was swept away. His unoccupied canoe Dease Lake. It turned out to be four
containing life jackets was located; however, people. The SAR team found people on
extensive air, land, and water searches of the shore under a tarp with a fire. They were
area failed to locate any trace of the subject. removed from the area by helicopter. It
The RCMP stood down the search. would have been a two-day + 20 km
walk out.
Eight Prince George SAR members
responded to search for a missing angler For more SAR incident reports or for
last seen in the Nechako River area. Search information regarding the Provincial
was stood down after subject contacted Emergency Program of BC check out the
relatives to report he was safe. Website: www.pep.bc.ca.
82
Conservation & Outdoor Recreation Education Outdoor Survival and Safety — Chapter 5
If you need to report an emergency call:
PROVINCIAL EMERGENCY REPORTING IN B.C.

911
OR YOUR NEAREST POLICE DETACHMENT
While studying the material found in this b. Time of the year

chapter of the CORE manual is essential, it Just because it is a nice summer day, it does
should only be considered as the not mean that you can forget about
foundation for your knowledge and skills hypothermia. Hypothermia is a dangerous
needed before you venture into the condition caused by the body losing heat
outdoors. More training is required! faster than it can produce it. Hypothermia
is not reserved just for the winter, it can
You are encouraged to: occur all year round. See more information
in the survival section of this chapter.
1. Take the time to plan your trip.
c. Terrain and climatic conditions
2. Take additional courses, e.g., first aid, British Columbia has six basic land systems
orienteering and review other (see Conservation chapter). Each land
resources, e.g., books, videos, etc. system has different climates, soils, habitats,
and land use. Our society is far more mobile
3. Obtain suitable clothing and than ever before. While the majority of
equipment. British Columbians live in the lowlands, are s
u
they prepared for the conditions found in r
4. Practice using your equipment. the northern wilderness? v
i
v
a
5. Practice first aid and survival d. Equipment l
procedures. You can spend as little or as much money
as you want on equipment. Just having the
6. Prepare yourself physically and newest tool does not mean you know how
mentally for the outdoors. to use it. Try putting up a tent or lighting a
lantern prior to your next outdoor venture.
2. Learn the risks Learn how to use the equipment and
Ask yourself what the safety hazards or become familiar with it. It is no fun at
concerns are that you could encounter midnight in the rain when you realize that
in the outdoors prior to going outdoors. you forgot the tent pegs or poles at home.
The following is just a short list of See more information about common field
safety hazards or concerns that you equipment later in this chapter.
should consider:
e. Length of trip and remoteness
a. People of location
Do you have enough training or People make all kinds of plans and
experience prior to your venture into preparations for a long trip or a trip to a
the outdoors? How about the people remote location but ignore the
who are coming with you? Read the requirements for a short trip. I do not
section later on in this chapter about need a survival kit; I am only going be 10
preparing yourself. minutes in the woods. When you get lost
83
or turned around in the woods and the b. Physically

sunlight is gone, it's too late to remember Exercise on a regular basis for at least a
that you left your survival kit in the month before your hunt. Hunting requires
vehicle. Remember "Murphy's Laws": If a lot of energy, strength, and endurance.
anything can go wrong, it will. Be You will be walking long distances
prepared, carry a survival kit. See more carrying a pack and rifle, and you may
information about a trip plan and survival have to carry heavy loads through dense
kit later in this chapter. bush or over hills. Bad weather is always a
possibility. If you are fit you will be able to
f. Wildlife handle these situations.
You are not alone in the outdoors. There are
creatures big and small. Some are even c. Medically
predators, such as a bear or cougar. What Make sure you have no serious medical
would you do if you ran into a bear or problems. Have a checkup before you go.
cougar? Do you know the safety precautions? This can prevent problems from
What would you do to avoid ticks and other developing while you are in a remote area.
insects? These are just a few questions that Get medical attention for small problems,
will be answered in this manual. such as a cold or a blister, to prevent them
from developing into serious problems on
g. Injuries or illness your hunt.
While we do not plan to get sick or
injured, it happens. Many accidents occur d. Safety and first aid
due to slips, trips, and falls. While a Learn all you can about safety and first aid.
sprained ankle is not normally considered Take a first aid course. Read books and
a critical injury it can be very dangerous if manuals. Practice making a fire, building a
shock were to set in and you are 20 miles shelter, reading a compass and map, first
s from the nearest first aid post or hospital. aid techniques, and other safety activities.
u
r Do you know first aid? See more With practice, you will be able to perform
v information later in this chapter in these activities more easily if an emergency
i
v dealing with survival situations. or first aid situation should happen.
a
l
3. Preparing yourself e. Know the region
Experienced hunters and outdoors- Learn all you can about the area where
recreational users prepare themselves before you are going to hunt. Study a map of the
each hunt or trip. This preparation can be area and locate good areas to camp. Know
basic or made more thorough by taking the terrain. Is it hilly? Are there rivers or
courses. You should prepare yourself in streams? What is the vegetation like?
these areas: What will the weather be like? This
information will guide you in choosing
a. mentally; your equipment.
b. physically;
c. medically; f. Plan with your hunting companions
d. safety and first aid; Choose your hunting companions
e. know the region; and, carefully. Are they skilled, safe, and
f. plan with your companions. reliable? Will they make good companions
in camp conditions? Have they prepared
a. Mentally mentally and physically for the hunt? Do
Know yourself and your capabilities and they have any medical problems that you
develop a calm, alert frame of mind. Deal should know about?
with any personal problems so they do not
distract you on your trip.
84
4. Dressing yourself Every individual metabolism is different

as is everyone's tolerance and comfort
levels. For this reason, the best way to
hat
regulate body temperature is with the
turtleneck layer system. With this, a number of easy
outer jacket on/off layers of clothing are used rather
shirt than one large and heavy garment. The
Atlantic Hunters Education Manual
layers are treated as follows:

gloves
The underwear layer
themal underwear While the underwear layer provides some
wool pants insulation, its primary function is to
control moisture next to the skin.
Keeping the clothes next to your skin dry
boots is the key to staying warm. Cotton
wool socks underwear and t-shirts absorb moisture
from your body. In order to stay dry they
must be changed daily.
The clothes that you wear in the outdoors are
very important. They are not for making a Rather than absorbing moisture like the
fashion statement but for survival purposes. natural fibers, polyesters and
Dress appropriately and be prepared for a polypropylene work by repelling water
change in the weather. Clothes will also away from the skin surface. To function
provide shade from the sun. properly this layer must be thin and in
close contact with the skin surface. In
Generally, your clothing should be some products, a small percentage of
lightweight and not hamper your Lycra has been added to maintain a s
u
movements. Your clothing should be close fit. r
functional and you should dress in layers. v
i
You should break in any new clothes, The insulation (clothing) layer v
a
particularly boots, before your hunt. This layer should offer insulation while l
absorbing and transferring outwards the
You should always take extra clothes and moisture passed from the underwear
socks so you have a complete change if you layer beneath. The trapped air in the
get wet. clothing layer provides the insulation. It
should fit comfortably, not too tightly,
Clothes for outdoor use must have and dry quickly. A variety of zippers offer
three qualities: alternative methods of ventilation to
prevent moisture buildup without
• They must provide insulation to keep actually removing the entire garment.
you warm.
With very little exception, thickness
• They should offer you protection from means warmth. However, wearing many
heat, cold, getting wet, cuts and thin layers offers more warmth than one
scratches, and from being mistaken thick layer. By varying the selection of
for game. materials in this layer and using a
number of garments in the layer, a
• They must be absorbent to soak up variety of temperatures can be
sweat. They should not be completely accommodated. Materials in this layer
waterproof, but should "breathe" to include wool, fleece, pile and
allow moisture to evaporate. occasionally down.
85
Wool is warm when wet and does not wick performed in wet conditions. Ventilation
moisture. Wool will absorb 30% of its has to be carefully managed to prevent the
weight in water and still retain heat. Wool buildup of moisture from perspiration.
should not be washed too often as this
removes the water-repellent oils. Depending on your activity in the
outdoors, such as stand-hunting, you may
Polyester (fleece, pile) is a good insulator, find that you are not exerting yourself.
remains warm when wet but has relatively You may wish to wear an outdoor shell
poor wind resistance. Some type of that protects you from wet conditions.
windproof outer layer is required for fleece Instead of looking to high tech
or pile to be a useful insulator. In addition, recreational equipment, look to an
care has to be taken around fires, as sparks industrial supplier. What do forestry
will melt polyester clothing. Wool is a workers, public works and fisheries
better choice around fires as it is more workers wear under similar circumstances
flame resistant. with similar activity levels? They use
neoprene, PVC or coated nylon raingear
Down has extremely good insulating not Gore-Tex or Stormshed. Whatever the
properties and is a good choice in very type of waterproof clothing is purchased it
cold, dry conditions. However, when it should fit loosely to allow some venting.
gets wet it is a very poor insulator and it
takes a long time to dry. Therefore, it is The shell layer should protect you from
not the best choice when physically active cuts and scratches. Jeans, jackets, and
or when there is a chance it will get wet. gloves will help. Your clothes should be
strong and not tear easily in heavy brush.
Cotton has no place in poor weather, as it If hunting, the shell layers should be a
provides no insulation when it gets wet. bright colour to protect you from being
s Cotton is suitable for warm or hot days as mistaken for game. You can also wear a
u
r it is very comfortable and provides ‘hunter orange’ vest over your clothes.
v protection from the sun. Alternate
i
v clothing must be available in case the Boots
a
l weather changes. Your boots and socks are very important.
Care and conditioning of the feet and
The shell (outer) layer properly fitting boots are essential to the
The shell layer is what actually protects hunter’s well-being. Boots that fit poorly
the wearer from wind, sun, rain, snow etc. can cause painful blisters and a blister can
Waterproof materials can cause be a major injury when walking far from
condensation under the shell while camp. Friction from boots that are too
protecting against outside moisture entry. large, loosely laced boots, or lumpy or
Non-waterproof materials allow the wrinkled socks can cause blisters. Wearing
wearer to get wet while allowing inside two pairs of wool socks will keep your feet
moisture to escape. warm and soak up sweat.
A material providing as much Break in a new pair of boots before you go

waterproofness as possible while allowing hunting by wearing them on short hikes.
interior moisture to escape is the best Lace your boots snugly around your foot,
compromise for an exterior shell layer. but less tightly around your ankle. To do
Although the ratios between waterproofness this, lace the boot firmly to the top of the
and breathability vary, some of these instep and tie a reef knot there to hold the
materials include Gore-Tex, Sympatex, tension. The laces can then be
Stormshed, etc. No material will keep the comfortably laced from the instep to the
wearer totally dry if vigorous activity is top of the boot.
86
The weight of your boots is very inexpensive. For winter hunts in sub-zero
important. Even a few ounces of extra cold, down-filled mitts provide the most
weight carried for many miles can be warmth. Most down-filled mitts are
equal to several hundred pounds of designed with long gauntlets to keep out
physical exertion. Boots should be sturdy, snow and wind, and some have mouton
with strong soles that will not slip and backs as a convenience for wiping snow
slide on rocky trails, but avoid wearing and moisture from your face.
boots heavier than you need.
Hat
Boots bought for hunting should be a half In almost any weather a hat should be
size larger than your regular shoe size to included with your hunting gear. In cold
allow room for thick socks and insoles and weather, it is very important to wear a hat
for some swelling of your feet, which is since body heat is lost faster through the
normal during hard walking. head than from anywhere else on the
body. Your hands and feet will remain
Gloves and mitts warm longer if your head is covered and
warm. In bright sun a hat shades your eyes
and protects you from sunburn.
Your hat should fit well so it cannot be

easily knocked off or nudged over your
eyes by tree branches.
Source: AHEIA
Hearing and sight protection

If you wear glasses, carry an extra pair and
Hunter’s mitts
include another in your survival kit.
with opening
Plastic lenses are better than glass, which s
for trigger u
finger. can break if you fall. r
v
i
Everyone should take at least one pair v
a
Gloves are a necessary part of a hunter’s of optically correct and ruggedly l
gear. They help keep you warm and constructed sunglasses.
protect your hands from cuts, blisters,
splinters, and other injuries. In mild Tinted glasses can help the hunter to see his
weather, short buckskin gloves are best. target clearly under varying light conditions.
Avoid gauntlet-style gloves because they
will collect twigs, leaves, and debris. Less
expensive than buckskin, yet very durable
and practical are the jersey-knit work
gloves available from most department
stores. The jersey-knit gloves are warmer
than buckskin; however, they are not
waterproof and are impractical for wear in Tinted glasses
wet conditions. In cold weather, jersey-
knit gloves worn inside leather mitts will
keep hands warm and dry.
For extra warmth in very cold weather,

many individuals wear knitted wool mitts
inside tough leather mitts. This
combination is warm, durable and Polarized glasses
87
For persons who are sensitive to the sun’s 5. Trip plan

glare, polarized sunglasses tinted green, Now that you are dressed for the outdoors
brown, or smoky in colour are there is still some planning to do. Prepare
recommended. Some lenses are a trip plan. The Provincial Emergency
specifically designed to help the wearer Program has created a generic trip plan
see better under dim light conditions. that you can use. You can use it or develop
your own.
If hunting in a snowy area, wear snow
goggles. You can make a pair by cutting Your trip plan should give information
small slits in a piece of wood or birch bark about the five Ws (who, where, what,
and tying these on with string. when, why):
Ear plugs are useful when shooting on a 1. Who is on the trip?

range or next to another shooter. Carry a
pair of ear plugs and use them when you 2. Where are you going?
know there will be shooting or loud
machinery. Don’t wear them while 3. What route are you taking?
hunting though; you will need to hear
other hunters or game. 4. What is your start time?
Colour vision 5. When are you due back?

Colour vision is the ability to distinguish
between colours and detect a range of 6. What equipment was taken?
colours within the visible light spectrum.
7. Why are you on this trip?
Many hunters are unaware that their
s colour vision is defective. When a hunter A good trip plan should also include a list
u
r is aware that he has a colour vision of equipment that you are taking with
v problem, he can take extra precautions to you. You should leave the trip plan with
i
v overcome this problem. An eye somebody and give them instructions on
a
l examination will quickly detect any what they should do if you do not report
abnormality in colour vision. back in time. If you are going hiking from
a parking lot area you might wish to leave
Blaze orange is one of the most visible the trip plan on the dash on your car.
colours to wear in the woods. Tests have Then, if the vehicle is found the
proven that fluorescent colours, especially authorities have an idea of your situation.
blaze orange, are seen readily under
almost all light conditions. Even people
with colour vision defects are usually able
to distinguish blaze orange.
88
Trip plan
Source: Provincial Emergency Program
s
u
r
v
i
v
a
l
89

s
u
r
v
i
v
a
l
90
s
u
r
v
i
v
a
l
91
6. Your equipment at all times. The best kit will fit into a jacket
You will need basic equipment on any pocket or waist pack. You must have items
outdoor or hunting trip. Plan ahead. that provide for your basic needs, such as
Knowing what to expect in the way of shelter, ways to start a fire, and a way to
terrain, weather, shelter, and water and signal or communicate, and water.
planning for these conditions are essential
to a successful hunt. This equipment is Your can purchase a commercial survival
important for day trips or long back- kit at a sporting goods store or make up
packing trips. Basic equipment can be your own from items found in your home.
expanded or varied to meet the needs of Choose items that can have a multiple-use
specialized hunting trips. The basic purpose. For example, you can buy a
equipment includes: "Hypothermic Blanket", also known as a
space blanket. This blanket weights
a. compass and maps approximately 1 lb. or 453 grams. They
b. survival kit come in various sizes and can be folded to
c. first aid kit fit in a very small pouch that will attach to
d. firearm and ammunition your belt. The hypothermic blanket can be
e. communication devices used as an emergency blanket, shelter,
ground sheet, sunshade, windbreak, or
a. Map and compass signalling device.
You should carry a current map of the area
you are travelling to and a compass. Know Remember the Survival Rule of 3s when
how to use them. See the orienteering it comes to packing your survival kit.
equipment part of this chapter.
We can survive for
b. Survival kit
s A survival kit is important for every outdoor • 3 hours in severe situations
u
r experience, from a walk in the woods to a without shelter
v week-long hunt. The kit should be small • 3 days without water
i
v and light so it can be easily carried with you • 3 weeks without food
a
l
3
WE CAN SURVIVE FOR
3 HOURS in severe situations without SHELTER

3 DAYS without WATER
3 WEEKS without FOOD
92
Survival kit
tea bag needle & thread

cotton
matches batting
oxo cubes
fire starter
salt
flint &
snell hooks safety steel
spoon pins wire handles
holes for
handles metal can
monofilament line
dry fly
knife (2 blades)
s
u
r
v
i
wet fly foil survival v
blanket a
l
lead split shot
papers & pencil

Assorted snare wire
nails
signal mirror
outside lid inside lid
93
c. First aid kit Tape the lid of the container to keep the
You should never go into the field without kit watertight.
a first aid kit. The size and shape of the kit
will depend on how it will be carried Your first aid kit, like your survival kit,
(backpack, jacket pocket, belt). Again you should be completely familiar to you.
can buy a commercial kit or make one up Know what it contains and how to use
from items from home. Your family doctor each item properly. First aid techniques
may suggest that any needed personal will be discussed later in this chapter.
medication be included in your first aid kit.
First aid kit
petroleum
gel scissors
razer blade
tweezers
s
u
r
v
i
v mole skin
a
l
container
crepe
soap bandange
mirror
first aid handbook
94
d. Firearm and ammunition Normal communication methods:

Firearms and ammunition will be dealt
with in other chapters in this manual. Be • Talking
sure to check the laws about having a • Hand signals
loaded firearm in the area you are • Telephones
hunting. You may not be able to take a • Radios
firearm with you in various provincial and
federal parks. Carry a backup, such as Emergency communication methods:
pepper spray, bells and whistles, bear
bangars, etc., to scare off wildlife. • Whistles
• Signal flares
• Mirrors
• Ground markers
e. Communication devices
When you are out hunting or camping it
is always beneficial if you can
communicate with the people in your
party and the outside world. While cell-
phones have made communication easier,
they do not necessarily work everywhere
in the province. Think about your normal
communication needs and emergency s
u
communication needs. r
v
i
v
a
l
95
PART I:
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. What is the phone number if you have to report an emergency in British Columbia?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
2. Is hypothermia a winter illness? ________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
3. List six items you should consider when preparing yourself for a trip or hunt. ____
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
s
______________________________________________________________________________
u ______________________________________________________________________________
r
v
i
v
a
l
4. Name the three layers in the layer system when you dress yourself for the outdoors.
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
96
5. Who should you leave your trip plan with? ____________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
6. List five items you would put in your survival kit. ______________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
s
u
r
v
i
v
a
l
97
PART II: with a responsible adult. It must include

SAFETY AND SURVIVAL where you are going and when you expect
to return. Leave clear instructions of what
Part two is broken into the to do if you do not return. Leave your
following sections: vehicle in sight when you park it. Leave a
1. Practicing safe behaviours map of your route in the vehicle so a
2. Minimizing Dangers Around Wildlife rescuer can see it through the window.
3. Survival Psychology
4. Common survival situations A contingency plan must be prepared in
advance. It would include the most
1. Practicing safe behaviours effective means of communication in case
The saying "An ounce of prevention is of an emergency, alternate campsites or
worth a pound of cure" is very true when route, equipment and food supplies if
dealing with survival situations. As we travel is hampered by weather or injury.
discussed earlier in the chapter, learn,
study, and practice outdoor safety and All equipment should be checked before
survival skills, learn the risk, and prepare the trip to ensure that it is in good
yourself and your equipment prior to working order. It should be suitable for the
your venture outdoors. When you are in most demanding conditions of the trip.
the outdoors practice safe behaviours in Environmental conditions should be
order to avoid potential accidents, taken into account when selecting
incidents or mishaps. equipment for the trip. All equipment
should be evaluated from a health and
There are four main safe behaviours you safety point of view to ensure that it is
should practice while hunting: suitable. A fully stocked first aid kit should
be carried on every trip.
s a. plan your trip;
u
r b. act with caution; Be prepared by planning and taking the
v c. know where you are; and, right equipment.
i
v d. hunt with a partner.
a
l Remember
a. Plan your trip

• Plan your hunt and hunt your plan.
It is essential that you develop an injury-
prevention approach in planning you
• Leave the plan with a friend.
trip. By good understanding of your
personal knowledge, skill, abilities, and
limitations the hunt will be enjoyable and b. Act with caution
safe. Preventative planning your trip When walking through bush or along
includes route selection based on personal dusty or gravelled roads, twigs, burrs, and
and physical considerations. If a group small stones can collect in your socks and
trip is planned, a form of leadership is boots. Such bits of dirt and debris can rub
required. The leader should be both and irritate your skin causing painful sores
physically and emotionally fit to lead the and blisters. Remove your socks and boots
trip, be aware of any potentially occasionally and shake out any objects
dangerous situations, and be trained in picked up on the trail.
appropriate emergency procedures.
Be alert on the trail. Avoid areas with poor
Route plan is detailed copy of the planned footing. Test footing on fallen logs, dead
route and the names and contact numbers bark, or rocks in streams. Watch for dew or
of individuals on the trip. Leave this plan frost, it will make your footing unsafe.
98
Carry sharp tools, such as knives or axes, As of September 1999, every boater
in a protective sheath. If you fall there is operating a motorized pleasure craft in
less likelihood of being cut. Canada is required to pass an exam in
order to get a pleasure craft operator's card.
Don’t walk in the dark. Plan to be back at
your camp at least one hour before dark. • Take a boating course
• Use a Personal Flotation Device
Go slowly, rest often. Don’t walk if you are (PFD; a life jacket) when on the water
too tired. • Ensure all safety equipment is in
working order
Speed Ratings: • Check weather forecasts
• Children to 9 years old: 5 km per day • Stay warm
• Established routes: 3.5 - 5.5 km per hour • Avoid standing up in a boat to take
• Off trail bush: 2 km per hour shots at birds
• Mountainous terrain: depending on the • Remember, alcohol and boating
vertical and horizontal distances don't mix
Remember c. Know where you are

When you set up camp, orient your map so
the landmarks on the map line up with the
Hunting is about enjoying the landmarks nearby. Note all visible landmarks
outdoors... not running through it. as reference points. Lay your compass on the
map and identify landmarks in relation to
their compass direction.
Avoid water obstacles and frozen water
bodies. If you crossed a shallow stream in
the morning and it is now full due to rain, s
destination u
do not try to cross it. r
v
i
Learn and follow firearm safety procedures direction of v
especially when crossing obstacles. Make travel a
l
sure of your target and beyond. Never line of
point a firearm at anything you do not sighting
plan to shoot. For more firearm safety
rules, see the firearms chapter.
Learn and follow safe boating procedures.

Use a Personal Flotation Device (PFD),
also known as a life jacket, when on the
water. Avoid standing up in a boat to take
shots at birds.
99
Use your compass as you leave camp and will defend itself or its young, if it feels
to get you back to camp. For example, if threatened. Here are some items to
you decide to hunt deer in a nearby range consider in avoiding and handling wildlife
of hills, take a compass reading before you encounters:
leave camp. If the compass showed the
direction of the hills as southwest of 1. Learn animal identification by studying
camp, you know that after hunting in the their habitat, characteristics, and
hills you must walk northeast from the behaviour. Read the animal
hills to get back to camp. Check your identification chapter.
direction at intervals along the way.
2. Learn how to avoid contact.
If you walk some distance after reaching • avoid certain areas
the hills take this into account when you • learn how to properly set up a camp
return. You can follow the compass • keep a clean camp
directions back to the general area where • pack out your garbage
you began, then look for landmarks to get
back to camp. 3. Learn procedures on how to handle
wildlife when encounters do occur.
When your camp is near a "baseline" such • Deterrent methods and tools
as a river, road, or ravine, you can easily • Defensive attacks
find your way back with a compass. If you • Predatory attacks
are hunting north of the baseline all you
must do is walk south to the baseline and a. Bear and cougar safety
you will be in line with your camp.
d. Hunt with a partner

s While it might be very pleasant to go for a
u
r walk by yourself looking for a few grouse
v for that night’s supper pot, have you every
i
v thought what would happen if you got
a
l injured? You left a trip plan at home but
you are not due back for hours. Who
would give you first aid?
Also consider the possibility of a conflict

with a wild animal such as a bear or
cougar. You are by yourself with a single-
shot 12 gauge shotgun with 7-1/2 shot.
You are grouse hunting not bear
hunting, how would you avoid a conflict Bears and cougars usually avoid people but
with this wild animal? they may attack if they are provoked,
hungry, or startled.
In both cases having a hunting partner
would be helpful. Always hunt with a partner. When you are
on the trail, watch for signs of bears, such
2. Minimizing dangers around as droppings, markings, or tracks, or their
wildlife strong scent.
Wildlife is exactly that... wild. Responsible
hunters and outdoors enthusiasts know Be wary near berry patches or the banks of
that wildlife is naturally wary and will try streams where fish are spawning. Never
to avoid people. However, any wild animal approach a fresh kill.
100
When not hunting, use a noisemaker, Running, waving of the arms, and
such as a bell or tin can containing a few throwing sticks or stones may only
pebbles. Attach it to your walking staff or provoke a bear.
pack. The human voice is an unfamiliar
sound in the wilderness, so talking or If you meet an aggressive grizzly in a
singing are effective. Be extra careful in wooded area, speak softly and back slowly
thick bush. toward a tall tree and climb as high as you
can. Grizzlies don’t usually climb trees, but
Be particularly careful in high winds, they can easily reach up to 10 feet. And a
when an animal may not be able to hear motivated grizzly will climb after you.
you or be able to pick up your scent soon
enough to avoid you. If you see a bear at a If you are attacked, protect your stomach,
distance, make a wide detour or leave the thighs, and neck by lying face down on the
area at once. If you cannot make a detour ground with your hands clasped over your
or retreat, wait until the bear moves away neck. Wearing your pack will shield your
from your path – always leave the animal body. The bear may try to maul you, but
an escape route. Do not store or cook your will do less damage if you can lie still. If the
food in your tent in camp. Store your food bear rolls you over continue to roll until
and game meat away from camp, you are in the face down position.
preferably out of a bear’s reach. Resistance is useless. If the attack seems to
be lessening, and any movement attracts
Female bears with cubs are especially the animal to attack you again, try to lie
dangerous. Never approach a cub, even if still. Usually the bear will retreat
it seems to be alone, and never get caught immediately after the attack although it
between a cub and its mother. may just go a short distance and watch. If
the attack lasts more than about 30
If you meet a bear, it will most likely move seconds, the bear likely intends to kill you s
u
away. However, bears can be unpredictable. so fight back with anything you can get r
Learn to recognize the signs of a bear your hands on. Kick, punch, scream, and v
i
attack, and above, all don’t panic. use your knife, concentrating on the face v
a
and head of the bear. This will not stop you l
from getting hurt but it may save your life.
Do not play dead if attacked by a cougar.

Fight off the attack by any means at
your disposal.
b. Other creatures in the woods

There are a lot of other creatures in the
woods that slither, fly, or crawl that can
be dangerous. Even the droppings and
urine (excreta) from some animals can
be dangerous.
The sign of a probable attack are growling,
ears laid back, hackles raised, jaw Snakes
"popping", chewing and foaming at the The only venomous snake in British
mouth, rocking back and forth, not Columbia is a species of rattlesnake found
looking at you, and woofing. A bear only in the Southern Interior Dry Belt
rearing up on its hind legs is probably region. It is usually found in shady places
taking a more careful sniff to make certain in dry regions but may be near water at
of who you are. night. Avoiding a bite is the best remedy.
101
Watch where you put your hands and feet. B.C. carrying the organisms that cause
If you see a snake, ease back; sudden numerous diseases, such as Lyme disease,
movements can trigger an attack. A Rocky Mountain spotted fever, tularemia,
healthy adult that is bitten by a rattlesnake and relapsing fever. While the chances of
may get seriously ill but has a good chance getting these diseases are small, it is worth
of survival, death from a snakebite is rare. taking steps to avoid being bitten.
Some rattlesnake precautions are: To protect yourself against tick bites:

• Wear stout boots and watch where you • Walk on cleared trails wherever
put your feet. possible when walking in tall grass
• Use a stick to check out holes, logs or or woods.
to turn over stones before placing feet • Wear light-coloured clothing.
and hands nearby. • Tuck your top into your pants and tuck
• Step on top of obstacles, such as logs or your pants into your boots or socks
rocks, not over them. and consider wearing gaiters.
• Before sitting down for a rest, check • Put insect repellent onto clothing,
logs, stumps, rocks, and the especially around the ankles, and all
surrounding area. uncovered skin.
• If you encounter a snake stay calm, stop • Check clothing, scalp, and warm,
and give the snake a chance to escape, moist areas of your body (groin,
then back off giving it lots of room. armpits) when leaving an area where
• Small rattlesnakes can be just a deadly ticks may live.
as the larger ones. • Repeat this check over the next couple
• Check clothes and packs before of days as ticks may not be noticed
putting them on. right away.
• Roll up your bedding or hang it off • Regularly check household pets that go
s the ground into tall grass and wooded areas.
u
r
v Micro-organisms
i
v Insects Water in the wild may contain organisms
a
l You may be bitten by mosquitoes, that may be harmful to you if you drink it
blackflies, deerflies, and midges. before it has been disinfected. An example
Prevention is the best cure – protect would be Giardia, which is a microscopic
yourself with head nets, gloves, light- organism that can cause diarrhea, severe
coloured clothing and insect repellents. cramps, and fever. There are several ways
Try to avoid the use of perfumes and to make water safe for drinking.
deodorant soaps as insects are attracted to
some of them. Boiling – when water has boiled it is safe to
drink. Boiling for 5-10 minutes sterilizes
Ticks water, killing micro-organisms and viruses.
Ticks are small bugs, that vary from about
the size of a sesame seed up to a small Filtration – this can remove most
raisin, which feed on blood. Ticks cannot diarrhea-producing micro-organisms but
jump or fly and do not drop from trees. may not remove viruses.
They wait on the top of grasses and shrubs
for their hosts and attach themselves to the Chemical – There are two effective water
host as it brushes by. While most tick bites treatments using chemicals; one is iodine
do not result in disease, some do and some, and the other is halozone or chlorine
particularly if any body part of the tick is tablets. It is important to follow the
left in the wound, can cause sores that are manufacturer’s recommendations when
difficult to heal. Ticks have been found in using these methods of water purification.
102
Waste material Fear is a normal reaction; everyone feels

Excreta is waste matter discharged afraid when they are lost. Fear affects the
from the body, such as feces or urine. way you behave and, if not overcome, can
In British Columbia there have been become your greatest obstacle to survival.
reported cases of Hantavirus
Pulmonary Syndrome (HPS). HPS is a Fear itself can become a survival weapon if
severe, sometimes fatal respiratory this powerful stimulus is controlled and
illness that is spread to humans when channelled. It is not always the physically
the virus, carried on airborne particles strong or happy-go-lucky person who
of deer mice excreta or saliva, are most effectively handles fear. Timid or
inhaled or when there is direct contact anxious persons may be the ones who
with the excreta. respond well under stress resulting in a
better chance of survival.
Ways to avoid coming in contact
with rodents: "No fear" often means "No brains" in a
survival situation. It is OK to have a healthy
• Do not touch dead rodents without respect and awareness of the seriousness
disinfecting and using gloves. and challenges of a situation. Controlled
• Do not use cabins that are rodent fear is controlled energy. Do not exaggerate
infested. the urgency of your situation but do not
• Do not camp near rodent feces, underestimate it either.
burrows or dens.
• Do not sleep on the bare ground, Knowledge and experience are extremely
use a tent with a floor. effective weapons. Knowing what to do in
• Eliminate rodents and use rodent- a survival situation and how to facilitate a
proof containers to store food. rescue cannot help but reduce fear and
anxiety. Having confidence in one's own s
u
ability and equipment is vital. r
3. Survival Psychology v
i
One important way of preparing for a Other weapons include concentration v
a
survival situation is to simply anticipate and confidence in your hunting l
it and know the types of personal partners. Concentrate on the job to be
reactions that may occur. Knowing done without allowing one's mind to
what to expect can help to reduce the wander and visualize the worst. Have
mental and physical effects of some of confidence in your hunting partners,
these reactions. knowing that they are skilled and will do
their utmost to remedy the situation as
Fear leading to panic, anxiety, shame, soon as possible.
and despair need no further description
here. More important are the weapons The most important weapon of all in a
that can be used to combat these severe survival situation is the will to live.
emotions. This quality is impossible to explain,
difficult to develop and varies from one
These weapons include: person to another. It is why some people
have survived for long periods of time in
• Fear seemingly impossible situations, while
• Knowledge and experience others have perished in a relatively short
• Concentration time in survivable circumstances.
• Confidence
• The will to live
(positive mental attitude)
103
pain
predatory animals cold
insects heat
loneliness thirst
bordom hunger
fatigue
The psychological problems discussed are important ways of reducing the effects
s earlier can be made worse as time passes of pain. If you give in to the pain, you
u
r by other enemies of survival. Survival might stop trying to survive.
v enemies include:
i
v Cold
a
l • Pain Cold is a serious threat to survival. Cold
• Cold numbs the body, the mind and the will to
• Heat survive. A victim of cold often loses the
• Thirst ability to function normally. When you are
• Hunger very cold, it’s hard to think about anything
• Fatigue other than becoming warm. Stay warm!
• Boredom and loneliness Wear proper clothing for outdoor-related
• Insects activities; see part one of this chapter.
• Predatory animals
If an incident occurs, remove yourself or
Pain the other person from cold air or water as
Pain is the body’s way of telling you that quickly and safely as possible. Try to get
something is wrong. Attend to any as much of the body out of the water;
injuries immediately using the appropriate think trunk, neck and head first, arms and
first aid treatment. Pain can weaken the legs last.
will to survive and easily get the best of a
person if it is allowed to do so. Knowledge To survive in the outdoors you must find
and application of appropriate first aid is a ways to maintain your body temperature
good defence against pain as well as a by staying dry, building a fire, and
positively occupied mind. Making special making a shelter to protect yourself from
efforts to keep working and keep up hope the weather.
104
Heat delay the onset of fatique. Lack of sleep

Heat can lead to heat exhaustion or heat and boredom may contribute to fatigue.
stroke. Heat can be overcome by resting Rest as much as possible and avoid
during the hottest part of the day, staying overexertion. A comfortable shelter will
out of the sun, and getting enough fluids help you sleep.
into your body.
Boredom and loneliness
Thirst Boredom and loneliness can occur
Thirst, even when not extreme, can dull while waiting to be rescued. This may
the mind and under no circumstances cause you to act irrationally, which can
should a person be deprived of water create problems.
unnecessarily. A strong will to survive can
diminish the negative effects of thirst. To overcome boredom and loneliness
Don’t worry about how thirsty you are. you must try to adapt to your situation
You can survive for several days without and improvise solutions to problems.
water if you are in normal health. Think positively and plan ways to
overcome problems. Tolerate solitude.
Keep your mind active and busy with Avoid panic and keep calm. Be patient.
plans for coping with the situation at Keep your hands busy by doing things,
hand. Later, you can locate water near such as improving your camp.
your survival camp or collect it.
Insects
Hunger Insects may be extremely annoying
Hunger lowers the physical, and and cause morale to drop. Protection
sometimes the mental, efficiency of the with nets, smoke, or insect repellent
body. Thirst and hunger increase a can help in this respect. On many
person's susceptibility to weakening survival courses insects are the s
u
effects of cold, pain and fear. Carrying biggest complaint. r
survival rations is one way to reduce the v
i
effects of hunger in the short term. Be aware that some people may have v
a
severe reactions to insect bite. Make sure l
Though hunger will make you feel you discuss this with hunting partners
uncomfortable, it is not a serious factor in prior to going into the field and that
most survival situations. Your body fat will everyone is aware of that person’s
normally supply enough energy to enable allergic reactions and what to do if they
you to survive three weeks. do get stung or bitten.
Fatigue Predatory animals

Fatigue, in even a small amount, can Problems with predatory animals are
reduce mental ability causing one to easily unusual. Building a fire can help keep
adopt the feeling of just not caring, them away. Often there is more
leading to dangerous behaviour, such as danger from the fear of animals than
the reckless use of tools. from the animals themselves. This fear
can lead to irrational decisions, which
When you are tired you do not think can cause more anxiety and panic
clearly and can become careless. Extreme than the actual threat from the
fatigue can even destroy a person’s desire animals themselves.
to survive.
With all these enemies to survival, the
Avoiding unnecessary exertion and most important thing is being able to
maintaining a good mental attitude can recognize when they are occurring.
105
One way to deal with the mental problems survivability, but even more important
in a survival situation is to can be the qualities of the person trying
STOP (Stop, Think, Observe, Plan). to survive.
A list of desirable qualities includes:

1. Hoping for the best, but preparing
for the worst
2. Decisive
3. Can improvise
4. Can live with himself/herself and
others
5. Is patient
6. Can adapt to situation
7. Can control his/her fears
8. Can remain cool, calm, and collected
9. Can endure setbacks without being
discouraged
10. Is mentally and physically prepared
11. Knows the survival pattern and uses it
4. Common survival situations

Survival situations fall into three
If you find yourself in an emergency or general categories:
survival situation the first thing to do is to
STOP moving. Rushing around can a. Being lost or unable to get back to
s increase anxiety and will make you more your camp;
u
r confused. In this state, decisions are made
v with no forethought and actions do not b. Falling through ice or into water;
i
v follow a logical plan. Once you stop and,
a
l moving you can THINK about the actions
that can be done to improve your chances c. Injuries which require first aid or
of survival. While you are thinking you can medical attention.
look around and OBSERVE your situation.
Look for immediate hazards or resources Each of these situations requires you to
you can work with. Finally, after thinking be able to assess the situation and
and observing, you can PLAN your actions choose the best action to deal with it.
in a deliberate, practical manner. The greatest threat to survival is in the
mind of the individual. Survival
It is also important to remember that in a depends largely on mental attitude. You
true survival situation there is an energy should practice survival techniques
budget. Every action, such as travelling, before you go hunting. Practice will
shelter building, or gathering food, uses make you familiar with equipment and
up energy reserves and these reserves are techniques for survival. It can also give
limited. Therefore, before an action is you confidence and lessen your
carried out it should be decided that the emotional stress if you are in a
benefits of that action outweigh the survival situation.
disadvantage of the energy loss.
In a survival situation you must first
Weather, terrain and the nature of an treat injuries, then deal with other
emergency have important effects on survival practices.
106
a. So you are lost Fire Building

A survival situation usually lasts less than Fire is a basic need for survival. With a
24 hours and seldom longer than five fire you can warm yourself, dry clothing,
days. Searches can take time; however, and signal for assistance, cook a meal, and
you will need to rely on your own enjoy a safe and comfortable night.
resources to survive until help comes. The Fire provides security, comfort, and has
first step in being found is to tell someone a way of putting fear and apprehension
where you are going. If lost, the trip out of your mind. Always carry
information or plan left at home or camp the means to light a fire when you
will now make a positive difference are hunting.
toward being found quickly.
To build a fire you will need fire-starters,
You must deal with your state of mind and fuel, and a safe location.
your physical comfort. To do this you
must know about: Fire-starters
The most practical matches are the long
• staying put wooden "strike anywhere" variety. Keep
• composure and first aid these in an unbreakable, waterproof
• fire building container. Remember to change these
• shelter building matches in these containers occasionally
• rescue signals as humidity may cause them not to light
• food and water when you need them. If possible carry an
alternative lighting source, such as a
lighter, for backup.
Stay put
The greatest mistake a person who is lost Fire-starting cubes are also excellent to
can make is to start wandering in an help ignite your fire. Always light your s
u
attempt to find a way back to camp. If you fire from the upwind side. r
become lost, set up a survival camp and v
i
stay put. Fuel v
a
You need two kinds of fuel to start a fire: l
Your fire and other signals will help others tinder and kindling.
find you. If you use a sound signal and
hear a reply, don’t try to find your rescuer, Most fires will not burn without first
wait for them to follow your signal to you. lighting some easily flammable tinder. In
If you keep moving around there is less forest areas, you will find tinder readily
chance they will find you. available. Gather the fine, dead twigs
from the lower limbs of standing trees or
Never travel at night. You may fall into a from dry windfalls for tinder.
hole, trip, or step onto something sharp
and injure yourself. You will only add to On the coast it may be difficult to find
your problem if you travel at night. something dry enough to burn. The core
of small, easily broken standing snags
Attend to your injuries if any, build a fire may provide dry fuel even in the dampest
and shelter, and stay put. conditions.
Composure Gather a good supply of firewood for the

Keep your composure during an night; a good estimate is to gather twice
emergency or survival situation. DON'T as much as you think you will need. Be
PANIC. Remember the enemies of survival careful that you do not smother the fire
and react accordingly. by adding too much fuel.
107
Fire location Fire signals

Carefully select the location of your fire Fires make excellent signals. A large, bright
pit. Do not build a fire under a tree; the fire at night or a smoky one during the day
tree may catch fire. The heat from the fire can be seen easily. Green boughs produce
may also melt snow on the tree’s branches, intense smoke when burned, but don’t
soaking the fire and putting it out. If you smother your fire when using them. If you
must build a fire on snow, construct a have enough fuel you can set three signal
platform on the snow made of green fires to appear as a triangle from the air.
logs or stones.
Flare signals
If the ground is dry, as it is in many parts To attract aircraft, flare signals are best.
of the Interior, scrape away all grass and Flare cartridges are available which can be
debris and build the fire on bare dirt to fired from a rifle or shotgun. Also, small
avoid starting a grass or forest fire. flare signalling devices may be purchased
Beware of exposed tree roots; they can and included in your survival kit.
catch fire quickly.
Be sure to shield the fire from the wind

and use a rock or wall of logs to reflect the
heat towards you and your shelter. Beware Hold firmly
of rock from streambeds. When heated
these rocks have been known to explode
from the water vapour that has been
trapped in them
Fire first flare
Rescue Signals immediately upon
s Once you have attended to any injuries sighting aircraft.
u
r and made a fire you can try to attract the
v attention of other people. There are five
i
v types of signals that you can use: fire,
a
l flare, mirror, sound, and information
signals. In general, three repetitions of any
signal indicate distress.
When among
trees aim through
a clearing in the
canopy
Fire signal
Turn face away

from flare gun.
108
Mirror signals Information signals

A mirror rotated to reflect the sunlight is Your best chance of survival is by staying
an excellent device for attracting put at one location. In addition to a fire,
attention. Move the mirror at an angle to you can make a large X or an SOS in a
produce flashes of light. clearing near your camp. Use heaps of
stones or earth, piles of brush, tree
Sound signals branches or trampled grass or snow.
Carry a shrill whistle. It has a loud,
distinctive noise and will carry much If, after very serious consideration, you
farther than your voice. Blow three blasts decide to leave your place of shelter, be
as a signal. sure to leave a message indicating the
direction you’re going. Make a large arrow
Carefully consider using your firearm to on the ground from any available material
attract attention. Gunshots can be a so that search aircraft or ground searchers
confusing signal as others may think will know which direction to look.
you’re shooting at game and ignore your Ground searchers will also be guided by
signal shots. However, if you are very such signals. If possible, leave a note
seriously injured, fire your ammunition explaining where you are headed and
off in groups of three shots, with 10 what time you left camp.
seconds between each shot. Wait 10 to 15
minutes for an answering signal shot.
Repeat this procedure as long as your
ammunition supply will allow, but don’t
use up all your ammunition.
Tramp out large X in snow at least
150' (46 m) in length. Sun
s
u
r
Stand boughs up to v
cast larger shadow. i
v
a
l
Logs
Travelling in
this direction Branches and
trampled in snow.
Rocks
109
Shelter building There are three basic types of shelters:

Choose the most protected spot you can, natural shelters, lean-to or tent structures,
and set up a warm, established camp to and snow caves.
give yourself a psychological lift. Shelters
should be simple and small. It is vital that Natural shelters such as fallen trees or
you stay warm when lost or stranded. Your overhanging rock ledges, are good if they are
shelter should protect you from the wind well-secured. A fallen tree can provide a
and cold, and keep you dry. Build the best quick and easy shelter. Cut away some of the
shelter you can without wasting energy. A non- supporting branches and lean them
sheet of plastic taken along on the trip is against the trunk to form a crude roof. If you
invaluable in building a shelter. use a cave, make sure it is not occupied.
s
u
r
v
i
v
a
l
Upon completion of shelter, locate wood

and build fire at entrance for warmth.
110
6” to 8” (15cm
to 20 cm)
A bough bed will insulate you from the

ground. Boughs should be placed with bro-
ken ends toward the ground.
s
u
A lean-to or tent structure can be improvised possible whenever it is available. If your r
from a variety of materials including slabs of water supply is limited, restrict your v
i
wood, split wood planks, evergreen boughs, activity and movement, especially during v
a
and sheets of plastic. Make a bed of boughs the heat of the day. l
about 8 inches (20 cm) deep to insulate you
from the ground. If possible, boil or filter water before
drinking it. Melt snow or ice over a fire;
Snow caves are difficult to dig without getting don’t melt it in your mouth, as this will
wet. They can keep you warm, however. Make cause dehydration and loss of body heat.
it deep enough to sit in and long enough to lie
down. Make the roof arched so moisture will Food is not an immediate necessity for
run down the walls and not drip onto you. survival. If you are in normal health you
Leave a ventilation hole in the roof and keep it should be able to exist for 30 days or
open with a stick. more. However, once other survival needs
are taken care of, you should spend some
Food and water time gathering food from the wild to ward
Water and food are not as critical as they off hunger. This activity will also help
may first seem. You can survive for several dispel boredom.
days without water. Locating water is
generally not difficult in British Columbia. Almost all plants yield some nourishment
from their fruit, bark, or roots. Avoid
You need 2 to 3 quarts (2.27 to 3.41 litres) of mushrooms, however, since some are
water every day. Drink even though you poisonous. There is often more food value or
may not feel thirsty. Drink as much as energy in meat from wildlife than in plants.
111
b. Ice and water Water

Ice and water can create survival situations. Never swim alone, after dark, when you
are tired, or after a big meal.
Ice
Stay off ice that has formed on salt water, Never dive into water without first
tidal rivers, or fast-flowing streams. Never checking the depth. Wear a life jacket
cross ice that is cracked, snow-covered, or in boats.
less than 4 inches (10 cm) thick.
If you must cross ice, carry a long pole or If you fall in or if your boat capsizes, get
have a knife handy. If you break through out of the water as quickly as possible. You
ice you should: can climb onto the boat since it will float
even if capsized. If you can’t, remain still,
• extend your arms flat on the ice and curl up to retain heat. Wait for help.
surface and kick your feet to the
surface of the water; If you fall into a fast-moving stream, turn
• hold a pole so it distributes your over on your back with your feet
weight so you can climb out; and/or, downstream. This will allow you to push
• use a knife to dig into the ice surface to off of rocks or other obstacles. Backstroke
help you climb out. and swim with the current and angle
towards the shore.
If someone else breaks through, don’t run
to help him. Lie flat and extend a pole, If someone else falls into the water, throw
scarf, or other object to him so he can pull her a rope or something that will float.
himself out. Don’t jump in after her or give her your
body to hang onto.
Once out of the water, roll in the snow.
s Snow will act as a blotter and soak up the
u
r water from your clothes. Build a fire on
v shore immediately; warm yourself and dry
i
v your clothes. Do not try to walk back to
a
l camp. In cold conditions if you are wet
you lose body heat very quickly.
112
5. First Aid • What happened?

a. What is first aid? • Make the area safe by removing
First aid is immediate care given to a any hazards
person until more advanced care can be • Determined number injured
obtained. Preparing for an emergency • Instruct the casualty not to move
includes having a first aid kit and • Send for medical aid; this would include
emergency contact numbers. a written evaluation of location and
patient condition
First aid does not take the place of proper
medical attention, but it can help save Before entering the scene it is important to
lives and prevent further injury. It is determine if any hazards exist that may cause
important to know what to do, as well as further injury to the casualty or to you.
knowing what not to do. Carefully observe the surroundings and
circumstances of the accident. Wherever
The information presented here falls far possible, remove any danger (e.g., an
short of a complete guide to first aid and is overhanging log, etc.) rather than moving the
better described as "emergency aid". You victim. Be careful not to put yourself in
should take a comprehensive first aid course danger while trying to help. Hazards include
to be prepared for an emergency situation moving water, rock fall, lightning, presence of
especially before going into the woods. gas, fire, animal, weather conditions (heat or
cold), slope of terrain, snow or ice avalanche.
b. The objectives of first aid are:
• to preserve life Be calm and reassure the victim. The
• to prevent further injury emotional stress of an emergency situation is
• to ease pain and discomfort until often the greatest barrier to a well-planned first
qualified medical assistance can aid operation. Fear, anxiety, and panic are
be obtained. often the reactions of those involved in s
u
emergencies. If you are frightened or upset, r
c. Three basic elements to first aid you will make the victim even more excited or v
i
Outdoor recreation has developed beyond afraid. Be as soothing and cheerful as you can. v
a
activities done only by adventuresome This attitude will calm the person who is hurt l
individuals. As more people are engaging or sick and make him or her feel they are being
in outdoor activities, we become faced well taken care of until the medical aid arrives.
with more incidents in regions difficult or
impossible to reach by emergency care If a person appears seriously injured, don’t
ambulances. Consequently, first aid try to move him. If you don’t know exactly
training becomes an essential part of what the injury is, keep the victim lying
preparation for the outdoor and remote down with his head level. Don’t move the
area user. An emergency scene might look victim unless he is in obvious danger or
complicated at first, but following these unconscious and you need to put the
three basic elements to first aid will help casualty in the recovery position.
you organize your response:
The recovery position
• Scene assessment
• Casualty assessment
• Movement
Scene assessment
Survey the scene to be sure no danger
exists before you approach the casualty.
113
Casualty assessment C irculation - Look for signs of circulation:

Initial examination procedures skin colour and temperature. Assess the
Check the casualty for responsiveness and carotid (neck) pulse for 10 seconds.
consciousness. Tap, gently shake and
shout, "Are you okay". Examine the victim
quickly for life-threatening conditions
using the following primary survey
procedure, it is a simple as A-B-C-D:
Airway - Open the airway by tilting the

head back and lifting the chin, if there is
no suspected spinal or head injuries.
Deadly Bleed Check - Run your hands

over and under the body looking for signs
of internal or external bleeding.
Check for life-threatening conditions and

immediately attend to:
s • Not Breathing
u
r • No Pulse
v
i
Breathing - With your cheek near the • Bleeding
v patient’s nose and mouth, listen and feel • Shock (pale, cool, and clammy skin)
a
l for breath and watch for the any • Unconsciousness
movement of the chest for 10 seconds.
If no breathing is apparent, give two Treatment details for each of these are
slow breaths. explained later in this part.
Secondary survey
Only when you are sure that the casualty
has no life-threatening conditions needing
Source: All images Canadian Red Cross (CRC)
immediate attention should you do a

secondary survey. The secondary survey is
a way to find other problems that may
need first aid and documentation of all
information gathered. The secondary
survey has three steps:
• Interview the casualty and/or

bystanders.
Record name, contact number, time, what
happened, casualty history (medical
conditions and medications, allergies,
last meal).
114
• Check vital signs Stretcher

Vitals should be recorded every 10 The safest method for moving all types of
minutes and compared to evaluate the injuries is the stretcher, which can be
casualty's condition. improvised from many materials (e.g.,
blanket, coats, pack frame and poles). Be
Vitals sure to test the stretcher first with an
uninjured individual of the same size,
Time: if possible.
Level of Consciousness:
Breathing Rate and Quality:
Pulse Rate and Rhythm:
Skin Temperature and color:
• Perform a head to toe

Do a careful, systematic examination of
the body and be careful not to cause
further injury.
Your findings are important; write down

what you find. This information should be
sent with the individual that is going for Pack frame stretcher
help and also to the medical aid personnel.
Movement of victim
Where it is necessary to transport the patient, s
u
this must be accomplished with a minimum r
of danger and discomfort. Under normal v
i
circumstances a casualty unable to move v
a
under his own power should remain where l
he is until sufficient rescue and transport
equipment can be brought to them. There are
occasions; however, when a casualty must be
moved. In most circumstances, carrying a
person is limited to a short distance.
Once the casualty’s injuries have been

treated and his condition has been

stabilized, it may be appropriate to move
him a short distance to a place more suitable
for providing additional care. The most
important part of transporting an accident
victim is making sure that movement does Coat stretcher
not further complicate injuries. Ask yourself
if you really have to move the casualty.
Before you move a victim, consider the

nature of the injury, the distance from
help, the type of terrain, weather, and
time of day.
115
Carries You should also make sure you know your

If immediate, short distance movement destination and route thoroughly. Be able
from potential environmental hazards to reach help even if the weather changes
is necessary, the following methods for the worse. Be certain you can direct
are appropriate: help to the exact location of the victim.
What other resources are in the area that
• Drag carry can help you?
• Hand carry
• Chair carry Consider these points carefully before you
take action and always keep in mind that
If you must leave a victim to go for help, it is your responsibility to try to save a life
make sure the victim is out of shock. without endangering yourself or others.
Consider his state of mind (can they
stay alone?) and protection from
weather conditions.

s
u
r
v
i
v
a Chair carry
l
Drag carry
Hand carry
116
d. Treatment of life-threatening conditions If you see anything in the victim’s mouth

These conditions must receive that may obstruct the air passage, clear it
immediate attention: out with your fingers.
• Not Breathing – start artificial Open your mouth wide and take a deep
breathing; give 1 breath every 5 seconds breath. Use a barrier device over the
• No Pulse – start CPR (15 chest victim’s mouth to form a tight seal.
compressions and 2 breaths)
• Bleeding – lay the casualty down,
elevate the injury if leg or arm, use a
bulky dressing and apply direct
pressure right over the bleed.
Apply a bandage. If it bleeds through,
apply another. Do not remove the
first bandage.
• Shock is pale, cool, and clammy skin –
cover the casualty with a blanket; be Give two breaths and watch for the chest
sure to cover the head. to rise. Do this two times.
• Unconsciousness – put the casualty in
the recovery position
Not breathing
There are many causes of breathing
disruption. Whatever the cause there is
urgency for treatment since the victim

will suffer permanent brain damage or
death after a few minutes without s
u
oxygen. Start artificial respiration r
immediately, and if in doubt continue v
i
until medical help arrives. Check carotid (neck) pulse for 10 seconds. v
a
l
Artificial respiration
It is recommended that you use a barrier
device, that is, a pocket mask, when doing
rescue breathing. To begin mouth-to-
mouth artificial respiration and, if a
fractured neck is not suspected, gently tilt
the victim’s head back.
If pulse is present, continue artificial

respiration; give one breath every 5 seconds.
117
No pulse Bleeding
If the pulse is absent, do CPR. Do four Bleeding occurs in two manners, either
cycles of compressions/breathing, then external or internal. Learn how to treat
recheck the pulse for 10 seconds. both manners of bleeding.
Give 15 compressions External Bleeding

Cuts are a common injury usually
resulting from accidents with tools, such
as axes, hatchets, and knives.
Bleeding from most cuts can be stopped

by pressing firmly on the cut with a thick
cloth pad. Press the pad firmly, directly
over the wound, and hold it there until
the bleeding stops. Keep pressing for at
least five minutes.
Do not dab at the cut and do not keep

looking to see if the bleeding has stopped.
If you release the pressure too soon the
bleeding will start again. If the dressing
becomes soaked, don’t remove it. Add
Give two slow breaths another on top and increase the pressure.

If the cut is on an arm or leg, keep it
elevated, if possible, to help stop the
s bleeding. Have the victim lie down.
u
r
v If blood is coming in spurts, it means an
i
v artery has been cut. Bleeding from an
a
l artery can cause death in just a few
minutes if it is not stopped quickly. To
stop bleeding from a severed artery, use
firm direct pressure over the wound.
A good way to remember the basics of

first aid for external bleeding is the
acronym RED:
Don’t stop CPR until the victim starts RED

breathing on his own, or another person
relieves you.
R - rest
E - elevate
D - direct pressure
118
#1 Put the patient at rest; lay them down. pressure against the bone on the inside of the
arm on the brachial artery, halfway between
#2 Elevate the bleeding part above the elbow and shoulder. If the cut is in the leg,
the heart. blood flow can be controlled by applying
strong pressure against the femoral artery on
#3 Apply dressings and bandage for the bone in the groin area.
direct pressure.
Indirect pressure points are used when elevation
Check to be sure bleeding has stopped. and pressures do not control the bleed. It is
unlikely that you will need an indirect pressure
The combination of elevation and direct point since most bleeding is controlled by
pressure will control most bleeding. putting the patient at rest, elevating the injury
If the cut is in the lower arm, blood flow above the heart and application of direct
can be controlled by applying strong pressure right over the bleed.
Main arterial Main arterial pressure points

A. system to stop bleeding.
B.
C. E. F.
D.
Source: Canadian Red Cross (CRC)
s
A. u
r
B. v
i
v
a
l
G. C.
D.
E.
F.
G.
119
• Tourniquet b. Internal Bleeding

A tourniquet should be used only when all Internal bleeding may be suspected from
other means of elevation and direct the history of the accident (e.g., crushed
pressure on the wound prove ineffective. by a log) and symptoms, such as loss of
The indirect pressure point will control all consciousness or rapid, laboured
bleeding since it is directly over the artery. breathing, thirst, pale, cool, clammy skin.
Bleeding from natural openings may also
Tourniquets often do more harm than be visible and pulse may become weaker
good and can result in the loss of a limb. and more rapid.
• Embedded objects • Keep the victim in the recovery position.

Do not remove any embedded objects as • Watch for changes in symptoms, such as
this could lead to further damage and choking or difficulty breathing.
bleeding. Protect the wound by padding • Transport the victim to a hospital and
around the object report that you suspect internal bleeding.
• Don’t give any fluids or anything else by
mouth, even if requested by the victim.
c. Chest Injury Management

Penetrating (sucking) chest wounds
A puncture wound penetrating the lung or
chest cavity around the lung lets air go in
and out of the cavity, thus producing a
sucking sound. Air sucks in and out with
each breath. This condition often results
Support the object from gunshot wounds or falls and
s demands immediate treatment.
u
r
v If an object is embedded in the chest DO
i
v NOT REMOVE it. Stop the air from

a
l entering the chest and the "sucking" sound
by sealing the wound with a gloved hand.
When all other life-threatening conditions
are cared for, apply an airtight "sealing"
dressing, e.g., plastic and tape in place.
Apply a pressure dressing Rib Fractures

Stabilize all fracture segments. A pad large
enough to cover the segment and no
larger, may be taped firmly in place.
DO NOT APPLY ANY ENCIRLING TAPES
OR TIES AROUND THE CHEST.
Place the victim in the recovery position

with the injured side down, and transport
to hospital as quickly as possible.
120
Shock Unconsciousness
The victim of any kind of accident or An unconscious victim presents special
medical emergency will often suffer shock problems. All unconscious victims are in
in addition to his injuries. Shock is one of danger of suffocating.
the most dangerous things you will
encounter in an accident situation, and Check for unconsciousness by calling the
can lead to death if not properly treated. victim and tapping their shoulder.
Shock may occur immediately, or it may
happen several hours after an accident. If you get no response, do a head tilt, chin
lift, check for breathing. Look for chest
Shock is usually caused by internal or movement. Listen for breathing. Feel for
external bleeding. Recheck any bandages breath on your cheek.
to ensure bleeding is controlled. Shock is
often more serious than the injury itself. If the victim’s breathing is noisy (gurgling
or snoring sounds), he starts to vomit or
A person in shock is pale, cool, perspiring, bleed from the mouth, or if you must
and feels anxiety, weakness, and confused. leave him briefly, place the victim in the
The pulse will be rapid and weak and may recovery position. Do a secondary survey
progress to unconsciousness. by monitoring vitals every 10 minutes and
recording any changes in condition.
No matter what the accident, after
immediate first aid treatment has been Once the three most dangerous situations
given, keep the victim lying down even if (breathing, bleeding, and shock) have
he doesn’t want to. Handle a shock been treated, you may begin treating other
victim gently. injuries. This manual cannot describe all
possible injuries, but several common
Keep the person warm, but not hot. A ones are discussed below. s
u
person in shock loses body heat rapidly, r
which makes the shock more severe. v
i
Cover him with a blanket or coat. If he is v
a
on the ground and his injuries permit l
movement, put a blanket underneath
Source: Canadian Red Cross (CRC)
him/her and a hat on the head.
If the victim is conscious and medical aid

is delayed for a long period of time, they
may be given small amounts of liquid. If
the wound is in the stomach or lower
chest, or if internal bleeding is suspected,
do not give the victim anything to eat or
drink, even though he may be very thirsty.
121
e. Common field injuries be lost through the head. If your feet are
This section will deal with common field cold, wearing a hat will help keep them
injuries or medical emergencies: warm. Don’t sit or lie down on the cold
ground and always carry an instant body
• Hypothermia shelter, such as a sheet of plastic, or
• Heat exposure survival blanket for protection from wind
• Heart attacks and strokes and wet. If the air is very cold, preheat it
• Penetrating (sucking) chest wound through a scarf as you breathe and don’t
sweat; slow down.
Hypothermia
Hypothermia is a dangerous condition Treatment
caused by the body losing heat faster than Treatment includes moving the victim to
it can produce it. Exposure to wind, wet, shelter and warmth as quickly as possible.
and exhaustion causes hypothermia, which If there is no shelter, build a fire.
is the number one killer in the outdoors.
The major factor is almost always
inadequate clothing. Often called exposure,
hypothermia is particularly serious as it
affects the mind as well as the body.
s
u
r
v
i
v
a
l
Remove the victim’s wet clothes and get

them into a warm sleeping bag if possible.
Skin-to-skin contact is the most effective
way of warming the victim. Get into the
The symptoms are difficult to recognize at sleeping bag or lie as close as possible to
first in someone else and even harder to the victim. If they are semi-conscious or
recognize in yourself. Signs are worse, try to keep them awake. As the
uncontrolled shivering, fumbling hands, victim recovers, give them plenty of
frequent stumbling, fuzzy thinking, slow warm, non-alcoholic, sweet liquids. Be
speech, and drowsiness. If not recognized aware that the person assisting by skin-to-
and stopped, memory lapses and skin contact may also become
numbness follow, which can end in hypothermic. If you have more than one
stupor, collapse, and death. other person available, take turns.
The best way to fight hypothermia is to Don’t attempt to warm up by exercise.

avoid it. Up to 50 percent of body heat can This only uses up vital energy.
122
Heat exposure rapidly rises. It is recognized in the

Heat emergencies are generally caused by casualty by red, hot, dry skin, irritable,
prolonged exposure to the sun. Injuries bizarre, or combative behaviour,
due to heat can result in the loss of body progressive loss of consciousness, rapid,
tissue or in the loss of life. Heat cramps, shallow breathing, and rapid, weak pulse.
heat exhaustion, and heatstroke are all Without proper care, the casualty will die.
caused by exposure to heat.
COOL THE BODY WITH ANY MEANS
AVAILABLE: wet towels, put ice packs in
armpits, groin and neck, continue
fanning. A person in heat stroke may stop
breathing or have a heart attack. Be
prepared to do rescue breathing and CPR.
Preventing heat emergencies with

common sense:
• Avoid being outdoors in the hottest
part of the day
• Take frequent breaks in a cool and
shady place
Heat Cramps are painful spasms of • Drink plenty of fluids and avoid
muscles usually in the calves and caffeine and alcohol
abdomen. Have the casualty rest in a cool • Dress for the heat and activity level
place and give cool water, stretch the
muscle, and massage the area.
Heart attacks and strokes
Heat exhaustion is the most common of Heart attacks have a variety of causes and s
u
heat-related injuries. It is more serious and first aid is very important. Symptoms r
is recognized by normal or slightly include pain in the chest (may not always v
i
elevated body temperature, cool, pale be present), a shortness of breath, v
a
moist skin, headache, nausea, dizziness, dizziness, and sometimes unconsciousness. l
weakness, and exhaustion. If you can
recognize heat exhaustion in the early First aid includes:
stages, you can usually reverse it. Move
the casualty to a cool shady place away 1. Send for medical assistance
from heat and give cool water to drink. immediately.
Loosen any tight clothing and remove
clothing soaked with perspiration. Put 2. If the victim is conscious, calm and
cool water on the skin and fan the reassure him. Intense emotion often
casualty to increase evaporation. If heat brings on an attack.
exhaustion progresses, the casualty’s
condition worsens. The casualty may 3. Don’t move the victim unless absolutely
vomit and show signs of changes in level necessary. If he has difficulty breathing,
of consciousness, signalling the beginning keep him in a position of comfort for
of heat stroke. him, which most commonly is in a
sitting or semi-reclined position, or raise
Heat stroke is a life-threatening his head and chest on supporting
emergency and can lead to coma and material like pillows.
death if the body is not cooled. Heat
stroke develops when the body can no 4. Don’t allow the victim to exert himself
longer cool itself and body temperature in any way.
123
Strokes occur when blood circulation to a Wound management

vital part of the brain is blocked. A "small"
stroke produces very mild symptoms and This section will deal with:
may be wrongly ignored. A series of small
strokes may precede a major stroke and • Blisters
lead to death or paralysis. • Abrasions and laceration
Symptoms of a small stroke include • Sprains
headache, dizziness, weakness, loss of • Fractures
muscular use in some part of the body, and
brief loss or impairment of speech,
memory, or vision. Convulsions, paralysis Blisters
of one side of the body or face, and bulging Blisters are preventable. Inspect your feet
eyes are indications of a major stroke. often for tender red patches which are the
beginnings of blisters. Cover these areas
with moleskin or adhesive tape to protect
the skin from being rubbed by your boot.
Although they may seem minor, blisters

on your feet can become major injuries if
not treated properly.
Once a blister has formed, make a donut

bandage (a round pad with the centre cut
out) to protect the blister and bandage it
in place.
s Do not break blisters, as this opens the

u
r way to infection.
v
i
v Abrasions and lacerations
a
l Once the bleeding has stopped, the area
In either case: around the wound should be cleaned.
Wash around the wound with clean water
1. Call for medical help immediately. and soap. Be very gentle or the bleeding
may start again.
2. Have the victim lie down on his back,
if possible. If he is having trouble After the wound has been carefully
breathing or is vomiting, place him in cleaned and allowed time to dry, apply a
the recovery position with the sterile dressing or gauze compress and
paralyzed side down. hold it firmly in place with tensorwrap
or looptie.
3. Loosen his clothing and keep him
warm but not hot. Check for signs of infection, redness,
swelling, heat, and pus. If an infection is
4. If he is to be transported, be sure he is present, seek medical aid immediately.
in the recovery position, preferably
with a lot of padding under the body As a precaution against serious infection,
and with a pillow under his head. anyone planning a hunting or camping
trip should receive an anti-tetanus toxin
injection before starting out.
124
Sprains
Sprains are an injury to ligaments and
muscles around a joint. Symptoms are
swelling, tenderness, and pain.
DO NOT REMOVE THE BOOT! except

when circulation is impaired. The boot
serves as a splint and controls swelling.
Don’t move broken limbs to their "natural"

position. Splint them where they are.
Sometimes you have to make use of what

you are carrying with you to make a sling.
Whatever you carry with you should have
at least three uses; one of them should be
first aid.
Keep the injured limb elevated and apply s
cold for 15 minutes every hour for 24-48 Wilderness and Remote u
r
hours after the injury. Applying cold v
First Aid Course i
compresses will reduce swelling and pain. v
a
Treat a severe sprain like a fracture and contact: l
immobilize with splints.
Canadian Red Cross
Fractures (broken bones) 1-888-307-7997
There are two types of fractures. A simple
fracture is a closed break where there is no www.redcross.ca
wound associated with the broken bone. A
compound or open fracture is one where
there is a wound and therefore a danger of
infection to the bone. It may be difficult
to detect a fracture. If in doubt, treat as if a
fracture exists.
Symptoms of a fracture include swelling,

point pain over fracture site, inability to
move the injured part, deformity.
Handle the victim gently. Cover wounds

with sterile dressings to prevent infection.
Immobilize the fracture with splints or by
tying the injured limb to the victim’s body.
125
SUPPLEMENTAL
Are you prepared for a

set up could cover the whole management
hunting emergency?
unit." The sun came out by 2 p.m. and the
By Sid Nielsen
temperature reached 70 degrees Fahrenheit,
which helped to dry things out.
Some hunting trips go well and some do not.
But with proper planning you can be prepared
The next day was dry and warm. The hunt
for most incidents. On October 12, 1998, we
in the morning was good. Bill and I saw four
set out from Campbell River at 4:30 a.m. to
moose, all females with calves, and one big
catch the first ferry to Vancouver. There were
old grizzly bear. Not an uncommon sight in
three members in our hunting party: Bill
this area.
Tsangaris, Bill Walker and I. With the three of
us switching off driving we made it to Windy
We planned the evening hunt. Bill Walker
Point just past Prince George the first night
and I were to go back to the area where the
and slept on the ground overnight. The next
grizzly bear was sighted. We had seen fresh
day we drove to Fort Saint John. We stocked
tracks from a big bull moose. I left camp at
up on necessary supplies at the local shopping
5:30 p.m. with the ATV to get water from
plaza and then headed to Pink Mountain.
the spring and return to the camp. Bill
Camp was set up and supper on by 5 p.m.
Walker was planning to leave camp at 6:30
p.m. with the other ATV.
Bill Walker and I took the two ATVs and
went up to the spring to get water and do a
s
I was to meet Bill Walker at the tree stand by
u
little scouting. We saw two cows and a calf
r
the big meadow. It would take him about 35
moose. We came back to camp in good spir-
v minutes to get there. I would come in from
i its. During the first evening we sat around
v the other side at about the same time, driving
a and told a bunch of lies and planned how we
l any animals toward Bill.
were going to hunt the area. Bill Walker and
I knew the country and we would hunt
I came in from the far end of the meadow
together on the ATVs. Bill Tsangaris would
and looked through the binoculars. I could
take the pickup and hunt the road.
see Bill’s ATV at approximately 1,000 metres
away. With the sun’s glare off the ATV, I
As luck would have it, it poured rain on the
could not see if Bill was there. I moved closer
camp all night. Opening morning we ven-
and was 200 metres from the ATV when I
tured out into the rain to start hunting. We
saw Bill. Approximately 50 metres from the
hunted until 10:00 a.m. and returned to
ATV, I could then see Bill lying on his back,
camp just as the rain stopped!
cap over his eyes and rifle across his lap with
his finger on the trigger. I did not yell as I
Camped next to us were two young hunters
thought he was sleeping. Bill could sleep any-
who had pitched their dome tent during dry
where and I did not want to startle him espe-
weather. Their tent was now sitting in a sea
cially with gun in hand!
of gumbo. The two Bills and I went over to
see them. We invited them to share our
As I approached from the butt side of the gun
camp. As Bill Walker said, "the tarp we had
I could see that something was terribly wrong.
126
I removed the gun and immediately checked with a steep bank up the other side. I had to
the action discovering that it was loaded with get some duct tape and tape the throttle
one in the chamber and two in the box maga- down. The ATV was aimed at the far bank.
zine. The safety was off. I made the gun safe As the ATV started to move I went to the
and then checked Bill first for his breathing. back of it and picked up the travois, walking
Breathing was very shallow and smelled like it through the stream and up the other side.
acetone. I then checked the pulse on his wrist
and it was very weak. I was calling him all It was straight going from there to camp. I
the while but got no response. There were no stopped and checked Bill for breathing and
other physical signs of an accident. pulse. I prayed that there would be somebody
in camp. As I drove into camp my partner
I looked around the area and coming up the Bill Tsangaris drove in with my pickup at the
meadow was the same grizzly that we had same time. It was now 8 p.m.
seen the day before. Right at that point I had
some tough decisions to make. I was three Placing Bill in the recovery position on a
miles from camp, which was 10 miles in from foamy in the truck, we lost no time driving
the Alaska Highway at Mile 138. It was 7:10 to the Pink Mountain Store to call the
p.m. There was no one in camp as my other ambulance service. The ambulance
partner was out hunting with the truck. responded from Mile 143, with two people.
Meanwhile, the grizzly bear was getting closer. The driver then applied some kind of
sweetener, as Bill was a diabetic. We s
u
The first step was to get rid of the grizzly loaded Bill on the gurney, face up on a r
bear. I yelled and blew my whistle but the v
pack board in case CPR was required. Bill i
grizzly bear stood up to look around. He was still had a pulse at this time. I was sur- v
a
now 75 metres from us. I took Bill’s gun and prised when the ambulance came back to l
fired three shots into the ground right in front get me for additional support. Bill’s pulse
of the grizzly bear. This did two things; it was getting weaker and they required a
chased the grizzly bear away and gave a uni- third person to monitor breathing and
versal distress signal. assist with CPR, if necessary.
I then had to build a travois (a simple wheel- We met the other ambulance from Fort Saint
less vehicle made of two poles dragged behind John at Mile 95. This is where we lost Bill.
a vehicle, dog, or horse) to carry Bill. I cut Bill’s heart had failed. Later a doctor told me
two poplar poles about 14 feet long with my that even if Bill had of been in hospital he
axe. Using a frame lashing, I tied the poles to probably would not have survived.
the back of the ATV. Then using my coat,
spare pants and Bill’s jacket, I made a In closing, I cannot stress enough the impor-
stretcher and put Bill on it, face down and tance of adequate training, proper equipment,
roped him to it. and supplies. Above all, keep calm and think
things out. I will miss Bill a lot. A good
I then started back to camp. As I got to the hunting partner is harder to find than a good
end of the meadow I had to cross a stream wife, and Bill was a good partner.
127
PART II
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. List five items that should be included in your survival kit. ______________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
2. List five items that should be included in your first aid kit. ______________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
3. Describe six ways you can prepare yourself before hunting. ______________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
s
____________________________________________________________________________
u ____________________________________________________________________________
r
v ____________________________________________________________________________
i
v
a
l
4. Describe how a compass works, and how can you use it to
return to your camp after a hunt.
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
5. What is the declination in southern B.C.? ______________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
128
6. What six things should you do if lost? ________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
7. List the three objectives of first aid. ____________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
8. What are the five priority conditions that must be treated immediately? __________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
s
9. How do you stop external bleeding? __________________________________________ u
____________________________________________________________________________ r
v
____________________________________________________________________________ i
v
a
l
10. Describe the symptoms of shock. ______________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
11. Outline the treatment for heat stroke. ________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
12. What is the treatment for hypothermia? ______________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
129
PART III:
ORIENTEERING EQUIPMENT
AND ITS USAGE
Part three is broken into the following follow the road five kilometres until you
sections: reach the lake.
1. Introduction These common directions use natural

2. Directional aids features, which are generally highly visible
3. Maps during daylight conditions and in good
4. Compass weather. What do you do if it is cloudy,
5. GPS foggy, rainy, and at night? You may not be
able to see the intersection of the road to
1. Introduction make the turn. You can use your trip
It is hard to believe but far too often people meter on your speedometer to help you
get lost on the North Shore mountains. find your way.
You are only several kilometres from
downtown Vancouver. At some places on Other directional aids that can be used are:
the mountains the view is majestic,
especially at night with the city lights. • Maps
How is this possible that people get lost? • Compasses
• GPS (Global Positioning System)
The difficulty is that the clouds come in, it
gets dark, and starts to rain. Add to this the Trying to learn how to use these
forest canopy which blocks the majestic directional aids once your are lost is poor
view of Vancouver, and you no longer planning. These items take training and
s have any landmarks to use to find your practice in order to use them effectively. s
u u
r way out of the woods. It is getting near r
v
i
dusk and all the trees are starting to look 3. Maps v
i
v the same. You have taken a shortcut off the Maps tell you where you are in relation to v
a a
l trail. On top of this you left your map and your surroundings. There are a variety of l
compass in the car because you were only types of maps that are commonly
going for a one-hour hike. Sounds like the available.
North Shore Search and Rescue volunteers
are going to get called out again. a. Tourist
Tourist maps are generally provided on the
It is important that before you venture back of a brochure. They help you find
outdoors you plan your trip, perform a map your way to an attraction, such as the
appreciation, and practice your orienteering waterslides by Cultus Lake. Generally, they
skills using map, compass, and even only give landmarks and general
Ground Position System (GPS) equipment. directions on how to find the attractions.
Take a course on orienteering. Remember to
STOP if you get lost in the woods. b. Road
Road maps are found at your nearest gas
2. Directional aids station. They are great for finding your
There are a variety of directional aids that way around in a city or travelling down a
you can use when you venture outdoors. highway. You can get road maps that are
Simple directions, such as you travel down for the entire province or just a specific
the road three kilometres, turn right after town. Road maps generally do not provide
crossing the bridge. Follow the logging enough details when you are off-road and
road to the T-intersection. Turn left and up a hiking trail.
130
c. Recreational shown accurately, as are major, secondary

Recreational maps can be obtained at and side roads, and all man-made
various sources, such as Crown features, such as buildings, power lines,
Publications, forestry and logging dams, and cut lines. They can also be used
companies, and various ministry offices. as road maps when travelling on back
All hunters should invest in a British roads and side roads.
Columbia Recreational Atlas. The
recreational atlas will give you Topographical maps are available from a
management unit boundaries that are variety of sources. Many sporting and
not found on road maps. This is very outdoors stores sell topographical maps.
helpful in determining if you are in the Check out the Website
correct area for hunting. The recreational http://maps.NRCan.gc.ca/
atlas is in the scale 1: 600,000. In other or call 1-800-230-6275 for information
words 1 cm on the map = 6 km on the on topographical maps dealers.
ground. It comes in an 8-1/2 by 11-inch
book format and is easy to carry in your Topographical maps take time to learn
car or backpack. The recreational atlas how to use. Some features found on a
covers all of British Columbia. topographical map are:
Some logging companies will put out a • Title

recreational map of a given area. This • Scale
map will show all the spurs found in a • Magnetic declination
logging area. These details are not • Legend
normally provided in enough detail on
a standard road map or in the Topographical maps are orientated north,
recreational atlas. that is, the top of the map is north.
s Topographical maps are also broken into s
u u
r d. Topographical grids so that you can find your location. r
v Using information contained in the This grid reference is very helpful when you v
i i
v National Topographic Data Base, The want to tell another person where you are. v
a a
l Centre for Topographic Information l
produces topographic maps at scales of The features on the map are listed on the
1:50,000 and 1:250,000. Topographic legend. Contour lines on topographical
maps are ideal for recreational activities, maps indicate elevation. If the lines are far
such as hunting, fishing, hiking, apart, this indicates a gentle slope. If the
snowmobiling, etc. Hills, valleys, lakes, lines are close together, this indicates a
rivers, streams and wooded areas are steeper slope or hill.
131
s s
u u
r r
v v
i i
v v
a a
l l
Topographical Map
Prior to a hunting trip or other outdoor the layout of the land. Is it very hilly,
venture, obtain a topographical map of the forested, etc.? Use a piece of string to help
area you are travelling to. Perform a map measure the approximate distance for
appreciation, that is, study the map. travelling down a specific road. Compare
Determine the routes in and out of the area. your measurement to the scale provided at
the bottom on map. Set the magnetic
Notice the various landmarks and declination of your compass using the
topographical features, such as rivers, lakes information provided on the
and streams, you will encounter. Determine topographical chart.
132
4. Compasses objects. Stand several feet away from any

Always take two compasses on any hunting firearms, axes, or knives when taking a
trip: one to use and a spare in your survival compass bearing. Even a metal belt buckle
kit. There are many types of compasses can distort the needle’s action.
available. They range from a simple pocket
compass, which shows general directions, A compass needle always points to
to complex models with sights and sighting magnetic north. The difference between
lines, useful for drawing maps or navigating true and magnetic north is called
exactly to specific locations. declination. As of 1999 in southern B.C.,
magnetic north is about 19 degrees east of
A pocket compass is satisfactory when true north. Declination is simply the
you just need to know basic north, angular difference between true north and
south, east, and west directions to find the magnetic north shown by a compass
your destination. There are several types needle. Most maps show direction relative
of pocket compass. The best of these has to true north, so declination must be
a liquid-filled dial which slows the considered by using a map and compass.
swinging of the compass needle and
makes it easier to use. Practice with your compass before you go
on your hunting trip. The time to orient
Be sure to hold the compass horizontally yourself using your compass, map, and
and flat. Otherwise, the needle may stick landmarks is when you leave camp at the
or show an inaccurate reading. The beginning of your day. If you wait until
compass must be kept away from metal you are lost, it will be too late.
s s
u u
r Parts of a compass r
v v
i i
v v
a a
l l
Base plate (transparent)

Rules in inches
Direction-of-travel arrow
Magnifying lens
North point of dial
(luminous)
Index pointer
Orienting arrow
Rules in millimetres
Magnetic needle
Safety cord (north end red and luminous)
Grading dial
(360 degrees in 2-degree graduations)
Compass housing Orienting lines
(turnable) (compass meridian lines)
133
a. Using a compass without a map Pick out a landmark along the line of sight
Compasses can be used three ways and walk to it. When you reach the landmark,
without a map: orient yourself again, walk to your next
landmark, orient yourself again, and walk to
• To find directions or a bearing from your next landmark and so on. It is a good
one point to another idea to write the bearing down, if possible,
• To follow a bearing from one point to because a twig or limb may touch your
another compass housing and move it.
• To return to a point of departure after
travelling on a bearing To return to your starting point, turn
around; orient your compass to the opposite
To follow this or any other bearing is bearing, and using landmarks as before, walk
also a simple matter. With the needle to it. This is calling "using reversed bearing".
and orienting arrow aligned as in the Thus, if you were travelling on a bearing of
picture below: 60 degrees, the reverse bearing would be 60
degrees plus 180 degrees = 240 degrees.
A landmark should be chosen that is on the

course of the hunter's ultimate destination
and one that will be visible until it is
destination
reached. On reaching the marker, the
hunter chooses another landmark in the
direction of distance and checks the bearing again with
travel the map and compass.
line of In a forest, a straight course can be

s sighting maintained by lining up two trees and s
u u
r walking directly toward them. As the first r
v tree is reached a third tree is lined up, v
i i
v behind and in a straight line with the v
a a
l second. This procedure is repeated each time l
another of the trees is reached.
A common mistake when using a compass is

to look at the bearing too often. Renew your
bearing only as often as the distance
between good landmarks dictates. The
distance will vary with the terrain, cover and
visibility, ranging from three to 20 metres in
thick brush or fog to one-half kilometre or
more in open country on a clear day.
Remember too, that a compass can only give
you the direction you want to travel, but
cannot tell you where you are. You should
have a general idea where you are before you
try to use a compass. Therefore, before
entering the woods, always take time to
check the bearing of the road you are leaving
and the direction you are travelling. Then, if
you get "turned around", the reverse bearing
will take you back.
134
Because a compass is equipped with a To find the direction or bearing between two
magnetic needle, be careful to keep it away points on a map:
from all iron-bearing metal and electric 1. Draw a line between your starting point
currents. This includes axes, knives, and your destination (A-B).
firearms, fishing rods, bridges, car, etc. 2. Lay the base plate edge of the compass
along this line. Make sure the direction of
A compass is best used in combination the travel arrow is pointing in the
with a map. The map will show which direction you wish to go.
direction to take to get to a specific 3. Holding the compass base steady, turn
location. The compass will keep you the compass housing so the orienting
walking in the right direction. lines in the compass housing are parallel
with any meridian (north-south) line on
b. Using maps and compass the map. Make sure that north on the
A compass used alone is a valuable asset in compass housing is pointing toward
unknown territory, but use it with an up- north on the map.
to-date detailed map and a solid grasp of 4. Read the bearing on the compass
map and compass principle, and you have housing at the base of the direction of
the next best thing to a local guide. travel arrow. In this example, 50 degrees.
Individually, a map and compass are Failure to comply with the directions above
valuable tools for navigation; together will result in an error of 180 degrees. Since
they extend the limits of each, allowing us most topographical maps are oriented
to determine the direction and distance to according to true north, a correction for
a destination and our ability to reach it. what is known as declination must be made.
Check on the margin of the map to
The distance from one point to another is determine the angle of declination.
s determined by measuring the distance on Depending where you are in Canada, add or s
u u
r the map. This measurement is then subject the angle of magnetic declination to r
v converted to the distance in field by any bearings taken from the map. v
i i
v means of the map scale. For example a v
a a
l measurement of 2 cm between two points If we are using a map of the Town of l
on a 1:50,000-scale map would be Mission, B.C., and our map bearing is
equivalent to 1 km in the field. 50 degrees, we would add 19 degrees
declination. This would give us a magnetic
(field) bearing of 69 degrees.
135
5. GPS (Global Positioning System) time accuracy is in the 10-foot range. Sub-
The Global Positioning System is a metre accuracy can be obtained by using
constellation of satellites that orbit the DGPS and post-processing calculations in
earth twice a day, transmitting precise static positioning.
time and position (latitude, longitude, and
altitude) information. With a GPS receiver, While a GPS is a great tool, it can fail you.
users can determine their location The GPS is operated on batteries, which
anywhere on the earth. This information need replacing or recharging. Depending
can be used in charting and mapping, on the quality and brand of GPS, you may
plotting a course, navigating from point to find it hard to get a signal from a satellite
point, tracking vehicle movement, due to the dense forest canopy and
locating previously identified sites or any weather conditions. Always bring a
number of similar functions. compass as a backup when using a GPS.
Use a GPS in connection with a good
a. How does GPS work? topographical map. Also take the time to
The basis of GPS technology is precise learn how to use the GPS properly prior to
time and position information. Using that big trip.
atomic clocks and location data, each
satellite continuously broadcasts the time
and its position. A GPS receiver receives Conclusion
these signals, listening to three or more It does not matter what type of
satellites at once, to determine the user’s orienteering equipment you plan to use,
position on earth. you must learn how to use it properly and
practice what you have learned. When out
By measuring the time interval between in the field, do not let your ego get the
the transmission and the reception of a best of you. Always ask for directions and
s satellite signal, the GPS receiver calculates confirm those directions on your map. s
u u
r the user and each satellite. Using the Know where you started from and the r
v distance measurements of at least three direction you are going. If you have not v
i i
v satellites in an algorithm computation, reached your landmark, do not continue v
a a
l the GPS receiver arrives at an accurate travelling. Stop and review your route. It is l
position fix. Information must be received very easy to get turned around in the
from three satellites in order to obtain woods. If lost remember STOP.
two-dimensional fixes (latitude and
longitude), and four satellites are required
for three-dimensional positioning
(latitude, longitude and altitude).
Under normal conditions, the GPS signal

will provide a civilian user with an
accuracy of better than 15 metres (50
feet). However, using a technique called
differential GPS (DGPS), the user can
increase the overall accuracy of the GPS
receiver to approximately 1-3 metres.
With DGPS, one GPS receiver unit is
placed in a known location and the
position information from that receiver is
used to calculate correction in the
position data transmitted to other GPS
receivers in the area. The resulting real-
136
PART III.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Name three types of maps. ____________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
2. What direction does the needle on a compass point? ____________________________

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
3. If your GPS equipment fails, you should resort to what tools? ____________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
4. When using a good quality compass, you should always

set the _______________________ declination on the compass.
s
u
r
v
i
v
5. Before you leave the road to travel into the woods, you should a
always take a _____________________ with your compass. l
137
PART IV:
COMMON FIELD EQUIPMENT
Having the proper field equipment, e.g., subsequently tested the new 12,000 BTU
backpacks, knives, tents, heaters, etc., propane heater. The heater was found in
and knowing how to safely use this perfect working condition and labelled
equipment is important for your personal with a warning not to be used in
enjoyment and safety while in the unventilated enclosed areas.
outdoors. Having a sharp knife will speed
up the skinning process and save you This part is broken into three sections
time. You must be careful that you cut
away from yourself with the knife. You do 1. Cutting instruments
not want to end up cutting yourself with 2. Backpacks
the knife and having to travel back into 3. Camping equipment
town for medical treatment.
1. Cutting instruments
Prepare a kit list so you remember to It is very common for hunters to carry and
bring everything. There is nothing more use knives, axes, and saws. Many of these
frustrating than having canned food cutting instruments have different
for your trip and forgetting to bring a models, which are designed for a specific
can opener. job. Choose the right equipment for the
right job. Learn how to use these cutting
Practice using your field equipment instruments safely.
prior to venturing into the outdoors.
Read the owner’s manual and follow a. Knives
the safety directions/warning labels on Some hunters prefer a sheath knife, others
s your equipment. like a pocketknife. It is often wise to carry s
u u
r both when hunting in case one is broken r
v In the 1996 hunting season, two hunters or lost. v
i i
v set up a campsite approximately 49 v
a a
l kilometres southeast of Dawson Creek. l
They used their cell phone to call home to
report that the camp was set up and that
they were wet and cold because of rain.
The temperature that evening was going
to drop down to15 degrees Celsius. The
hunters then turned on their new 12,000
Source: AHEIA
BTU propane heater to dry off themselves

and their mid-size camping tent.
The next day at 8 p.m. a conservation Pocket knife

officer on patrol entered the camp to Fixed knife
perform a hunter check. The conservation
officer found the propane heater operating The blade of any knife should
from inside the tent. Both hunters were be of good quality steel so it will keep its
dead in their sleeping bags. Cause of death edge for a reasonable time. With regular
was carbon monoxide poisoning, 83% use around camp, a knife will need to be
saturation carboxyhemoglobin. sharpened every three or four days.
The Gas Inspection Branch of the Knife blades should not be used to pry,
Provincial Safety Engineering Department chop, or bore holes.
138
Sheath knife 30-degree angle to the stone. Start at the

The blade of a sheath knife, to be effective knife handle end of the blade and, in a
for hunting purposes, should be no longer sweeping motion, rub the blade against the
than 4 inches (10 cm). Longer knives are stone to the tip. Turn the blade over and
clumsy and not as versatile as a 4-inch sharpen the other side. Maintain an even
(10-cm) blade, which can be used for pressure and the same angle consistently
many chores, such as butchering, throughout the sharpening process.
skinning and whittling.
To test if the edge is completely
Sheath knives should remain in their sharpened, run the blade edge lightly over
scabbards at all times when not in use. the tip of your fingernail. The edge of the
The sheath, or scabbard, should be made blade should grab at the fingernail. If the
of durable leather, reinforced at the tip blade slips at any spot on its edge,
with wire or copper rivets. continue to rub the blade against the
stone a few more times.
To keep your sheath in good condition,
clean it with saddle soap, never oil. Saddle For a razor-sharp finish to your blade, you
soap will keep the leather supple. can give it a final "stropping" on a strip of
heavy leather rubbed with jeweler's rouge.
Pocket knife
A pocket knife for hunting should have Many sportsmen carry a sharpening steel
two strong blades, each between 2-1/2 to 3 with them to touch up the edge on their
inches (6 cm to 8 cm) long. A pen knife is knife between proper sharpening.
not suitable for such use.
Pocket knives should be kept folded when

s not in use. s
u u
r r
v Sharpening a knife v
i i
v Knives must be kept sharp to perform their v
a a
l functions properly. Present day sharpening l
and grinding implements include a variety
of electric-powered wheels and abrasive
stones. Great care must be taken when Use sweeping or
using power equipment. In inexperienced rotating motion.
hands, these grinders and sharpeners can
do more harm than good. Most power
sharpening and grinding devices produce a
great deal of friction, which generates very
hot temperatures. Overheating will "draw"
the temper, thereby ruining the blade,
which will never hold a keen edge again.
There is a danger too, that an
inexperienced person may grind away too
much of the blade.
The safest method for the average person is

to use a sharpening stone. Keep the stone
wet using a honing oil or any fine grade Reverse blade to
oil. Holding the stone in one hand and the sharpen other side
knife in the other, keep the blade at about
139
b. Axes hardwood wedges and insert them in the

The modern outdoorsman will find an axe axe head next to the handle. Drive the
is his most useful tool. Besides felling trees wedges in as far as they will go so the
and chopping wood for fire and shelter, a handle is seated snugly in position and is
well-sharpened axe can skin and clean game as tight as possible.
and, if necessary, the steel axe head can be
used with a piece of flint to start a fire. To protect the handle, rub linseed oil into
the wood of the handle along its entire
Selection of axes length using a soft cloth. Never varnish or
Axes come in different sizes to perform paint an axe handle. Painted or varnished
many different jobs. Axes are categorized handles can cause your hands to blister.
as small, medium and large according to
the weight of the axe head and the length If an axe head is loose, do not use it until
of the handle. it has been tightened. You can tighten a
loose handle by driving the hardwood
A camp axe is a small axe with a head wedges in further to fit more snugly, or
weighing about 2 or 2-1/2 pounds (.8kg you can soak the axe head in water, which
or 1 kg) and a handle between 20 and 28 will cause the wood to swell and the
inches (50 cm to 71 cm) long. It will handle will then fit more tightly.
chop small to medium size logs easily
and can be used for bigger jobs if the In extremely cold weather, always warm
edge is kept razor-sharp. The camp axe an axe before starting to cut. Cold makes
takes up very little space and is ideal the metal brittle which could cause the
when horsepacking or when camping in axe blade to snap.
small quarters.
When using an axe, always work on a
s No matter what size axe you choose, it chopping block. A stump or log makes a s
u u
r should have a forged steel rather than cast satisfactory chopping block. r
v steel head. Cast steel does not hold a v
i i
v sharp edge and breaks more readily than Always be sure no one is standing in line v
a a
l forged steel. with the swing of your axe. Be careful when l
using an axe to ensure that the area of the
The best axes are made from high quality entire swing is clear of all obstructions.
carbon steel, which has been tempered to
resist brittleness. Sharpening an axe
A dull axe is dangerous. A sharp blade will
When selecting a wood-handled axe, be bite into a log, but a dull edge may glance
sure the grain of the wood is straight for off the mark and cause a serious mishap.
the entire length of the handle. Hickory is
considered the best wood for axe handles. To sharpen an axe you will need a file
and, if available, a vise. Place the axe head
Care and use of axes in a vise with the blade up. Clamp the axe
Replace a cracked or splintered axe handle. head in the vise close to where the handle
Do not attempt to patch it. is inserted in the eye. Holding the file flat,
file from the eye along the entire edge.
When replacing a wood axe handle, cut File on the outgoing stroke only,
off the old handle as close to the metal maintaining the same pressure and the
head as possible. The remaining wood can same angle throughout the stroke. Turn
be dug out of the eye of the axe head in the axe head to the opposite direction to
small pieces. Insert the new handle in the file the other side of the blade. Be sure to
eye and tap it into place. Cut two file both sides evenly.
140
An axe is the outdoorsman’s most useful

tool. Select a quality axe and care for it
properly. Keep it sharp. Take proper care of
the handle, keeping the head tight and
the handle smooth. Never use your axe to
drive or pound on anything more than a
tent peg. Axes are not designed to be used
as a sledgehammer or as a wedge and
Use outgoing should not be used for these purposes.
down stroke With care, an axe will give the
outdoorsman years of useful service.
c. Saws
While hunting and camping you may find
it handy to have a saw with you. A small
saw is useful when quartering your game.
A manual-operated saw or gas-operated
chainsaw can be used for cutting logs for
firewood and for clearing fallen trees
across the road.
Like knives and axes, saws are useless and

dangerous if they are dull. Keep them
sharp and learn how to use them properly.
Use stone with same Contact the Workers Compensation Board
motion as file of British Columbia for a copy of their
s safety brochure on chainsaws, stock s
u u
r number PH50. r
v In the field, where a vise is not available, v
i i
v extend the edge of the blade over a log or v
a a
l stump and hold the axe head securely l
with your knee or foot while you file.
To check if you have sharpened the blade

evenly, sight down the edge. There should
be a fine bur, or slightly ruffled edge, on
the blade edge. If you notice any bright or
white spots, file the edge again until these
dull patches disappear.
A final rubbing with a fine emery stone

will hone the edge to razor sharpness.
An axe should never be thinned, that is,

ground or filed to a thinner shape than
when it comes from the factory. Grind or
file the axe in a fan-shape, leaving a little
more metal at the corners. The cutting
edge of an axe should be rounded, not
wedge-shape. The rounded edge will throw
wood chips outward, away from the blade.
141
2. Backpacking If it’s too high, you use muscle instead of

For a hunting trip lasting several days in bone to support the weight, and that hurts.
bush or rugged mountain country, The hip band should be padded. Most
backpacking may be the only satisfactory manufacturers offer three lengths of frame.
way to carry all your gear and equipment. Be sure to buy the proper size.
Backpack is a term describing the whole
apparatus carried on your back. It usually To carry game and other heavy loads,
includes a bag or sack to contain your gear many hunters use a "Trapper Nelson"
and a frame to hold the bag in position on frame; a simple packboard made of heavy
your back. canvas stretched between wooden sides
with a detachable bag. The load is
The hunter should choose a sturdy, heavy- strapped to the wooden sides, which are
duty frame to carry his gear. Some about one to two inches thick. Shoulder
experienced backpackers say young people straps hold the pack in place. Only the
under 14 should carry a pack of 30 pounds canvas fabric touches the carrier’s back.
(14 kg) or less and those in their older
teens can carry a pack weighing 40 to 45 Those who use a "Trapper Nelson" claim it
pounds (18 kg to 20 kg). Other experts say holds loads closer to the body than other
the pack can weigh up to one-third of the packs and puts the main carrying effort
carrier’s body weight. directly on the hips and legs rather than
on the shoulders and spine.
Use care when using a backpack. You do
not want to strain yourself and put out Many backpackers use a tumpline for
your back. carrying extra-heavy packs. The tumpline
fastens to both sides of the packframe. It has
a. Packboards a foam-padded headrest in the centre of the
s Packboards are designed to rest easily line, which lies against the carrier’s forehead. s
u u
r against the back, allow freedom of This takes some weight off the shoulder r
v movement and let air circulate freely straps making heavy loads easier to carry. v
i i
v between the pack and the back. Various v
a a
l loads or weight distributions can be b. Packsacks l
arranged on packboard frames. The sack should be flexible in design so
weight distribution can be varied. Gear to
Most packboards have tightly stretched be carried for a short one-day hike and
canvas or nylon webbing lashed between that carried for a trek lasting several days
the vertical sides of the frame. The through heavy bush country will be
webbing serves as a sling to hold the pack. packed in different ways.
It cushions the load against the back and
lets air in between the pack and your back Generally, lighter items will be packed at the
to cool you. bottom of the sack with heavier gear near
the top so most of the weight is near the top
Some modern packboards are made of of the shoulders and close to the body.
welded aluminum or magnesium. These
usually have an adjustable hip band The pack should hang so it does not pull
attached to the lower part of the frame, back on the shoulder straps. When the
which supports most of the pack’s weight. weight is properly distributed, there is an
The hip band should be moved up or upward thrust from the hips and legs and
down to fit your body. It should ride above a lift and pull from the shoulder harness
your hipbones and below your waist. If it is while walking. The weight of the pack
too low, it restricts the thighs when you lift should be supported evenly by the back,
your legs while walking, and that is tiring. shoulders, and legs.
142
Cut-away view of pack

axe
canned food
camera
nesting cookware &
flashlight
utensils
gun cleaning kit
food
toiletries in container
block and tackle
ammunition
rope
wire
ground sheet
meat sacks
clothes
sleeping bag survival kit
odds & ends
first aid kit
extra boots
Weight distribution
s s
u u
r The support and shoulder straps r
v should not restrict the movements v
i
heavy i
v of the back or arms. The straps items v
a a
l should slide freely on the lift bars, medium l
if your pack has them. This weight items
motion will act as a shock absorber
if you slip or fall. light
weight items
Correct weight distribution will
also permit a constant flow of air
between the pack and the carrier’s
back. Very heavy loads should be
balanced so the centre of gravity is
high and close to the shoulders
with heaviest objects as close to
the body as possible. This is the
way to carry game or a heavy
trophy head. When carrying game
heads on a packboard, they
should be flagged with blaze-
orange ribbon.
143
Backpacking trips
The hunter who plans to backpack
should make up his pack ahead of
time. Check the pack’s weight and get
the feel and balance of it. Then
practice carrying it before starting out.
Know your weight limit. Know the

weight you can carry under specific
conditions, such as rough ground and
hilly terrain, high altitude, hot or cold
weather conditions, and your physical
condition, and adjust your pack
weight accordingly.
The only items a backpacker should

carry in his pockets are those things
required from time to time during the
day such as a compass, pocket knife,
waterproof match box, watch, and
handkerchief.
The beginning backpacker should plan

to spend three or four days getting
acquainted with his pack, his
equipment and his ability to handle it.
s s
u u
r To Put on a Pack: r
v a) Lift the frame onto your thigh. v
i i
v v
a a
l b) Put the right arm through the l
shoulder strap and reach down to
grasp the lower corner of the frame.
c) Lift the frame high and to the left

with your right hand, then put your
left arm through the left strap.
d) To get up with a very heavy load,

lean the pack against something so it sits
upright. Sit down and put shoulders in the
straps. Tuck one foot under the other leg
and fasten hip band loosely. Roll onto
hands, knee and foot in the same motion,
stand up. Once up, hunch the shoulders
to raise load and tighten hip band.
144
To Take off a Pack:

If you cannot readily swing out of the
loaded pack frame harness, sit down and
rest the frame on the ground or on a large
rock and then slip out of the harness.
s s
u u
r r
v v
i i
v v
a a
l l
145
3. Camping equipment wind, and waterproof. Although these

features are important, there are some
disadvantages to such models. The sewn-
in floor adds considerably to the tent's
weight and bulk. The tent can only be
pitched on smooth, level ground and mud
and dirt tracked inside on a your boots
Source: All images AHEIA

makes housekeeping a problem.
Care must be taken when using a heating

source in a tent. Some canvas tents are
designed with an asbestos collar that will
permit the use of a stove inside the tent. A
nylon tent will go up in flames very
quickly. Use care when bringing in an open
flame source, e.g., candles, stove, etc., into
Depending on your mode of transport to a nylon tent. If you are using a camp stove
the campsite, e.g., horseback versus truck, with an open flame, make sure to start it
and the length of the trip, your camping outside and then bring it into the tent.
equipment requirements will need to be Always turn off the stove with an open
adjusted. Some people like to rough it and flame before going to sleep. If it is that cold
sleep under the stars or build a simple that the stove or lantern has to stay on all
lean-to shelter for protection. Other night, then take turns staying awake on
people like to tent it, while others bring firewatch. It takes less than a minute for
the camper with all the comforts of home. some nylon tents to go up in flames.
s There is a great variety of camping s

u u
r equipment out there for you to choose r
v from. Choose the equipment that is asbestos collar v
i i
v suitable for your style of camping and the v
a a
l climatic conditions you will find. Before l
going camping, practice using your
camping equipment. It is not fun at
midnight in the rain trying to figure out
how to put up the tent and finding
out that you left the tent pegs and
hammer at home.
a. Tents
Tents are made from several kinds of
fabric, including canvas and water- Ensure you have adequate ventilation for
repellent cotton, but most recreational the heat source.
tents today are made of nylon. Nylon is
exceptionally strong, easy to repair if torn, Cooking, if possible, should be done
will not rot, is water-resistant and weighs outside the tent. The moisture created by
only a few ounces per square yard. cooking will condense and help cool off
your tent overnight. Cooking also acts as a
Most tents on the market today are great attractant for bears and other wild
manufactured with floors sewn in, animals who are looking for a free meal.
mosquito screening at the entrance and Cook and store your food outside and
vents, which make them completely bug, away from your sleeping area.
146
b. Sleeping bags In very cold weather, it's a good idea to fold

The most convenient, practical, and warmest a blanket inside the bag for extra insulation
bedding for camping is a sturdy sleeping bag. and warmth. Be sure to get a bag that is the
A sleeping bag makes a comfortable bed and right size for you as it will keep you warmer
also helps to limit the loss of body heat while than a sleeping bag that is too large.
you sleep. The warmth of a sleeping bag
depends on the thickness, not the weight, of If possible, while sleeping, keep your head
its insulating material. outside of the sleeping bag. Moisture from
your breath will condense and you will
For camping in mild weather, filler material have a colder sleep the second night. Wear
of man-made polyester, such as Dacron or a hat and keep your head outside.
Fortrel, provides adequate insulation and is
lightweight. In the fall, even though the If possible, air out the sleeping bag to
days may be warm, nighttime temperatures remove the moisture buildup from your
can drop drastically and you will need a bag body. Always check your sleeping bag for
that provides maximum insulation to keep small creatures before getting into it. If
you warm. A down-filled bag will keep you possible, roll up your sleeping bag during
warm even when camping in the snow or in the day when you are not using it.
Arctic conditions.
Underneath your sleeping bag, you will
A sleeping bag should have a flannel inner want a foam pad or air mattress. As well
liner, which you can make from a as cushioning your body from the
flannelette sheet, to protect the bag rough ground, a mattress provides
and keep it clean. It can be removed easily additional insulation. An air mattress
for washing. should not be overinflated. Blow it up
just enough so that, when lying on
s your side, your hipbone will bump the s
u u
r ground when you bounce gently up r
v and down, or roll over. v
i i
v v
a a
l Quilting l
Sleeping Bag Shapes
Overlapping tube quilting
Mummy Barrel Standard
Wall or box quilting
Straight quilting
Sleeping bag
Flannel liner (flannelette)

Goose down
Foam or air
mattress
Ground sheet
147
c. Setting up a campsite Back your vehicle into the campsite. This

Where possible, reuse an old campsite or will help you should you need to boost
stay in a recreation site/campground. If your vehicle because you ran the heater or
you are making a new site, move it off the kept the lights on for too long without
trail. You do not want to be surprised at recharging the batteries. If you are going
night when a bear walks down the trail to run your vehicle to recharge the
and through your camp. batteries make sure that your exhaust
system is clear and not blocked by snow
or vegetation.
s s
u u
r r
v v
i i
v v
a a
l l
148
Do not choose a site in a low area, Be careful of how you dispose of your
especially beside a stream. If it rains, you wastewater from shaving and cooking.
might find the river or rain water running You do not want to contaminate water
through your tent. sources and damage local vegetation. Use
biodegradable soap.
Set up your campfire and cooking area
away from the tent and sleeping area. If Set up latrines away from your sleeping
you are going to have a fire, make sure and eating areas; and away from your
that the fire hazard level is low. water source.
Sometimes, especially during the summer,
outdoor fires are banned. When you leave the campsite, it should be
cleaner than you found it. Pack out your
Do not just needlessly cut down trees for garbage. Remember to tread lightly and
firewood. Use fallen trees and twigs for leave no trace.
your fire. Avoid using gasoline to start
your fire. Store all flammable materials
away from any heat source or open flame
in camp.
Turn off equipment, such as chainsaws,

etc., before refueling them. With a stove,
remove the fuel tank and fill it away from
the stove. Wipe off any spilled fuel before
reinstalling the fuel tank and restarting
the stove.
s
u
r
v
i
v
a
l
149
PART IV.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Knife blades should not be used to ______________, ______________or bore holes.
2. What is the recommended length of knife for hunting? __________________________

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
3. The best axes are made from high quality ___________________ steel,
which has been tempered to resist brittleness.
4. What is the best wood for making an axe handle out of? ________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
5. What is the difference between a packboard and a packsack? ____________________

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
s s
u ______________________________________________________________________________ u
r r
v v
i i
v v
a 6. List some safety precautions when using a heating source for a tent. ______________ a
l l
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
7. Where should you set up your food storage and kitchen area in your camp? ______
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
150
NOTES
s
u
r
v
i
v
a
l
151
SURVIVAL CHAPTER
CHAPTER REVIEW TEST
check your answers.
challenge test.
1. The risk from hypothermia occurs:

a. Only when it rains.
b. Only in the spring time.
c. Only in the winter
d. All year round
2. Three qualities required for outdoor clothing use are, the clothes should be:
a. asborbent, provide protection and insulation.
b. waterproof, insulated, and be made of a bright colour.
c. fashionable, waterproof, and provide protective from branches.
s d. made of wool, rubber and cotton. s
u u
r r
v 3. The part of the body that loose heat the quickest is the v
i i
v
a. Feet v
a b. Back a
l l
c. Head
d. Hands
4. You can survive five days without:

a. Food
b. Water
c. Shelter in severe weather situations
d. Coffee
5. In order to legally operate a motorized pleasure craft (boat) in Canada you need a
a. drivers licence
b. operator's card
c. firearms licence
d. pleasure permit
152
6. If attached by a cougar you should:

a. Play dead
b. Fight back
c. Call for help
d. Adopt the fetal position
7. Before entering an accident scene it is important to:

a. Determine if any hazards exist that may cause injury to yourself or the casualty.
b. Yell for help.
c. Be calm and reassuring to the casualty.
d. Remember the ABC of first aid.
8. An unconscious casualty should be put in the ____________position.

a. kneeling
b. prone
c. recovery
d. sitting
9. The best type of map to use while hunting is a ______________map.

a. road
b. tourist
c. recreational
d. topographic
s s
u 10. A dull knife or axe is more dangerous than a sharp knife or axe. u
r r
v
True or false. v
i i
v v
a a
l l
ANSWER SHEET
1. _____2. _____3. _____4. _____5. _____6. _____7. _____8._____ 9. _____ 10. ____
153
NOTES
s s
u u
r r
v v
i i
v v
a a
l l
154
NOTES
s
u
r
v
i
v
a
l
155
NOTES
s
u
r
v
i
v
a
l
156
Chapter
Firearms 6
GOAL
The student will operate basic firearm actions and explain primitive-hunting
equipment commonly used for hunting, in a safe and responsible manner.
OBJECTIVES
The student will: This chapter is broken into seven parts

1. Identify firearms and I. Introduction
their components. II. History of firearms development
2. Select modern ammunition. III. Ammunition
3. Explain firearm and IV. Firearms safety
ammunition safety. V. Shooting skills
4. Apply firing techniques VI. Hunting safety
and procedures. VII. Specialty hunting equipment
5. Demonstrate safe firearm
handling procedures.
6. Explain primitive hunting
equipment and its usage.
157
Chapter 6 — Firearms Conservation & Outdoor Recreation Education
PART I:
INTRODUCTION
This chapter has been rewritten using three names for the same part. It just
material from the Canadian Firearm Safety depends if you come from England,
Course and the old CORE manual. You Canada, or the U.S.A.
will note that this chapter follows very
closely the firearms-related chapters found Another difficulty with the English
on the Introduction to Hunter Education language is that sometimes the same word
course found on the IHEA Website. Credit will have different meanings. Take for
is given to the IHEA and the Canadian example the word "replica". From the
Firearms Centre for the use of their shooting community perspective, a
graphics and materials. "replica" is a reproduction of an antique
firearm that is capable of discharging a
In order to pass the CORE program, projectile. An example of a replica is a
students are required to take a practical 16th century Flintlock muzzleloader that
Source: CFSC
firearms-handling exam along with the is not an original. This firearm may have
written exam, which includes questions been made yesterday. Under Canadian
on firearms and archery equipment. If you law, any flintlock rifle is classified as an
have completed the Canadian Firearm antique firearm.
Safety Course (CFSC) and can show
proof (see Introduction Chapter), you
Flintlock
can be exempted from the requirement
rifle
for the practical firearms-handling
exam. You must still do the complete
written exam.
If you are preparing for the CORE exams

by using the self-study method, you must
ensure that, along with reading this chapter, Under Canadian law, the word "replica"
you obtain some practice using real firearms means an exact reproduction of a
before you attempt to challenge the CORE firearm that does NOT discharge a
f practical firearms-handling exam. projectile. A "replica" is classified as a
i prohibited device under Canadian law
r
e We have attempted to keep the and cannot be purchased by most
a
r terminology consistent when writing this individuals in Canada.
m
s chapter. The difficulty with the English
language is that terminology may change So, as you start your study of the firearm
due to a person's origin, e.g., England chapter, be prepared to learn the firearms
versus U.S.A. For example, the front terminology and determine the different
wood found on a lever-action rifle has meanings of the words.
Source: CFSC
Fore-end Forearm Fore-stock
158
Conservation & Outdoor Recreation Education Firearms — Chapter 6
PART II:
EVOLUTION OF FIREARMS
Part two of this chapter is broken into Cock Flint Ignition

three sections: Frizzen (or steel)
Flash Pan
1. Evolution of firearms
2. Types of modern firearms
Source: CFSC
3. Basic firearm actions
Full Cock Position Cock Released Position
1. Evolution of Firearms
Firearms have been around for over 500 Flintlock system
years. The first firearms were called
"muzzleloaders." The shooter had to put
black powder down the bore of the barrel The flintlock system uses a piece of flint
from the front end of the barrel, called the that is held in a "cock." When you move
muzzle. Muzzleloaders had to be loaded in the cock to the rear and pull the trigger,
a proper sequence or else they would not the cock moves forward. The flint strikes
fire. They were slow to load, heavy, did the steel, causing sparks to fall into the
not shoot far and performed poorly in flash pan. This ignites the priming
damp and wet weather. powder. The priming powder burns,
igniting the main black powder charge in
the bore. The flintlock system does not
work well in rain or wind and requires
shooters to carry two different types of
black powder.
Hammer Percussion cap

Nipple
f
i
r
e
a
r
Trigger m
Source: CFSC
s
Source: CFSC
Percussion Cap System
About 1850, the percussion cap system

was introduced. A percussion cap contains
a chemical that causes a spark when
To ignite the gunpowder several different struck. This spark ignites the main black
types of ignition systems were developed. powder charge in the bore. This allowed
The most common types of ignition for quicker reloading and worked better in
systems still available today are the poor weather conditions compared to the
flintlock and percussion cap. flintlock system.
159
The world saw many changes from 1850- ammunition is far more dependable than
1900 in the development of firearms and black powder, especially in poor weather
ammunition. Muzzleloading firearms were conditions, such as rain or snow.
replaced with breech-loading firearms,
otherwise known as our modern firearm. Modern firearms use the same principles
as muzzleloading firearms. The ignition
and burning of gunpowder create
Breech
pressure. This pressure propels
projectile(s) down the bore and out of
the muzzle. The first modern firearms
used black powder. Since about 1890,
modern firearms have been designed to
Breech-loading firearm use smokeless gunpowder. Smokeless
gunpowder creates greater pressures and
should not be used in firearms designed
for black powder. Follow the pictures to
The modern firearm barrel is loaded from see what happens when the trigger is
the rear, or breech, of the barrel. This squeezed on this bolt-action rifle.
allows for quicker reloading. Modern
Firing pin Cartridge
Squeeze trigger
Trigger
f Cartridge
i Firing pin
r
e 2. Firing pin strikes primer.
a
r Primer ignites powder. Source: All images CFSC
m
s
Burning powder
3. Burning powder
creates ressure.
Pressure pushes bullet
into lands of barrel.
Barrel
Bullet
4. Bullet spirals down bore.

Leaves barrel at muzzle.
Sequence of a gun firing
160
2. Types of Modern Firearms improved manufacturing processes and

Modern firearms can be classified as the development of magazines, manual-
• single shot repeating firearms were developed.
• manual repeating
• self-loading repeating Manual-repeating firearms allow shooters
In each of those classifications you will to fire more quickly. Simply by working
find rifles, shotguns and handguns. the action, the shooter could eject a
cartridge from the chamber and then load
a new cartridge from the magazine.
A lever-action rifle is an example of a

manual-repeating firearm.
Source: CFSC
Lever-action rifle
By the late 1800s the semi-automatic and

fully automatic firearms were developed.
Source: CFSC
These are classified as self-loading firearms

and contain a magazine. When the trigger
is pulled, the cartridge in the chamber is
discharged. The action recoils by itself and
ejects the spent cartridge. The return
Classification of firearms spring causes the action to close. As the
action closes, it chambers a new cartridge
The first modern firearms were single shot. from the magazine.
These firearms contained no magazines to
hold ammunition. After each shot, the Semi-automatic means that with each f
shooter had to open the action, remove squeeze of the trigger one cartridge is i
r
the spent cartridge and load a new one. A fired. Hunters use semi-automatic rifles e
a
hinge or break-action shotgun is an and shotguns. Fully automatic means that r
m
example of a single-shot firearm. with a squeeze of the trigger the firearm s
keeps shooting until you release the
Source: CFSC
trigger or run out of ammunition. Fully

automatics are generally only used for
military and police purposes today.
Hinge (or break-action) shotgun

Source: CFSC
Eventually, with improvements in

cartridge case materials and designs,
Semi-automatic rifle
161
Rifles and Shotguns: identification and assist you in deciding

What's the Difference? what type of firearm is suitable for your
style of hunting and shooting.
Shooters have many choices when it comes These differences determine the specific
to selecting a firearm today. Generally uses of each of these firearms. Rifles are
speaking, most hunters begin with the use designed for accuracy to hit a precise
of a rifle or shotgun. While it is legal to point. Shotguns are designed to shoot a
own and shoot a handgun in Canada, it spread of shot at moving targets.
cannot be used for hunting purposes. For
this reason, handguns will not be covered A rifle gets its name from the presence of
in this manual. For more information spiral grooves in the bore called "rifling."
about handguns, read the Canadian These grooves spin the bullet, thereby
Restricted Firearm Safety Course manual. increasing the rifle's range and accuracy.
Bolt-action rifle
Hinge (or break action) shotgun
Rifle bore
Revolver
A shotgun's barrel wall is thinner than
that of a rifle and its bore, or inside
Types of firearms surface, is smooth.
(rifles, shotguns, handguns)
f
i
r
e
a
r There are four basic differences between
m
s rifles and shotguns. Learning the
differences will aid you in firearm
Shotgun smooth bore

Rifle versus shotgun
Rifle Shotgun
Source: All imges CFSC
rifled bore smooth bore

front & rear sights front sight only
single projectile multiple projectile
long range short range
162
12 Gauge using #7 1/2 shot
.308 Winchester
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000

metres
Dangerous range
A rifle cartridge has a single bullet or

projectile contained in a case. A shotgun
shell has a number of shot pellets inside a
paper or plastic hull. A rifle bullet may
travel more than 3,000 feet per second
and have a range of several miles. A
shotgun spreads or sprays its charge of
shot in a widening radius. The shot pellets
travel at about 1,100 feet per second and
have a maximum range of only a few
hundred metres to 1,000 metres
depending on shot size.
Hull Bullet
Shot f
i
r
Wad e
a
Source: CFSC
r
Case
Powder charge m
s
Brass head Power

Primer
Shotgun shell
Primer
Source: CFSC
Rifle cartridge
163
Chokes
The exact spread of the shot from

a shotgun is determined by a
constriction or narrowing at the
muzzle called "a choke."
Full choke produces a tight

pattern of distribution of the
shot. It is suitable for longer Full choke
ranges. Pattern is too dense and
small for hunting at close range.
Modified choke produces a more

open pattern, suitable for medium Modified choke
ranges and is recommended for
upland hunting.
Improved choke
Improved cylinder produces an
even more open pattern, suitable
Source: All imges CFSC

for short ranges. At longer ranges,
the shot pattern is too thin to
ensure hits.
f
i
r
e
a
r
m
s Cylinder bore produces the most
open pattern, suitable for shortest Cylinder choke
ranges. At longer range, the
pattern is too thin and
widespread to ensure hits.
Four different types of chokes
164
Additional information on chokes
The four basic chokes are Full, Modified, Improved, and Cylinder. Some manufactures have
developed variations of these chokes for special hunting and shooting situations; and
ammunition (shot) development. Manufactures have also developed shotguns that allow the
shooter to change the choke or adjust the choke setting.
The following are some of the typical chokes commonly find today:
Choke North American European

Designation * Designation*
Extra Full EF
Full F *
Improved-Modified IM **
Modified M ***
Skeet 2
Improved-Cylinder IC ****
Skeet 1
Cylinder C CL
* Typical choke markings found on the shotgun barrel.
Introduced in the last couple of years for turkey hunting is the Extra Full choke. This Extra Full
choke creates a tighter pattern than a full choke and extends the reach of the shot. Extra Full
chokes are usually only used with #4 shot or smaller shot. Check with manufactures
specifications when using an Extra Full choke.
With some shotguns, the firearm manufacturer may provide a basic set of chokes e.g. Full,
Modified, and Improved that you can install inside the bore of your shotgun using a special
wrench. You could then buy additional choke inserts for the style of shooting and hunting you
are doing e.g. Sporting clays, skeet, turkey, etc.
f
i
Some older shotguns come with an adjustable choke. Simply by rotating the choke you adjust r
e
the choke setting from Full choke to Cylinder choke. a
r
m
If you have a 12 gauge shotgun and the choke is not indicated. A gunsmith could refer to s
manuals and take measurements to determine what type of choke your firearm has. A typical
12-gauge bore diameter is .729 inch. The following chokes have typically this amount of
constriction in the bore diameter:
Choke Amount of constriction
Full .035
Improved-modified .025
Modified .019
Skeet 2 .012
Improved-cylinder .009
Skeet 1 .005
Cylinder .000
165
The sights on a rifle are constructed for

accurate aiming. Those on a shotgun are
less accurate and used simply for pointing.
Rear Sight Front Sight
Bead Sight
Comparison: rifle and shotgun sights
Firearms have a variety of common parts, The stock is used to hold the firearm.
such as barrels, actions and stocks. How a The barrel is the launching tube.
firearm is put together determines the The action is used to load, fire and eject
specific type of action, e.g., bolt-action the ammunition.
rifle. Take a few minutes to learn the basic
parts and functions of modern firearms.
f Rifles and shotguns have three main parts:
i stock, barrel and action.
r
e
a
r Action Barrel
m
s
Source: All images CFSC
Stock
3 main parts of a firearm

166
Stocks are made of wood, rubber, plastics a synthetic stock. The synthetic stock is
and other synthetic materials. Stocks can lighter and holds up better under wet
be one piece or two pieces for rifles or conditions. No matter what stock you
shotguns. Some hunters will remove the choose, remember stocks and grips must
original wooden stock and replace it with fit the shooter.
Stock
one piece stock
Fore-Stock
Butt Stock
two piece stock
Different syles of stocks
Barrels have these parts: chamber, bore, Check the data stamp on the barrel to
muzzle (front), breech (rear) and sight. The ensure you have the right ammunition. For f
chamber is located at the rear of the barrel. shotguns, you must check the gauge and i
r
This is where you insert the ammunition. length of the shotshell. e
a
r
m
s
Barrel
Chamber
Muzzle
Parts of a barrel
167
Use the correct length of shotshell for the The bore is the inside of the barrel where
chamber. A correct shotshell length is one the bullet or shot travels. The distance
that, when placed in the chamber, has across the bore is called bore diameter. In
enough room to allow for the shotshell to a shotgun, it is measured in gauge. In a
fully open up prior to the wad leaving the rifle or handgun, it is measured in calibre
hull and coming in contact with the ("caliber" for U.S.A.). Calibre is the distance
forcing cone area of the bore. Too long of a across the lands. Calibre is also used
shotshell will cause a restriction at the sometimes to designate bullet diameter.
forcing cone area, which could lead to
metal fatigue and barrel failure.
Right Size Shell
2 3/4" Forcing Cone

Chamber
f
i
r
e
a Unfired 2 3/4" shell During firing hull opens to
r 2 3/4" to fill the chamber up
m
s to the forcing cone
2 3/4" Forcing Cone

Chamber
Source: CFSC
Unfired 3" shell in a 2 During firing hull opens into

3/4" Chamber the forcing cone and could
cause the barrel to burst
Wrong Size Shell

DANGER: If shotshell is too long,
barrel may burst
168
The calibre and gauge are measures of the of lead balls of a bore diameter required
bore or inside diameter of the barrel used to make up one pound. This is an old
by a particular rifle or shotgun. The British measurement system. Thus, a 16-
calibre is a direct measure of the inside gauge shotgun has a bore diameter such
diameter of a rifle barrel. It is expressed in that 16 lead balls of the bore diameter
hundredths of an inch; for example, a .22 would weigh a pound. Gauge
calibre rifle has a bore of 22/100 inch in measurement has no connection to the
diameter. It can also be given in metric variety of shot sizes that may be found in
terms such as 5.56 mm. shotgun ammunition. The one exception
to the indirect measurement of gauge is
The gauge refers indirectly to the bore the .410 shotgun. In this case, the
diameter of a shotgun. It is not a direct measurement refers directly to the actual
measure, but is calculated as the number bore diameter or calibre.
Groove
Diameter
Bore Diameter
Land
Groove
Rifled Barrel
Bore Diameter
f
i
r
e
a
r
m
s
Smooth Bore Barrel
Source: CFSC
16 20 28
10 gauge 12 gauge gauge gauge gauge .410
.775 inch .729 inch .662 inch .615 inch .550 inch .410 inch
Common shotgun bore diameters
169
The muzzle is the front end of the barrel. Some firearms may have more than one
This is where the projectile leaves the barrel. You may have barrels side by side
bore. You must maintain MUZZLE or over and under. Some firearms are
CONTROL at all times, even with an classified as combination firearms.
unloaded firearm. Typically, in a combination firearm, the
upper barrel is rifled and the bottom barrel
Barrels may have sights attached. Sights is smooth. You can get combinations such
help you aim or point. as .22LR/20 gauge.
Over and
Under
Source: IHEA
Side by Side
Drilling
Barrel arrangements
Actions contain the parts that load, the frame. The bolt is inserted into the
unload and fire the cartridge. Actions frame. A trigger is mounted to the frame.
come in various styles. You will find rifles, The manner in which these parts are
shotguns, and handguns with these assembled will make different styles of
actions. Let's look at the parts of the actions. When the trigger is pulled, the
action: frame, trigger, safety, magazine and firing pin strikes the primer, which ignites
action release. How these parts are the gunpowder. The trigger is contained
f assembled determine a firearm's action. inside the trigger guard. Some multi-barrel
i firearms may have more than one trigger.
r
e The frame (also called receiver) is the main Handgun triggers function in single action,
a
r part of the firearm. The barrel is attached to double action, or double action only modes.
m
s
Triggers
Source: CFSC
Multiple triggers
170
The safety is a mechanical device used to

prevent the firearm from firing. Safeties come
in various styles and may be located in various
locations. Learn how to use your safety, but
always remember muzzle control. Safeties, like
all mechanical devices, can fail. Some
firearms are not equipped with a safety, e.g.,
single-shot, hinge-action firearms.
Hammer in the
Half Cock Position
Hammer Block
Safety
Trigger Block/Lever
Safety
Safeties – lever action
Lever/Pivot/Rocker Safety
f
i
r
e
a
r
m
s
Wing
Safety
Safeties – bolt action
171
In order to open some actions you will

need to operate the action release
button/lever. Action-release buttons/levers
can be located in various locations. If you
cannot open the action on a firearm, you
may have to either release the safety or
operate the action-release button/lever.
Action Release
Slide/Tang Safety
Action release – hinge action
f
i
r
e
a
r
m
s
Action Release
Cross Bolt or
Button Type Safety
Red or Black
Action release – pump action

Source: CFSC
172
The magazine is a device that holds

ammunition. There are two types of
magazines: tubular and box. These
pictures show where the magazine is
located on different firearms. Some
magazines are removable. Locate the
magazine release button in order to
remove the magazine.
Cartridges
Magazine
Follower/Spring Mechanism
OR:
An alternative is the
hinged floor plate magazine
f
Floor Plate Release i
r
Floor Plate e
a
r
m
s
Source: CFSC
Magazines
173
3. Basic Firearm Actions

You must be able to recognize which type Knowing the various parts of a firearm aids
of action a rifle or shotgun has, and be able identifying and operating firearm actions.
to operate it safely and correctly. Before Let's look at the following five basic firearm
handling any firearm, you must know actions – hinge, bolt, pump, lever and
how to open the action and "PROVE" the semi-automatic – and see how the parts are
firearm safe. PROVE is a five-step put together. At your field day you may be
procedure to unload a firearm and ensure expected to identify and operate various
the barrel is free of obstructions. PROVE actions and locate the parts and operate
will be explained in greater detail in the these firearms.
Firearm Safety section.
A hinge-action firearm opens or "breaks" in loaded, the action should automatically

the centre, similar to the movement of a eject the ammunition on most models.
door hinge. It is common to find hinge- Now examine the bore from the chamber
action shotguns. Hinge-action firearms do end of the barrel to check for obstructions.
not have magazines and are classified as
single-shot firearms. This action is If you wish to load a hinge action, first
manufactured so that both left- and right- locate the data stamp to identify the
handed shooters can easily work the action. correct ammunition. Insert manually the
new ammunition and close the action.
To open the hinge action, locate the action-
release lever. Most hinge actions have On some hinge actions the safety
action-release levers on the top of the grip automatically engages when the action is
of the stock. Some hinge actions have closed. In most hinge actions, you have
action-release levers located in front of or to engage the safety manually. Some
under the trigger guard. Push the action- hinge actions do not have a safety.
release lever to one side and move the barrel Trigger and muzzle control is very
or barrels downward. If the firearm is important in every case!
f
i
r Chambers Barrels Bead Sight
e
a
Breech (location)
r Action Release
m
s
Safety
Triggers
Break-action shotgun or double-barrel shotgun

Source: CFSC
Hinge action
174
A bolt-action firearm operates on a lift, Release the safety and then open the action.
pull and push sequence similar to a You can then PROVE the firearm safe.
door bolt. You may find rifles and
shotguns with this action. A bolt action If the bolt-action rifle has no magazine it is a
is common in hunting rifles. If you are single-shot firearm. If the bolt-action rifle is
purchasing a firearm, remember that equipped with a magazine it is classified as a
many bolt actions are designed for manual-repeating firearm. To load a bolt-action
right-handed shooters. (Some firearm, the shooter will install the ammunition
manufactures design bolt-action rifles in the magazine. When the shooter closes the
for left-handed shooters.) action a round of ammunition will be fed from
the magazine into the chamber. By simply
On some models of bolt action the operating the action the shooter will eject and
action may not open if the safety is on. load ammunition from the magazine.
Action Barrel
Receiver Chamber
Bolt Rear Sight Front Sight
Safety
Muzzle
Magazine
Bolt Handle f
Trigger Guard i
Trigger r
e
a
Stock r
m
s
Source: CFSC
Bolt action
175
The pump action gets its name because the that button while pumping the action.
shooter pumps the movable fore-end (also On most pump shotguns you do not
called forestock) back and forth in order to need to use the action-release button if
open and close the action. This pumping you have just shot the firearm. Simply
action empties the chamber and loads a pump the action to open it. Pump actions
new cartridge or shotshell from the tubular are commonly found on shotguns;
magazine. Both left- and right-handed however, some rifles have pump actions.
shooters can easily work this action. Make sure that you "PROVE" a pump
action safe by cycling the action several
To pump the action you need to locate times to ensure the chamber and
the action-release button. Push and hold magazine are empty.
Action
Front Sight
Ejection Port
Muzzle
Source: CFSC
Loading Port Tubular Magazine
(access from below)
Trigger Moveable Fore-stock
Butt-stock Trigger Guard
f
i
r
e
a
r
m
s
Pump action
176
A lever-action firearm has a metal handle ammunition up from the magazine.

or lever, which is located just behind the Normally, lever action rifles have tubular
trigger. This action is manufactured so magazines. Some may have a box
that both left- and right-handed shooters magazine.
can easily work the action.
When you PROVE a lever action rifle, be
Open the action by pulling the handle in a sure to operate the lever several times.
downward direction, pivoting it towards Observe the chamber and verify the
the barrel. This movement ejects any feedpath from the chamber to the
cartridges or shells and brings new magazine follower for ammunition.
Action
Barrel
Hammer Safety
Source: CFSC
Loading Gate
f
Trigger i
Tubular r
e
Magazine a
Lever r
m
s
Stock
Butt-stock Fore-stock
Lever action
177
A semi-automatic action is a self-loading inadvertently load a round of ammunition

type of firearm. Once the shooter loads from the magazine to the chamber.
the magazine, cycles the action once and
pulls the trigger, the action will Most semi-automatic firearms have a
automatically eject the spent cartridge or button or lever to lock the action open.
shotshell and reload a new round of This allows you to observe the chamber
ammunition. This is referred to as self- and verify the feedpath. Do not put your
loading. The firearm is semi-automatic finger in the action to see if the chamber is
because the trigger must be pulled for each empty. If the action closed accidentally,
round of ammunition discharged. It is you might injure or sever your finger.
common to find both rifles and shotguns Some models of semi-automatics lock
using a semi-automatic action. open when the firearm is empty.
To PROVE a semi-automatic firearm is Semi-automatic firearms are either recoil-

unloaded, it is important to remove the or gas-operated. Gas-operated means that
source of ammunition. If that firearm has some of the pressure from the fired
a removable magazine, remove it. This cartridge is tapped off the barrel and
ensures that only one round of pushes a piston backwards, causing the
ammunition will be in the firearm. action to open. No matter whether a semi-
Operate the cocking lever to eject the automatic firearm is recoil- or gas-
ammunition in the chamber. With the operated, it is important to keep the
magazine removed, you will not firearm clean and use proper ammunition.
Source: CFSC
Action Rear Sight Front Sight
f
i
r
Cross Bolt Safety
e
a
r
m
s
Magazine Fore-stock Barrel
Trigger Magazine Release Muzzle

Butt-stock Trigger Guard
Semi-automatic action
178
PART II
RREVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Muzzleloading firearms are designed to use what type of gun powder? ____________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
2. Name two common types of ignition systems used on muzzleloading firearms.

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
3. Name four differences between rifles and shotguns. ______________________________

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
4. Name the three basic parts of a modern firearm. ________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
5. Name the five basic actions used in breech loading firearms. ____________________
______________________________________________________________________________ f
i
______________________________________________________________________________ r
e
______________________________________________________________________________ a
______________________________________________________________________________ r
m
______________________________________________________________________________ s
179
PART III:
AMMUNITION
Part three is broken into the following Rifle ammunition has four components:
sections: primer, powder, bullet and cartridge
1. Rifle ammunition and components (or case).
2. Shotgun ammunition and components
3. Ammunition safety The location of the primer tells you if a
cartridge is rimfire or centrefire. The
1. Rifle ammunition and centrefire cartridge has a primer located in
components the centre of the base. A primer is a small
It is important to understand the basics of metal cup filled with a chemical mixture
ammunition and ammunition safety. which explodes when hit.
Knowing the proper ammunition to use
will help you become a more successful, This explosion travels through the
ethical hunter. flashhole and ignites the gunpowder.
Smokeless powder will burn, creating
Modern ammunition varies in size, pressure, thus pushing the bullet down
appearance, materials and parts. Rifle the barrel.
ammunition is called cartridges or rounds.
Shotgun ammunition is referred to as
shotshells or shells.
Bullet
Case
Powder
.22 Cartridge Pistol Rifle Shotgun
Rimfire Centrefire Cartridge Shell
f Cartridge
i
r Primer
e Types of ammunition
a
r
m
Centrefire ammunition
s
Ammunition is classified as centrefire
or rimfire.
centrefire rimfire
Ammunition classification
180
If you look in a used centrefire cartridge The case is a container in which all other
you will notice the flashhole. If there is ammunition parts are assembled. Cases
one flashhole in the bottom of the case, can also be made of different material
then the case is referred to as Boxer such as brass, nickel-plated, aluminum,
primed. If there are two flashholes in the and steel. Some cases, such as aluminum
bottom of the case, then the case is and steel, cannot be reloaded and thus are
referred to as Berdan primed. On some cheaper to purchase.
cartridges you can remove the primer as
part of the process of reloading the There are three common case styles for
cartridge case. Generally in North America rifle cartridges. Look at the base of the
we cannot reload Berdan primed cases and cartridge case to see if the case is rimless,
thus they are cheaper to buy. rimmed or belted magnum. Care must be
taken when loading rimmed cases into
magazines to prevent feeding problems.
Looking inside
a rifle casing
Berdan Primed Boxer Primed
Rifle sasing
Belted case
The rimfire cartridge has no noticeable
primer. Instead, the priming compound is
placed inside and spun into the case rim.
When the rim is struck by the firing pin, the f
priming compound explodes, igniting the i
r
powder. The burning powder creates e
a
pressure, sending the bullet down the barrel. r
m
s
Rimless case
Bullet
Case
Powder
Source: CFSC
Primer Firing Pin Contacts

“RIM” of Case
Rimmed case
Rimfire ammunition
181
The powder charge is a chemical In some cases the word Magnum refers to
compound which, when burned, forms the case design. If a person was to hand
gases which propel the bullet or shot you two rifle cases and asked you to
through the barrel. Two common types of identify a .300 Winchester Magnum and
powder available are black powder and a .300 Savage case, without looking at the
smokeless powder. Modern ammunition is base of the case, can you tell which case
loaded with smokeless powder. Smokeless is the .300 Win Mag? In this example, the
powder produces greater energy and word "Magnum" refers to a belted case
pressure compared to black powder. Never design cartridge. Always make sure to
use smokeless powder in muzzleloading read the data stamp on the base of the
firearms, unless the firearm is case to determine the correct
specifically designed for smokeless identification of the ammunition.
powder. Be sure to see the manufacturer's
recommendations.
Some rifle and pistol cartridges might be

referred to as a "magnum." Depending on
the cartridge design, it may refer to the
powder charge or the case design. A .357 .300 Win Mag
Magnum cartridge was developed from
the .38 Special case. Its case length is
slightly longer. Due to the longer case, the
.357 Magnum will hold more powder than
a .38 Special. A bullet from a .357
Magnum will travel much faster and have .300 Savage
a greater force of impact than the same
bullet from a .38 special.
.38 SPECIAL
f
i
r
e
a 1.155
r
m
s
.357 MAGNUM
1.293
.38 Special & .357 Magnum cases
182
Bullets come in different shapes Full metal-jacketed bullets cannot be

and sizes, and are commonly made used for hunting! They are okay for
of lead. Some bullets have a metal target shooting.
jacket, making them travel faster.
RIFLE BULLETS
lead copper
Round Nose Hollow Point
Full Metal Jacket Spire Point
f
i
r
e
a
r
m
s
Partition Bullet Boat-tail

Source: CFSC
183
Trajectory of Path or Bullet
Line of Sight
Source: CFSC
Exaggerated for Clarity
Bullet trajectory
Trajectory is the path shots or bullets take Ballistics is the science that studies the
during flight. Several factors affect this motion of projectiles. Changing
path: gravity, air resistance, velocity and ammunition changes the ballistics for
mass. Gravity pulls the bullet down as it is your firearm. For example, a .30-06
travelling forward. This results in a Springfield cartridge with a 180-grain
downward curved path. Air resistance holds bullet has different ballistics from the
back the passage of the bullet. This slows its same cartridge with a 150-grain bullet. It is
flight. Velocity is the speed and mass is the important that you sight in your firearm
weight of the bullet. The trajectory of a with the same ammunition that you will
bullet is slightly curved. If you sight in your be hunting with.
firearm to hit a target at 200 yards, you will
hit your target high at 100 yards. You will
hit your target low at 300 yards.
BULLET TRAJECTORY USING A .30-06 SPRINGFIELD
Powder Bullet Trajectory

Specifications Specifications Bullet path (inches) + or - from line of sight
Powder Weight Velocity Bullet Coefficient Muzzle 100 150 200 250 300
Type In yard yard yard yard yard
Grains Feet per Weight
Second (FPS) Type
f
i
r 4350 55.0 2750 110 .144 -1.5 0.0 -2.0 -6.7 -15.0 -28.0
e RN
a
r 4350 55.0 2750 110 .273 -1.5 0.0 -2.2 -4.4 -10.0 -17.7
m
s Spire
4350 55.0 2751 150 .301 -1.5 0.0 -1.95 -4.1 -8.9 -16.9
Mag-tip
4350 55.0 2751 150 .389 -1.5 0.0 -2.1 -4.2 -9.75 -15.3
RN
4350 55.0 2699 180 .500 -1.5 0.0 -2.0 -4.0 -9.1 -14.3
Spitzer
4350 55.0 2618 200 .556 -1.5 0.0 -2.2 -4.3 -9.8 -15.3
Spitzer
Source: Speer, Reloading Manual, 1981

RN = Round Nose BT= Boat-tailed
184
Choose the right bullet for the game you

are hunting. You must choose a bullet that
is heavy enough and fast enough to kill
the animal you are hunting with a clean,
one-shot kill.
SUGGESTED RIFLE AMMUNITION USE CHART

Bullet
Ammo weight Black Grizzly Ground
In Grains Bear Bear Deer Caribou Moose Fox Coyote Wolf hog
.22 LR 40 •
rimfire
.222 Rem 50 • • • •
centrefire
.243 Win 50 • • • •
Winchester 100 • •
.270 Win 130 • • • • • •
160 • • • • •
7mm Mauser 139 • • • • • •
160 • • • • •
7mm Rem Mag 175 • • • • •
Remington Magnum
.30-30 Win 150 • • • • • •

170 • • •
.308 Win 150 • • • • • • f
180 • • • • • i
r
e
.30-06 SPRG 150 • • • • • • a
Springfield 180 • • • • • r
m
220 • • • • • s
.300 Savage 150 • • • • • •

180 • • • •
.300 Win Mag 180 • • •
.303 British 150 • • • • • •
180 • • • • •
Source: Chart 11 Canadian Firearm Safety Course manual, 1994 edition
185
Ammunition comes in different lengths, If the case is really small, chances are it is
shapes, and diameters depending on the a .22 rimfire cartridge. Years ago a wide
type of bullet or case used. variety of rimfire cartridges were
available. Today, only .22 rimfire
cartridges are commercially available.
They can come in .22 short, long, long
rifle, and magnum lengths. You will have
to learn how to identify them by reading
the information on the ammunition box
as the data stamp is not on the base of
Source: CFSC
the cartridge.
The .22 Hornet and .222 Remington rifles

use a .22 calibre bullet but use a centrefire
cartridge case. A rimfire cartridge will
Pistol Rifle
.22 Cartridge travel 1,300 feet per second or less, while
Centrefire Cartidge
Rimfire a centrefire cartridge will do over 2,000
Cartidge
feet per second. The centrefire case is
bigger than the rimfire case and holds
more powder.
FULL DETAILS OF THE .22 RIMFIRE FAMILY OF AMMUNITION

Cartridge Case Overall Bullet Bullet
Length Length Weight Diameter
(inches) (inches) (grain) (inches)
.22 BB Cap .284 .343 18 .222

.22 CB Cap .420 .520 30 .222
f
.22 Short .423 .686 29 .223
i .22 Long .595 .880 29 .223
r
e .22 Long rifle .595 .975 40 .223
a
r .22 Remington Auto .663 .920 45 .223
m .22 Winchester Auto .665 .915 45 .222
s
.22 Stinger .694 .975 32 .223
.22 Extra Long .750 1.16 40 .223
.22 WRF & Rem Special .960 1.17 45 .224
.22 Winchester Magnum RF 1.052 1.35 40 .224
Learn the length of these cartridges and bullet weight to aid in identification.
NOTES:
1. If your data stamps says .22 S L & LR then your gun can shoot .22 Short, Long or Long Rifle.
2. Some .22 rimfire semi-automatic guns need Standard Velocity (SV) ammo to function properly.
.22 LR SV muzzle velocity is 1150 fps. .22LR High Velocity (HV) is 1335 fps.
186
2. Shotgun ammunition are 2-3/4, 3 and 3-1/2 inch. Some European

and components shells give the shotshell length in
A shotgun shell has five components. millimetres. You must know the correct
They are primer, powder, hull, wad, and length of the shotshell, gauge and shotsize
shot or slug. when selecting shotgun ammunition. The
powder in a shotshell serves the same
purpose as in a cartridge. The difference with
shotshells is that you can buy the same
Hull shotshells with various powder charges. The
boxes may be marked target, field or
Shot magnum load. Magnum loads have more
powder and/or shot than target or field loads.
Wad
Source: CFSC
Powder Charge
Brass head
Source: Winchester
Primer
Shotgun shell
The primer and powder serve the same
Source: Federal Cartridge Company

purpose as in a centrefire rifle or pistol
cartridge. The case of a shotgun shell is
referred to as a hull. The hull is commonly
made of a combination of brass, plastic or
paper. Like some cartridges, some hulls
can be reloaded and used again.
The length of a shotshell is normally given

in inches and is based on the length of the f
spent hull. Common lengths for 12 gauge i
Shotgun ammunition boxes r
e
a
r
m
Sometimes the powder charge, weight of s
shot and size of shot will be marked on the
side of the shotshell or box, for example, 3,
1-1/8, 7-1/2. The powder charge maybe
given in Dram Equivalent or DR. EQ.
Source: CFSC
12 Gauge Shotgun Shells Unfired and Fired
187
A shotgun shell generally contains properties and ballistics than lead shot.
multiple projectiles or pellets called Successful, ethical hunters practice
shot. A single, large projectile in a with the same type of shot they will
shotgun shell is called a slug. Shot and use for hunting.
slugs are traditionally made of lead.
Shot comes in various sizes. No. 9 shot is
Due to environmental concerns the use very small while No. 000 shot is large.
of lead shot is banned while waterfowl Choose the right shot size for the
hunting. Lead shot is referred to as animals you are hunting. As a general
toxic shot. Non-toxic shot can be made rule, the smaller the game, the smaller
of bismuth, steel, tin, tungsten-iron, the shot pellets. Some big game species
tungsten-matrix, or tungsten-polymer may be hunted using shot or slugs.
materials. Non-toxic shot has different Check your hunting regulations!
Source: Winchester
SHOT DIAMETER AND SIZE BY COUNTRY
f
i Shot mm 2 2.25 2.41 2.5 2.75 3 3.25 3.5 3.75 4
r Diameter Inch .080 .090 .095 .100 .110 .120 .130 .140 .150 .160
e
a
r Country Shot size
m
s
USA
Germany
French
Source: Mirage Cartidges by Clever Italy
Spanish 9 8 7-1/2 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
English
Norwegian 9 8 7 8 5 4 3 2 1 BB
6-1/2
Italian 9-1/2 8 7-1/2 7 6 5 3 2 1 0

4
It is very common to buy shotshells in Canada that come from foreign countries.
188
Choose the correct shot for the type of

hunting/shooting you are doing.
SUGGESTED 12 GAUGE 2-3/4 SHOTGUN AMMUNITION USE CHART
Shot Shot Snipe Upland Ducks Geese Turkey Rabbits Coyote Fox Black
Size & material Clay game see Bear
Diameter Targets birds notes
9 Lead •
.080 Steel
8 Lead •
.085 Steel
7-1/2 Lead • •
.095 Steel
6 Lead • •
.110 Steel
5 Lead • •
.120 Steel
4 Lead • •
.130 Steel •
2 Lead •
.150 Steel •
BB Lead • •
.180 Steel •
f
2 Buck • i
.270 r
e
a
1 Buck • • r
m
.300 s
0 Buck • •
.320
Slugs • •
Notes:
1. Lead shot also called Toxic shot, may not be used for hunting migratory birds in
British Columbia except Band-tailed pegeon and Mourning dove.
2. Jack rabbits use BB, 2, & 4 shot.
189
3. Ammunition safety Some firearms made before 1964 or

In order to select the right calibre or gauge ex-military firearms may not have a data
of ammunition for your firearm, you must stamp. In this case, a gunsmith can help
locate the data stamp. Data stamps can you determine the correct ammunition for
generally be found on the barrel of the your firearm. Sometimes the data stamp
firearm. The data stamp will tell you the on a firearm may be given in European
correct ammunition to use, for example, terms such as 7.62 x 51mm (bullet
.300 Win Mag ("Win" is short for diameter x case length). 7.62 x 51 mm is
Winchester. "Mag" is short for magnum). also called 7.62 NATO and .308
You must also decide on the bullet size, Winchester in North America; three
expressed in grains (for example, 150 names for the same thing.
grain) or shot size, that you will need to
use for the game you are hunting.
Data Stamp
f
i
r
e Cartridge
a Base of Cartridge Source: CFSC
r Name (enlarged view)
m
s
Ammunition
Manufacturer
190
Be very careful to make sure the You must follow several rules for safe
ammunition matches the data stamp. ammunition handling, carrying or
.300 Savage, .300 Win Magnum and .300 storage. They are:
Weatherby Magnum have different cases
and are not interchangeable. Remember • Only use the correct ammunition for
the basic rule: If the data stamp on the your firearm. If you are unsure, check
firearm does not match the data stamp with a firearms dealer or gunsmith to
on the ammunition, do not use that find out.
ammunition. • Check the condition of ammunition
before you use it. If it is dented or
You can find 7.62 x 39 mm, .308 Win, .30- appears to be irregular in any way,
06 SPRG, 9 mm Luger, 8 mm Mauser, .303 don't use it.
British, etc., as military surplus • Secure ammunition and keep it away
ammunition. This military surplus from excessive heat or impact with
ammunition generally will not contain a sharp objects.
data stamp that is commonly understood. • Store ammunition in its original
Coding found on the base of the case container or ammo box.
refers to the factory the ammo was made • Lock up ammunition and firearms
at and the year of production, e.g., WCC separately.
94 (Winchester Cartridge Company 1994). • Only use round or soft-point
You will need to determine the correct ammunition in tubular magazines.
designation of this ammunition prior to • Do not mix different size cartridges
using it. Check with various reloading and shell sizes. Keep them separate,
manuals or ask a competent individual e.g., 12 and 20 gauge.
such as a gunsmith.
12 Gauge 20 Gauge
f
i
r
Military - NATO e
a
r
Source: CFSC
m
s
Metric
The shooter mixed ammunition –
barrel burst
North American
3 head stamps
191
REPLACEMENT PAGE — 2002 CORE MANUAL
• Do not shoot at hard surfaces, e.g. rocks, water, etc as bullets will ricochet.
• Only load a firearm in a place where you can legally discharged it.
• Unload your firearms when entering a building or vehicle.
• Learn the distances that ammunition can travel.
Source: CFSC
f
i
r
e
a
r
m
s
Source: CFSC
192
PART III
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Rifle and pistol ammunition is referred to as__________________or ____________.
2. Shotgun ammunition is referred to as ____________________or _______________.
3. Modern ammunition is classified as either _______________ or _________________.
4. What is the purpose of the primer? ____________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
5. List two cartridges that would be acceptable for shooting:
Grizzly ______________________________________________________________________
Mule deer ____________________________________________________________________
Elk __________________________________________________________________________
6. Define the word Trajectory. ____________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________
7. What are the three most common versions of .22 rimfire ammunition that can be
f
commercially bought today? __________________________________________________ i
r
______________________________________________________________________________ e
a
r
m
s
8. What are the common lengths of 12 gauge shotshells? __________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
9. What is the difference in the word Magnum when used with rifle ammunition and
shotgun ammunition? ________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
10. In tubular magazines, what shape of bullet must you use? ______________________
____________________________________________________________________________
193
PART IV:
FIREARMS SAFETY
The part is broken into the following To help you remember these four
sections: basic rules, think of the abbreviated
1. Basic firearm safety rules version of ACTT.
and procedures
2. Cleaning a firearm
3. Storage of firearms
A ssume it is loaded
C ontrol the muzzle
1. Basic firearm safety rules
and procedures T rigger finger
T arget and beyond
Safe handling of firearms begins with the four
basic rules listed below. An easy way to
remember these rules is to
ACTT responsibly around firearms. Unloading and Loading Firearms
Before learning the procedures described
ACTT STANDS FOR: here for unloading and loading firearms,
review these guidelines:
1. ASSUME every gun to be loaded.
• Consider any firearm you have not just • Have someone who is familiar with
unloaded to be loaded and treat it the firearm give you guidance.
accordingly. Don't do this on your own!
2. CONTROL the muzzle–point guns in a • Use deactivated or "dummy"

safe direction. ammunition—not live.
• You must decide what the safest available
muzzle direction is and keep your • Use your firearm's safety but don't
firearm pointed in that direction. Never depend on it!
point a firearm at yourself or others.
• Remember to keep your finger
f 3. TRIGGER Finger–keep your finger off outside the trigger guard.
i the trigger until ready to fire.
r
e • The natural instinct when picking up a • Practice! The more comfortable you
a
r firearm is to put your finger in the are with the operation of your
m
s trigger guard. DON'T! This could cause firearm the safer you will handle it.
an accidental discharge if the gun is
loaded. When you pick up a firearm you should
approach the firearm from its side or
4. TARGET identification is crucial rear. Pick up the firearm with a two-
- be sure of your target and beyond. handed grip. This is the time when the
• Never point your firearm at something first three rules of ACTT come into
you do not intend to shoot. Make sure effect. You now must PROVE that this
you positively identify what you are firearm is unloaded and safe to handle.
shooting at and know what lies in front
of and beyond it.
• Do not use telescopic sights as a
substitute for binoculars when
identifying persons, animals or objects.
194
PROVE stands for the following steps:
POINT
1. POINT the firearm in the safest available direction.
R Normally this is at the ground in a direction away from other people
O including yourself. Maintain constant control of the muzzle direction.
V
E
2. REMOVE all ammunition.

• If the firearm is a semi-automatic with a detachable magazine, remove
the magazine from the firearm first. Open the action to remove any
Point cartridges from the chamber. Removing the magazine first prevents a
REMOVE semi-automatic from chambering another round if the action closes.
O • For virtually all other actions, open the action to remove any cartridges
V from the chamber(s) first. Remove any detachable magazine and all other
E cartridges from the firearm. If your firearm does not have a removable
magazine, it may be necessary to activate a latch button or other device,
or work the action several times to remove the ammunition.
• Once all ammunition has been removed, leave the action open and if
possible, locked.
Point
3. OBSERVE the chamber.
Remove Check your firearm's chamber to ensure no ammunition or empty casings
OBSERVE are present and, if so, remove by hand or by working the firearm's action.
V
E
f
i
r
e
a
4. VERIFY the feeding path. r
Point A firearm's feeding path is the route by which ammunition stored in its
m
s
Remove magazine is moved to the chamber where it will be fired. Only repeating
Observe firearms will have a mechanical feeding path. To verify it is free of
VERIFY ammunition, you must work the firearm's action and visually check the
E feeding mechanism and magazine.
Point
Remove 5. EXAMINE the bore for rust, excessive oil, or any obstructions.
Observe If present, the firearm must not be fired until it is properly cleaned.
Verify
EXAMINE
195
Accepting a Firearm 3. Determine if the firearm can be

When accepting a firearm from loaded with the safety on. If it can,
another person: apply the safety.
4. Make sure to use the correct cartridge(s)
1. Check that the action is opened or shell(s) for the firearm by matching
before touching the firearm. If it isn't, the data stamp on the firearm with the
ask the person who is handing you head stamp on the ammunition.
the firearm to open it for you. 5. Load the firearm. How you do this will be
2. Visually check that the chamber and determined by the type of firearm you are
magazine are empty of ammunition using. As a general rule:
before touching the firearm. • Single-shot firearms: place the
3. Grasp the firearm with both hands, ammunition directly in the chamber
keeping the muzzle pointed in a and then close the action.
safe direction. • Lever-action firearms having a tubular
4. Say thank you to alert the passer to magazine: make sure the action is
release the firearm. closed, load the magazine, and then
5. Once the firearm is in your control cycle the action to bring a round from
PROVE that it is unloaded and safe the magazine to the chamber.
to handle. • Firearms with a removable box
magazine: load the magazine first and
Loading then insert it into the firearm. Close
Follow the steps below to safely load a the action to load the chamber.
firearm. Keep in mind that a firearm • Firearms with a non-removable box
should not be loaded until you are able to magazine: load directly into the
safely and legally discharge it. magazine and then close the action
to load the chamber.
1. Make sure there is no ammunition in 6. If you were not able to do so before, put
the firearm or any obstructions in the the safety on.
barrel. In other words, PROVE it safe.
2. Point the firearm in the safest The firearm is now loaded and ready to use.
available direction. Know the location It requires continuous care and attention
of other persons around you. until unloaded.
f
i Data Stamps for Shotguns
r
e
a
r
m
s
Load the correct

ammunition for
your firearm
Shell Length
Source: CFSC
and Shot
Size may be
indicated
on the
Shotgun Shell
Shotgun Shell Head
196
Safety Mechanisms Cleaning Materials:

Most guns have a safety. Depending on The basic materials you need
the firearm, a safety's on or off position to clean a firearm are:
may be etched next to the safety
mechanism. Some firearms use a button Cleaning patches
safety that is red in colour when the Powder solvent
safety is off and they are ready to be fired. Gun oil
Remember "Red means ready to fire". Soft cloth
Cleaning rod and attachments, i.e., bore
Consult the owner's manual if you are brush, plastic tips
unsure about how your firearm's safety
works or how to tell when the safety is Most hunters and shooters buy cleaning kits
in the on or off position! As a general for their firearms that contain these items.
rule, always keep your safety on until When purchasing a cleaning kit it is
ready to fire your gun. important to select the correct gauge or calibre
for the firearm(s) you own. A portable kit is
Most safeties block the trigger but not also a good idea for cleaning your firearm in
necessarily the gun's firing mechanism. the field should you accidentally plug its
A hard blow in the right place can still barrel with snow, mud or other material.
discharge a firearm. Safeties also wear
out and break. Never depend on a safety Cleaning tips:
to prevent a gun from firing! • Consult your owner's manual before
Before you discharge the firearm you you begin.
must remember the last T in ACTT. Have • Clean from the breech toward the
you identified your target and beyond? Is muzzle, if possible.
it safe and legal to take the shot? • Minimize the amount of contact
between the cleaning rod and
2. Cleaning Firearms the barrel.
Firearms should be cleaned after every • Avoid skin contact with any metal parts
use and after they have been stored for a of the firearm. Perspiration causes rust.
long period of time. Cleaning of the • If you discover a problem with your
firearm will maintain the: firearm while cleaning it, take it to a
qualified gunsmith. Don't attempt to f
• firearm in a safe working condition repair a firearm yourself even if you i
r
• value of the firearm think the problem is a minor one! e
a
• accuracy of the firearm, and r
m
• ensure the firearm is serviceable. s
The location of where you clean your

firearm is also important. Cleaning your
firearm on the balcony of your building
might cause a public reaction. Cleaning
a firearm on the white sofa in the living
Cleaning Rod
Source: CFSC
room may upset your spouse. Choose an

area that is clear of clutter, well
ventilated and lit, and that does not Cleaning Patch
draw the concerns of others.
197
Procedure: 3. Firearm Storage

The procedure for cleaning a firearm is: Firearm safety rules apply at all times—not
just when you are hunting. Firearms that
1. Make sure the firearm is unloaded! are brought into the home or camp must
PROVE it safe. be properly stored to reduce the risk of
2. Attach a bore brush to the cleaning injury to children or others. Follow the
rod, lightly apply bore solvent, and guidelines below to ensure the safe storage
run the brush through the bore several of firearms and ammunition.
times to clean out powder residue.
3. Replace the bore brush with a patch • Store firearms and ammunition
that is also coated in solvent and run separately and under lock and key.
it through the barrel several times. • Make sure firearms are stored
4. Repeat with additional patches until unloaded. PROVE them safe.
they come out clean. • Have family members attend a hunter
5. Run a lightly oiled patch through the education class to learn firearm safety,
bore. Use only a small amount of oil. even if they don't hunt.
6. Wipe the outside of the firearm with a
clean cloth and apply a light coat of Non-restricted firearms (most rifles and
gun oil to the metal surfaces. The shotguns) must be stored unloaded and
firearm is now ready for storage. inoperable as per the Firearms Act of
Canada. To render the firearm inoperable
you can do the following:
• Remove the bolt or bolt carrier, or

• Install a secure locking device, e.g., a
trigger lock, or
• Install the firearm in a locked container,
receptacle or room that cannot be easily
Pull Through broken open or in to.
f
i
r
e
a
r
m
s
Cleaning
Patch
198
When you transport your non-restricted

firearm it must be unloaded. If you leave
the vehicle to go into the store, such as a
gas station, the firearm must be out of
sight and contained in the locked
vehicle. In a pickup truck, put the firearm
Source: CFSC
behind the seat, roll up the windows, and

lock the doors.
In a remote wilderness area, a non-

restricted firearm can be kept handy and
Source: CFSC
unlocked. They must be unloaded, but the

ammunition can be kept handy.
For more details on the safe storage,

display and transportation of firearms call
1-800-731-4000 or visit the Website
www.cfc.gc.ca.
It is a safe practice to store the
ammunition separate from the firearm,
but it is legal to store the ammunition in f
the same locked container that the firearm i
r
is stored in. Ensure that the ammunition is e
a
not contained in the chamber or a r
m
magazine attached to the firearm. Avoid s
storing ammunition in unvented
containers such as a safe.
199
PART IV
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. List the four basic rules that you must obey when handling firearms. ____________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
2. List the PROVE procedure to unload a firearm. __________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
3. List four reasons to clean your firearm.__________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
4. In Canada, a non-restricted firearm must be ________________and

_______________when it is stored.
5. If you are transporting a firearm in a vehicle and you park the vehicle,
f
i what must you do with the firearm. ____________________________________________
r
e ______________________________________________________________________________
a
r ______________________________________________________________________________
m
s
200
PART V:
SHOOTING SKILLS
This part is broken into three sections: 1. Rifle marksmanship skills

Marksmanship is the ability to hit your
1. Rifle marksmanship skills target. It is important that a hunter be a
2. Shotgun marksmanship skills good marksman for two major reasons.
3. Learn how to shoot and practice
safety procedures while shooting. 1. The first reason is safety. If you have
the ability to hit your target, you will
Shooting Skills be self-confident. When you know you
Shooting, like driving a car, is not a can shoot accurately, you will not
skill that you are born with or just need to spend time thinking about
know from watching others. It takes how to shoot, but can concentrate
time and practice to learn. You first instead on where to aim. You will have
have to learn the parts of a firearm, time to think. Is this shot safe? Is the
firearm safety and basic procedures to path to and beyond the target clear?
load and unload a firearm before you
shoot one. Learning with a firearm that 2. The second reason is to make a clean
is the correct calibre and size for the kill. An accurate shot will kill quickly,
shooter is also very important. Start off cleanly and humanely. A good hunter
with a .22 calibre firearm, not a .375 practices marksmanship skills until his
H&H Magnum rifle. or her shots are consistently accurate,
and study animal anatomy to know
The fundamentals of shooting are where vital organs are located.
similar for rifle, shotgun and pistol. The
difference comes in the manner you No matter if you are shooting a rifle,
mount or hold the firearm, your shotgun or handgun, you will first need to
shooting position and body placement, determine your dominant or master eye.
and trigger control. The "dominant eye" is the eye you use for
sighting purposes. The dominant eye is the
The fundamentals of shooting can be stronger of your two eyes. The dominant
learned in the classroom before you head eye will judge speed and range, and focus f
to the range. Some firearm instructors more accurately than your other eye. i
r
will employ training simulators such as a e
a
rifle that emits a laser beam, or a pellet r
m
gun to teach the basics of s
marksmanship. This is generally more
cost effective and allows for more
systematic training. Talk to your firearm
instructor to determine what training
program he or she offers.
CORE Examiners are permitted to take

students to the range to teach shooting
skills as long as they follow the
procedures outlined in the CORE
Program Standards. It is NOT a
requirement to show shooting
proficiency in order to pass the CORE
practical firearms-handling exam.
201
Most right-handed people are right-eye There are four common shooting
dominant. Most left-handed people are positions for rifle, shotgun and handgun
left-eye dominant. Some people are cross- shooters: standing, kneeling, sitting, and
dominant. They are right-handed, but left- prone. Depending on the type of firearm,
eye dominant. If you are cross-dominant, the manner in which you mount the
your instructor may wish you to mount firearm may be different. There are also
the rifle or shotgun on your left shoulder variations in each of these shooting
instead of the right shoulder. This can positions depending on the various
make the difference between hitting or shooting discipline or competition you are
missing the target. Firearm instructors involved with.
have other options for helping individuals
who are cross-dominant. Many shooters will sight in their firearms
by using the bench-shooting position.
To find out which is your dominant eye, This is also a great shooting position to
point your finger at a distant object with learn rifle and pistol shooter’s skills.
both eyes open. First close one eye and Trigger control, sight alignment and sight
then the other. Your finger will remain picture should be mastered in the bench
lined up with the object when your position before you proceed to the four
dominant eye is open. This is just one of common shooting positions.
many methods to determine your
dominant eye. Your instructor will be able Have a look at the various rifle shooting
to help you determine which of your eyes positions. Your CORE examiner instructor
is the dominant eye. will help you learn these positions.
Positions may change due to the type of
firearm you are using and the shooting
discipline or competition you are
involved with.
f
i
r
e
a
r
m
s
202
The prone position is the steadiest straight and legs in a relaxed position.
shooting position and the one from which Both elbows should be bent and your
the fundamentals of rifle shooting are best shoulders curved slightly forward to form a
learned. It is a good position for firing solid upper body position. The upper body
accurate long-distance shots. The prone and arms support the rifle weight.
position is usually not suitable when
hunting in tall grass or dense brush which
can obscure the line of sight to the target.
If you are right-handed, lie on your

stomach with your body slightly to the left
of the line of aim. If you are left-handed,
reverse this position. Keep your back
f
i
r
e
a
r
m
s
203
In the kneeling shooting position, the the right foot. Place the left elbow near,
shooting arm is free. This position leaves but not on, the bony part of the left knee,
the shooting arm and elbow as far under the rifle as you can. If you are
unsupported and is not as steady as a left-handed shooter, kneel on the left
either the prone or sitting positions. But knee with the right foot forward and the
with practice, the shooter can maintain right elbow on the bent knee.
control and shoot accurately.
Turn so you are approximately at a 45°

angle to the target. Lower your body so
the right knee touches the ground and
place your left foot forward to steady you.
Sit comfortably on the heel or the side of
f
i
r
e
a
r
m
s
204
The sitting position is the next steadiest have now formed two triangles, which
shooting position. Both short- and long- make a firm support for the rifle. Reverse
range shots can be fired accurately from the procedure if you are a left-handed
this position. Sit solidly on the ground. shooter. Hold the rifle firmly but do not
The legs may be crossed or open and the grip it tightly. Bracing your body against
body should be positioned about 30° to something stable such as a tree or rock
the right of the line of aim. Place the left will help steady your aim for a more
elbow near but not on the bony part of accurate shot.
the left knee. As in the kneeling
position, tuck the elbow as far under
the rifle as possible. Place the right
elbow on or near the right knee. You
f
i
r
e
a
r
m
s
205
The standing position is the least stable tightly. Reverse the procedure if you are a
shooting position. It is also the most left-handed shooter. If there is too much
difficult position from which to fire an waver, do not shoot. To help steady your
accurate shot. It requires excellent control. shot, rest or support the rifle on a stable
The shooter must be skilled in the object such as a tree or large rock, or use a
fundamentals of shooting: sighting, carrying strap as a sling.
breath control, trigger squeeze and
follow through.
Turn your body approximately 90° to the

right of the target. Place your feet
shoulder-width apart. Support the rifle
with your left arm. Hold the left arm
against your body for extra support. Hold
the rifle firmly against your shoulder with
the right hand. Do not grip the rifle
f
i
r
e
a
r
m
s
206
Sights for shooting both rifles and handguns. A

Shooting excellence depends on several rifle or handgun is aimed. This requires
fundamental techniques, which must be two things: sight alignment and sight
learned and practiced. They are: aiming, picture. Of course, our modern firearms
trigger squeeze, breath control, follow- offer a variety of different aiming devices,
through and shooting position. such as iron sights, peep sights and
telescopic sights to aid the shooter.
Aiming, trigger control, breathing and
follow-through are the same fundamentals
Open Sight
Shotgun Bead Sight
Peep/Aperture Sight
f
i
r
e
a
r
m
s
Telescopic/Optical Sight
Source: CFSC
Electronic Red Dot Sight
207
Adendum page — 2002 CORE Manual
Sights
A sight is a device used to aim the firearm. Most shotguns have only a front sight
There are three basic types of sights: open, called a bead sight. Some shotgun
aperture (peep) and telescopic (scope). barrels may also have front and rear
Rifles may have any of these three types sight. This type of shotgun barrel is
of sights. designed to fire slugs.
Bead Sight
Comparison: rifle and shotgun sights
f
i
r
Open sights
e Most factory-issued rifles are equipped
a
r with an open rear sight and front sight.
m
s Sometimes open rear sights are also
referred to as iron sights. This type of “V”Rear Sight
sight requires time to aim accurately and
may be used successfully when speed is
not a factor. When you line up the front
and rear sight with a target it is impossible
to have both the front sight and target
clear and in focus. When the front sight
becomes in focus, this is when you
squeeze off the shot.
It is a normal aging process that after a

while your eyes will be unable to focus on Front Sight
the front sight. Time to switch to a
telescopic sight.
207a
Aperture sight Telescopic sights

The aperture sight is called a "peep" sight The telescopic sight or scope is a mini-
because it has a small hole that you peep telescope mounted on the rifle. It
through to aim at the target. All you have simplifies sighting because you need to
to do is look through the peep hole at the focus on only one object – a known target.
front sight, then hold the front sight on the The scope helps you see the target better
target. The aperture sight is more accurate by magnifying it, making the target
than the open sight. Many aperture sights appear larger and closer. It is also designed
allow the shooter to adjust for elevation for light transmission (to gather light) so
(height) and windage (side to side you can sight a target even under dim
movement). When adjusting the rear peep light conditions.
sight always move the sight in the direction
you want the bullet to travel. If it is hitting The front lens on a scope is called the
low and to the left of the bullseye, move Objective lens or bell. The rear lens is
the sight to the right and up. called the ocular lens. The Ocular lens
does the magnification. Some scopes have
a variable magnification, e.g., 3 - 9 X. This
type of scope will have a power selector
ring, so the shooter can adjust the amount
of magnification. When you look into the
scope you will see the Reticle. Reticles
come in different designs. The most
common is the Cross Hair.
f
i
r
e
a
r
m
s
The “zero” in is
obtained by apply-
ing elevation and
windage to the
shot group.
207b
the correct amount of eye relief in order to

get a clear full picture. Move your head
back or forwards as necessary.
Many new shooters have been "scoped"

when they shoot a large calibre rifle with a
scope. On recoil, the scope comes back
Cross hair and hits the shooter in the eye or eyebrow.
This occurs because the shooter failed to
hold onto the gun properly or did not
have enough eye relief.
Never use a scope to identify an object, use

your spotting scope or binoculars. People
do not like having loaded guns pointed at
them in the woods and it is against the law.
Cross hair
tapered post
Varmint
Hunting scope or target
scope
Objective
lens
Tapered post
When buying a scope consider three
important factors: durability, repeatable
accuracy, and clear image. The scope has
to be designed for the calibre of rifle. A
scope designed for a .22-rimfire cartridge
f will not have the durability when used on
i a rifle with a centrefire cartridge.
r
e Repeatable accuracy is important, as you
a
r do not want the point of impact of your
m
s bullet to change because the internal
workings on the scope have moved. The
scope should also have a clear image in all
weather conditions. There is nothing Windage &
worse in the rain than to bring your gun elevation
up and find out the scope has fogged up adjustments
due to moisture inside the scope.
Lock ring
To use a scope, look at your target. Bring
the rifle up to your shoulder and look
through the scope. You should see the
target. If you see a black ring around your Ocular
target or a very small view of the target, lens
you may have your eye too close or too far
from the rear lens of the scope. You need
207c
Sight alignment means lining up the rear Do not tense up before the rifle fires. You
sight with the front sight. should be relaxed, allowing each shot to
happen as a surprise.
Controlled breathing is necessary to shoot

accurately. As you breathe in and out, it is
normal for your chest to rise and fall and
your arm to waver. So will your gun barrel
unless you control your breathing at the
Proper sight alignment exact moment you fire.
When you are in a shooting position, with

Sight picture is placing the front sight on your cheek against the stock, take a deep
the appropriate part of the target while breath, exhale a portion of it and hold
keeping the rear sight in alignment. your breath while you aim. When your
front sight is in focus, squeeze the trigger.
Front Sight
If you hold your breath too long, you may
lose control, start to shake and your bullet
Rear Sight will not hit your point of aim. If you run
out of breath before firing, relax, take a
deep breath and do it again.
"Follow-through" simply means

maintaining your sight picture and/or
shooting position after discharging the
firearm. If the rifle is moved a split second
Source: CFSC
too soon, the bullet will not have left the
barrel and your aim will be off target. After
Front Sight pulling the trigger, count to three before
lowering the rifle from your sight picture.
Rear Sight
f
i
r
e
a
r
m
s
Sight picture
Correct trigger control is essential for an

accurate shot. When the sights are aligned
on your target, squeeze the trigger slowly
and steadily. Do not jerk the trigger.
Anything other than a smooth squeeze
will cause the sight picture to waver and
will send the shot off target.
208
Tunnel vision through technology

By Tim Lawhern
Many of us that are about 50 years old or older heard his son shoot and the deer did not go down.
remember the time when most of the firearms The father then took a shot. What happened next was
used for deer hunting were equipped with some the worst nightmare imaginable! When the son fired
type of open sights. In some cases a peep sight, his rifle he raised his head from behind the scope to see
in others the typical blade front sight and V-notch the reaction of the deer. Because the father had his left
rear sight. How many times have we observed eye closed and was looking through a scope set on 9
hunters closing their weak eye in order to focus power he did not see his son raise his head; the father
better on the sights with their strong or dominant thought he was shooting directly over the top of his
eye? More often than not, I’d say. You might son’s head. When I saw the photographs of the
now be asking yourself why this has become an reenactment of this incident I instantly wondered how
issue. In Wisconsin, during the 2001 gun deer this young lad could hear anything since the muzzle
season, we had a fatal hunting incident of blast from his fathers rifle was always close to his head.
particular significance to this topic. A father shot Remember the distance was only 3 feet (1 meter) from
his son in the back of the head from a distance of the muzzle of the father’s gun to the back of his son’s
about 3 feet (1 meter). How could this happen head. The bullet entered the back of his son’s head
you ask? Read on. near the top of the skull and slightly left of center.
The scene: This father and son (age 14) have The dilemma: Those of us that shoot scope-equipped
hunted for the past couple of years from the firearms know that the focal plane is extended from
same blind. The blind is located adjacent to a the gun as the power of the scope is increased. Set
railroad track and just off the right-of-way. It is on 3 power we can normally see the front sight,
rectangular in shape, the walls are constructed of albeit blurry and slightly off center. As we turn the
plywood, there is no roof, and two chairs are power ring to a higher power setting we no longer
placed in the blind. The dimensions are can see the front sight. Even though the son was
approximately 4 feet wide by 10 feet long. wearing a blaze orange cap it was not visible in the
scope set at 9 power.
Their method of hunting: These hunters would sit it
the blind and wait for a deer to come out of the The lesson: I think we would all agree that there
brush adjacent to the railroad tracks. When one were some things these two hunters did that none of
appeared, the son had the first chance to shoot us would condone. What we haven’t given our f
and the father would "back him up." If the son attention to is what happens when hunters use i
r
missed the deer or if the deer did not immediately modern technology, such as telescopic sights. Even e
a
go down the father would then shoot. This with the added benefits of being able to better place r
m
method was successful in previous seasons. The your shot and identify your target, the field of vision s
father also used a makeshift tripod for his rifle. is narrowed proportionally to the magnification
When the father was in the shooting position, the setting. Additionally, as in the case of this incident,
rifle was slightly above the level of his son’s we lose vision of items close to us as well when we
position. In order for this to be comfortable for the increase the power settings our scopes.
father, and in an attempt to be safe, the father had
to stand up in order to shoot using the tripod. As a conservation officer and as the administrator of
the hunter education program, I am seeing more
What happened: A deer appeared from the brush. and more scopes of increased magnification
The son chose to take a shot and the father capabilities being used for hunting purposes. Some
prepared to back him up. The father was using a even in the 20 power range. It might behoove us to
large caliber bolt action rifle with a 3 x 9 variable spend a little time towards mentioning these issues
powered scope. The scope was set on 9 power. The to our students and our hunters. Perhaps by doing
father closed his left eye; he was right handed, shot so we can save a hunter’s life.
right handed, and was right eye dominate. He
209
2. Shotgun marksmanship skills When shooting, the body weight shifts to

Shooting a shotgun is different from the leading leg (left leg if you shoot right-
shooting a rifle. With the rifle you must aim handed, right leg if you shoot left-
precisely. With a shotgun you point at the handed). The leading hand holds the
target. Because of this, the fundamentals of shotgun fore-end and points naturally to
shotgun shooting are different. the target area. You don't aim the shotgun;
you point it at your target.
Accurate shotgun shooting requires a fast
sequence of movements involving the The action of placing the shotgun to your
body, gun and eyes. These movements shoulder is called "mounting the gun."
need to be performed in one smooth, You must place the stock against your
coordinated movement for accuracy. cheek first, then against your shoulder.
This makes sure the gun is in exactly the
There are some shotguns which are same position each time you shoot.
equipped with adjustable sights and some
models that fire slugs. These types use the
same shooting techniques required for
accurate rifle shooting.
The shotgun shooting position or stance

resembles that of a boxer in the ring – feet
spread apart, well balanced, arms and
trunk free to swing to the right and the
left of the target. This position must be
comfortable and natural to allow quick
movement in any direction.
Shotgun Shooting Stance
f Do not make the error of raising the gun

i to the shoulder first and dropping your
r
e head to rest the cheek against the stock.
a
r You will likely miss the target.
m
s
Keep both eyes wide open and focussed on
the moving target, not on the gun barrel
or the bead sight. While watching the
target, mount the gun correctly and point
it toward the target area.Remember that
you do not aim a shotgun, you simply
point it.
Do not fire a shotgun with slow, steady

trigger pressure as you do a rifle. The
shotgun trigger is slapped. The trigger slap
is similar to the action of tapping the desk
with your finger. Slap the trigger quickly,
but not hard.
210
Leading means shooting ahead of the shooter, the swing-through method is

moving target. Leading is necessary when easiest to learn. Swing the muzzle of the
shooting at any moving target. If you shotgun so it points at the flying bird.
shoot directly at a moving target, by the Follow its flight path, increasing the speed
time the shot reaches that spot, the target of your swing until the gun muzzle has
will have already passed by. With correct passed through the bird to a spot just
leading, the shot and the moving target ahead. Then fire. Continue your swing
will reach the same spot at the same time. during the shot and after.
With practice, the leading will soon
become automatic to you. It is extremely important to continue
swinging your shotgun after the shot. This
There are three commonly used methods is called "follow-through." Follow-through
of leading: swing through, sustained lead helps prevent you from shooting behind
and snap shooting. For the beginning your target.
f
i
r
e
a
r
m
s
211
A shooter using the sustained lead Anticipating the amount of time he

technique estimates the speed, range and thinks it will take a flying bird to get
angle the target is travelling. First decide on there, a hunter using the snap-shot
the amount of lead necessary. Swing the method picks a spot in front of his
muzzle that distance ahead of the target. target and fires at that spot. He hopes
Maintain this distance, or lead, in front of that the shot and the target will meet
the target up to and after the shot is fired. at the same place.
f
i
r
e
a
r
m
s
212
3. Learn how to shoot and practice target. Practice using your firearm so you
safety procedures while shooting are very familiar with its safety, action,
Shooting combines the activities of loading weight, loading and unloading procedures.
and unloading a firearm, selecting the Learn about the ammunition you will be
correct ammunition and utilizing numerous using, and its velocity and range.
marksmanship skills. It is not a difficult
activity, but it takes time, practice, coaching On some occasions when you shoot
and additional self-study to be proficient in (especially with .22 rimfire ammunition)
the use of a rifle and/or shotgun. you will experience a "misfire". This is
when the ammunition fails to fire. Slowly
Seek the help of a firearm instructor to help count to 60 while pointing the muzzle in a
you when you are learning how to shoot. safe direction, and then remove the
Join a sportsman's club. For shotgun defective case. Clear the firearm of all
owners, try some trap, skeet or sporting ammunition and PROVE the firearm safe.
clays shooting. This will hone your Check your ammunition for a firing pin
shotgun skills. For rifle shooters, try mark on the primer. If there is a good
silhouette shooting or bulls-eye shooting. indentation this was probably a defective
You can find shooting opportunities that primer. A dirty firearm or defective firing
are non-competitive or competitive. pin can also cause a misfire. Clean and
check the firearm for serviceability.
Procedure to sight in a rifle or pattern
a shotgun: On a rare occasion, a loaded firearm will
not immediately fire when the trigger is
1. Before hunting, your rifle must be pulled. You may hear "click" a pause of 2-3
sighted in. This means that the rifle seconds then a '"bang". This is called a
sights must be adjusted so that the "hang-fire". It is usually caused by defective
bullet will hit a target at a specific range. ammunition. Clear the firearm of all
This is the first step to becoming a ammunition and PROVE the firearm safe.
responsible shooter and hunter. Check the condition of your ammunition.
2. Set up a target with a safe backstop at 25 It is not that uncommon, especially with
metres and fire at least three test shots. Be reloaded ammunition to experience a
sure to use the same type of ammu- "squib load". This is where there is not f
nition you will use when hunting. enough or no powder in the cartridge. i
r
Clear the firearm of all ammunition and e
a
3. Check the target. If the group of hits is PROVE the firearm safe. You probably r
m
not at your point of aim, adjust the have a bullet stuck in the barrel. If s
rear sight in the same direction you uncertain on how to remove the stuck
wish to move your hits. If the shots are bullet, take the firearm to a qualified
not grouped together, it could be due person for repair.
to your technique or some other
mechanical factor. Get someone to Where to shoot is an important question
help you with your technique. with some serious legal and safety issues.
Check with your local, provincial or
4. After your rifle is sighted in, practice federal governments for any laws or bylaws
shooting under various light and weather governing where you can shoot. The safest
conditions, and at various distances. place to learn how to shoot is at your local
range. Most ranges in British Columbia are
Practice shooting so you know what your for club member's use only. Some private
sight picture looks like, and how your sights ranges do allow the public access as a guest
look in relation to each other and the of a member or through a day-pass system.
213
t
rin oin
ne
Li
P
g
Cease-Fire
g
rin
Line Target Target Backstop
Fi
Fi
Holder
Side View
Down Range
Source: CFSC
Ranges are designed and, in some cases, Range Rules, Commands and Etiquette
legally approved for the discharge of As well as range safety, shooters who are
certain types of firearms, shooting considerate of others follow rules, certain
activities and calibres of ammunition. A standards of etiquette. Here are just a few
typical rifle or pistol range layout will examples of proper range etiquette:
consist of a cease-fire line, firing point,
firing line and down-range area. • When shooting blackpowder firearms,
Before using the range, learn the range shoot from a location downwind of
layout and range rules. other shooters on the firing line.
• Ask the owner's or shooter's
Range rules and commands may vary from permission before handling that
range to range. When you go to a new person's firearm or equipment.
range, take the time to read the range rules • Avoid interrupting or distracting
and learn the commands used at that others while they are shooting.
range. Not all ranges use the same range • Avoid rapid-fire shooting if it will
rules and commands. disturb those sighting in or doing
f deliberate target work.
i The person giving the commands is • Only shoot on your own targets.
r
e called the range officer. Always obey the • Assist new shooters by offering some
a
r range officer. Failure to do so could result advice or coaching, or letting them try
m
s in loss of shooting privileges or possibly your equipment.
cause an accident. • Be aware of where your brass is
ejecting, especially while using a
Here are examples of two typical basic semi-automatic firearm. A
range commands: considerate shooter will move his or
her shooting position on the firing
"Cease-fire": means stop shooting, unload line or install a barrier between
your firearm, put it down on the bench themselves and the next shooting
with the action open and the muzzle bays. This will help prevent the
pointing down range, and step back shooter beside you from being hit
behind the cease-fire line. with your spent brass.
• Clean up after shooting by picking up
"The range is active" your brass and taking down your
(or "hot" or "live"): target. Leave the range as clean or
means you can load and shoot your firearm. cleaner than you found it.
214
Like many activities, shooting requires When shooting, you can be hit with spent
safety equipment. Many ranges will insist brass. This is especially common with
that shooters wear hearing and eye semi-automatic firearms. A hot brass
protection. Shooting safety equipment is falling into your shirt can burn you, and a
generally inexpensive and is commonly spent brass can injure your eye. Be sure to
available. Safety equipment can be easily wear eye protection and appropriate
replaced if lost, unlike your hearing or clothing when shooting.
eyesight. Even a .22 long rifle cartridge,
especially if fired indoors, produces • Wear eye protection with side shields.
enough sound to affect your hearing. • Wear a T-shirt or a shirt with a
closed collar.
Always use hearing and eye protection and • Wear a jacket with padding to help
proper clothing when shooting. Use prevent bruising your shoulder when
headphone-type hearing protectors if you shooting a high-power rifle or shotgun.
are shooting a rifle or pistol. Headphones
provide reasonable sound protection and Proper clothing outside while shooting is
can be used for years. Use earplugs if you also important. If cold hands make it
are shooting a shotgun, since headphones difficult to squeeze the trigger, and you are
affect how a shotgun can be mounted. shivering, it will be hard to keep the rifle
Some earplugs are disposable after one use; on target. Wet and cold feet are
others are reusable; and some can be uncomfortable and will interfere with
specially molded for your ears. proper shooting techniques.
f
i
r
e
a
r
m
s
Source: CFSC
215
PART V
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Before shooting a firearm you will need to determine your __________________eye.
2. List the four common shooting positions. ______________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
3. Which is the most stable shooting position? ____________________________________
4. What is the difference in trigger control between a rifle and a shotgun?

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
5. What is the difference in follow-through between a rifle and a shotgun? __________

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
6. List the procedure you should do when you have a "Misfire". ____________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
7. What actions must you do when a "Cease-fire" is called by the range officer?
f
i ______________________________________________________________________________
r
e ______________________________________________________________________________
a
r ______________________________________________________________________________
m
s
8. List three items of safety equipment that should be used when shooting.
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
216
PART VI:
HUNTING SAFETY
This part is broken into three sections: Being seen

Wearing highly visible hunter or
1. Safety in the field "blaze" orange clothing makes it
2. Field carries and crossing obstacles much easier for other hunters to see
3. Shooting in the field you and increases your safety while
hunting. That's why the majority of
Hunting is safe and getting safer due to hunter states and provinces recommend or
education. Does this mean we can eliminate require hunter orange clothing for
hunting accidents? NO! It means we can most kinds of hunting activities.
reduce the amount of accidents and the
severity of the accidents. We still have the In British Columbia there is no rule
human factor so you will never eliminate regarding the use of "blaze orange". It
accidents. In this part we will talk about is your choice. You may choose to
procedures that will help avoid accidents with wear an orange hat while travelling
or without a firearm in the field. to the duck blind. Once in the duck
blind you might choose to change to
camouflage so the waterfowl cannot
1. Safety in the field see you. Don't wear tan, brown or
Transporting your firearm to the field white clothing when hunting, even
An important part of going hunting is while wearing hunter orange, as
getting yourself and your firearm(s) to your these colours are associated with
hunting location. Normally this involves game species.
transporting your firearm by vehicle.
Whether that vehicle is a car, half-ton, ATV, Never do anything that could make
airplane or other means, it is important to someone mistake you for game, such as
follow these rules in order to make your putting a deer over your shoulders to
firearm safe for transportation. carry it out of the woods. An elk hunter
in Oregon was shot while carrying an
• Be sure that your firearm(s) is unloaded elk head on his shoulder in the 2002
before you transport it. PROVE it safe! hunting season. Be sure to be seen and f
• Place it in a protective case separate make sure to identify your target and i
r
from ammunition. beyond before taking a shot. e
a
• Always keep the muzzle pointed in a r
m
safe direction when placing a firearm in Preventing falls s
or removing it from a vehicle. Never According to Statistics Canada, falls
remove a firearm from a vehicle by accounted for the second leading
pulling it toward you muzzle first! cause of accidental deaths in 1998.
• Secure the firearm so that it will not First cause of accidental death was
move during travel. Position it so that motor vehicle accidents. People have
the muzzle will not be pointing at shot themselves or others when they
people travelling in the vehicle. have fallen with a firearm in their
• If possible, store your firearm and hand. Other people have slipped and
ammunition in a locked place where sprained/broken various body parts
they will be less prone to theft. from a simple fall. In 1997, a hunter
• If using public transportation, such as a in the Telkwa Pass near Smithers,
plane, always check with your carrier to B.C., slipped on a mossy patch of
determine its requirements for ground above a steep incline and fell
transporting firearms and ammunition. 150 metres to his death.
217
Causes of Death 1998
Source: Statistic Canada Shelf Tables
Accident Types Deaths
Motor Vehicle 2949

Falls 2620
Accidental Poisoning 966
Submersion, suffocation and foreign bodies 705
Fire and Flames 245
Medical 189
Natural and environmental factors 152
Water Transport 117
Accidents caused by machinery 117
Struck by falling object 76
Air and Space Transport 84
Railway accidents 34
Accidents caused by firearm missiles 31
Total deaths with firearms 1998 %

Total 985
• Suicide with firearm 818 83%
• Murder with firearm 130 13%
• Firearm accidents 31 3%
f • Legal intervention 6 1%
i
r
e
a Comparison: Deaths by firearms to gender - 1998
r
m
s
• Male 903 deaths or 92% of all firearms related deaths
• Female 82 deaths or 8% of all firearms related deaths
Total Suicides - 1998 3699

• Suicide with firearm 818 22% of all suicides
Total murders - 1998 467

• Murder with firearm 130 28% of all murders
Youth under 19 deaths by firearms: suicide 67, murder, 26, accident 8
218
To minimize the risk from falls or Two-hand (ready) carry — the firearm is
stumbles while hunting: carried with the muzzle end up and across
• Wear the proper footwear! Deep-treaded the body. This is one of the safest carry
hunting boots that give you good positions, offering good muzzle control
traction and ankle support are usually while allowing you to get into shooting
your best choice. position quickly. Use this carry when
• Never run or jump while carrying a others are in front of or behind you. Never
loaded firearm. use it when someone is on the same side
• Always unload your firearm when on that the muzzle is pointed.
poor footing, such as loose rock and
steep hillsides, or when crossing
obstacles, such as fences or ditches.
• Never try to cross a stream by walking on
a fallen log! Find another place to cross
or wade it if absolutely necessary.
• If you do stumble or fall, make every effort
to control the direction of your muzzle so
that it remains pointing away from you or
your hunting companion(s). Open the
action, unload the firearm and check for
any barrel obstructions. Even a tiny amount
of mud, snow or other debris in the barrel is
extremely dangerous. Carry a portable
cleaning kit and know how to use it.
2. Field carries and crossing obstacles

In the field you may find that the ground Cradle carry — one hand is on or near the
may be littered with logs, rocks, brush, etc. grip while the fore-end of the firearm is
The ground may be slippery due to rain or cradled in the crook of your elbow. It's a
mud. It is important to learn the various comfortable way to carry a firearm, but
firearms carry methods. You will need to this position is not as secure as a two-hand
adjust your carry due to the number of carry. Use it when others are behind or in
people with you, the style of hunting you front of you, but never to the side where f
are doing, and the environmental the muzzle is pointing. i
r
conditions found in the field. e
a
r
m
Unlike at a rifle range, in the field you will s
have various obstacles to cross and climb in
and out of. It is extremely dangerous to cross
the obstacle with a loaded firearm. In this
section we will give the proper procedures for
crossing an obstacle by yourself or with
someone. Learn them and use them.
Field Carries
A "field carry" refers to the position that
you carry your firearm while hunting. Six
commonly used methods are shown
below. Regardless of which method you
use, remember to ACTT responsibly
around firearms:
219
Elbow (side) carry — firearm is tucked Sling carry — the firearm is hung from
under the armpit and over the arm in the shoulder by a sling with the muzzle
front of the elbow. A safe method when pointing upwards. When standing, this
walking in open terrain, but in brush, carry method frees up your hands for
branches tend to catch the gun. Use it things such as scanning terrain with
when others are behind or to your side, binoculars. When walking, one hand
but not when they are in front of you. should grasp the sling to keep the firearm
from slipping off the shoulder. This is a
poor method when walking on difficult
terrain or in heavy brush.
Trail carry — the firearm is gripped firmly Shoulder carry — one hand grasps the
with one hand at the balance point. This firearm at the grip while the firearm rests
carry offers poor control of your firearm across the top of the shoulder. This is the
should you fall. Use it when hunting least safe of all carries as you have little
alone or when others are behind you or to control over the firearm should you fall.
f your side. Never use this carry when Never use it when someone is behind you
i someone is walking ahead of you. or while walking on rough terrain.
r
e
a
r
m
s
220
Crossing obstacle by yourself

A ditch, fence, stream, etc., can be
considered an obstacle in the field. Use
these general procedures given below for
crossing a fence by yourself or with
another individual. In some cases such as
crossing a stream or river, you will not be
able to put the firearm across the obstacle.
In this case, cross the stream only with an
unloaded and open firearm.
Follow these steps to safely 1. Unload

cross an obstacle when and leave
hunting alone. action open
Step 1
Unload your firearm and
leave the action open.
Step 2
Remove your cap and place it
on the ground. Carefully
place your firearm on the
ground under the fence, with
the muzzle pointing in the
2. Place under fence
direction away from you and
the muzzle resting in the cap.
Step 3
Cross the fence far enough
from the firearm so that if you
fall, you won't fall on the
firearm. f
i
r
Step 4 e
a
Retrieve the firearm by r
m
approaching the stock end, s
not the muzzle end.
3. Cross well away

from muzzle direction
By yourself
Source: CFSC
221
Follow these steps to safely cross

an obstacle when hunting with
a partner.
Step 1
Unload your firearms and leave
the actions open.
Step 2
One hunter crosses the
obstacle while the second
holds both firearms.
1. Unload
and leave
Step 3
actions open
The hunter who has not yet
crossed passes the firearms over
the obstacle to the first hunter
and then crosses the obstacle.
You may choose to use a
boat or a tree stand to assist
you while hunting. Like
crossing an obstacle, learn
the safety procedures for
using these devices.
2. Cross obstacle
f
i
r
e
a
r
m
s
3. Pass
unloaded
firearms
Source:CFSC
With A Partner
222
Firearms in boats them. Place the first unloaded firearm in

When entering a boat with a firearm, the bow of the boat pointing forward. After
PROVE the firearm is unloaded and, if the first hunter is in the bow of the boat,
possible, case it. If hunting alone, place the second unloaded firearm should be
the firearm, muzzle first, in the boat placed in the stern, pointing backwards.
before entering it yourself. The firearm The second hunter can then shove off and
should be put in a secure location where it take their position in the stern. Do not
will not be jarred loose by the movement allow the firearms to extend past the sides
of the boat. of the boat where they can catch on brush
or other vegetation.
If hunting with another person, PROVE
the firearms are safe and, if possible, case
f
Source: AHEIA
i
r
e
a
r
m
s
223
Firearms in treestands
Use the following steps to get your firearm
safely into a tree stand:
1. Unload your firearm and leave the

action open. PROVE it safe.
2. Lay it on the ground with the muzzle

slightly elevated to prevent dirt from
getting in it.
3. Tie a short rope or cord around the

"wrist" of the stock and attach the
other end to the barrel just ahead of
the forearm stock. This "bridle" will
give you a means to attach your
hoist rope. If your firearm has a
sling, use it instead.
4. Tie or attach the hoist rope securely to

the centre of the sling or bridle so that
it does not cause the barrel to point
up when lifted. Make sure the hoist
rope is a bit longer than the height of
the tree stand above the ground.
5 . Climb the tree with the hoist rope

attached to your belt where it will
not become easily entangled while
you climb.
Source: MWF
6. Once you are secure in your tree
f stand, haul up the firearm and then
i remove the haul line and bridle.
r
e
a
r 7. Check the firearm for obstructions,
m
s and then load.
To lower your firearm, first PROVE it is

unloaded. Attach the hoist rope in a
similar manner as when it was raised and
gently lower it to the ground. Always
check the barrel for obstructions after
lowering it to the ground.
224
3. Shooting in the field When hunting with others, your zone of

It is extremely important that you utilize fire will also be determined by the location
the final T in ACTT when you are shooting of others in your group. During such
firearms in the field. Positively identify hunts, it is crucial that each person knows
your target and beyond before taking the exactly where they may shoot without
shot. DO NOT use your riflescope to putting others in danger. It is also safer if
identify the target, use your binoculars. there are no more than two or three
See the ethics chapter regarding the hunters in the group.
questions you should ask yourself before
taking the shot. A commonly used zone of fire when
hunting with other hunters is an area that
Depending on the style of hunting some extends in a 45° angle directly in front of
hunters will hunt in groups. It is you. To determine a 45° shooting zone:
important in this position to understand
your safe zones of fire and the position of • Start with thumbs up and out to
your hunting partners. the side.
• Focus on a point on the far wall.
Safe zones of fire • Draw arms straight in until both
The area into which a hunter may shoot thumbs are in focus without moving
safely is referred to as a "zone of fire." your eyes.
When hunting alone, your safe zone of
fire will be determined by your field of
view, the presence of unsuitable targets
such as trees, rocks or water, and the range
of your firearm.
f
i
r
e
a
r
m
s
Source: CFSC
225
PART VI
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. What colour can you wear while hunting so you can be seen? ____________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
2. What is the leading cause of firearms-related deaths? ____________________________

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
3. List the six "field carries" used with firearms? ____________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
4. Describe how you would put a rifle into a tree stand. ____________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
f
i
r
e
a
r
m
s
226
PART VII:
SPECIALTY HUNTING EQUIPMENT
This part is broken into two sections: Hammer

Percussion Cap
1. Muzzleloading firearms Nipple
2. Archery equipment
Under federal law a flintlock rifle is

deemed an antique firearm and requires
no licence to purchase it, and the flintlock
firearm does not have to be registered. Trigger
Long bows under federal law are not
firearms and do not require a licence in
order to procure them. For this reason, Percussion Cap rifle
some individuals are attempting to hunt
with these tools.
from inexpensive do-it-yourself kits. If you
The problem is that both muzzleloading do have an antique gun, before using it,
firearms and archery equipment require have it inspected by a firearms expert to be
special training to use and have limited sure it can be fired safely.
range as compared to a bolt-action rifle
with a scope. Your skills as a hunter and With percussion cap models, the
shooter must be far superior to a normal breech plug should be removed and the
hunter if you intend to hunt with these nipple, drum, and threads checked for
devices. For these reasons, muzzleloading rust and deterioration.
firearms and bows are covered as specialty
hunting equipment in the CORE program. Special attention must be given to antique
black powder shotguns. If they are
1. Muzzleloading firearms corroded, they are not safe to fire.
Black powder hasn't been used to fire guns Antique shotguns, especially those with
since early in this century. In recent years Damascus barrels, are particularly
hunting with black powder firearms or susceptible to corrosion. f
muzzleloaders has been revived. i
r
Today, the safest guns for black powder e
a
a) Selecting black powder firearms use are reproductions of muzzleloaders. r
m
Black powder enthusiasts will find a wide s
choice of firearms available today. There Before buying a black powder gun, the
are muskets, pistols, muzzleloading rifles, newcomer to the sport should first attend
and shotguns. Black powder shooting several black powder shoots as a spectator.
need not be expensive. A black powder Talk with the participants and learn why
gun costs about the same as a standard they like a particular model. A gun which
shotgun. Muzzleloaders can also be made is good for target shooting is not
necessarily the best model for hunting.
Know the gun's capabilities and those
functions it can perform before
purchasing a black powder firearm.
If you intend to hunt big game with your

Flintlock rifle black powder gun, give consideration to
the size of calibre you choose.
227
b) Selecting powder and ball FFFg, and FFFFg. Each type has a different
Muzzleloaders require different loads for burning rate depending on the coarseness
hunting and for target shooting. There or size of the powder granules.
are four types of black powder, Fg, FFg,
Types and uses of blackpowder

Designation Grain Use
Fg Coarsest powder Used to fire muskets shotguns with very

large bores e.g. 4, 8 & 10 gauge
FFg Second Coarsest Used in muzzleloading shotguns, rifles

and pistols .45 caliber and larger and
12, 16 & 20 gauge muzzleloading shotguns.
FFFg Fine Powder Used for all percussion revolvers, most single shot
pistols, and most muzzleloading rifles .36- to .45-caliber.
FFFFg Very Fine Used in priming flashpans of flintlocks
Be sure to follow the manufacturer's recommendations for the type

and amount of powder to use in your muzzleloading firearm.
Pyrodex is a blackpowder substitute. It is less smoky than normal blackpowder and burns a little
cleaner. Pyrodex relates closely to blackpowder on a volume to volume basis, not the weight of the
charge. In other words, a scoop type measure set to dispense 100 grains of blackpowder will
dispense roughly 72 grains of Pyrodex. This lighter charge of Pyrodex will fill the measure and
provide a charge, which is ballistically similar to 100 grains of blackpowder of the appropriate
granulation. Used in this manner, Pyrodex will yield approximately the same velocities and pressures
as blackpowder. Pyrodex comes in the following designations:
f
Designation Use Comments
i
r
e Pyrodex RS Rifle and shotgun Designed for use in all calibres of percussion muzzle
a
r loading rifles and shotguns.
m
s
Pyrodex P Pistol Designed for use in percussion muzzleloading pistols
and cap & ball revolvers. Also used in small calibre rifles.
Pyrodex CTG Cartridges Designed for use in blackpowder cartridges. This powder in
NOT suited for use in muzzleloading firearms.
Source: Connecticut Valley Arms (CVA) owners' manual.
Pyrodex also makes a "Pyrodex Pellet". This is basically a preset charge made in a pellet shape and is
available in different diametres. You drop the pellet in the bore, instead of using a measurer. This will
allow quick loading of muzzleloading firearms. Buy the appropriate pellet for your calibre and type of
muzzleloading firearm.
Another type of blackpowder substitute is called Clean Shot. Usage similar to Pyrodex.
228
Most muzzleloading rifles fire round Ball screw - a tip on the ramrod used
lead balls or conical-shaped bullets to remove the lead ball without
called mini-balls. discharging the firearm.
Tables showing the correct bullet • Nipple Pick or Vent Pick - a length
diameter, powder type, and charge in of wire slender enough to be inserted
grains for various black powder guns are through the vent hole in a caplock or
listed in most publications about black the flashhole in a flintlock to clear
powder shooting. any fouling or obstruction. A nipple
wrench should also be carried to
c) Selecting accessories replace a broken nipple.
The black powder shooter must
have certain shooting accessories • Cap Holder and Loading Block - The
close at hand. cap holder is a small strip or disc of
leather punched with holes which will
• Patching Material — linen or hold extra caps securely. The loading
cotton fabric (not synthetic) cut block holds pre-patched and
into individual patches or one-inch l ubricated balls.
wide strips. Vaseline or shortening
to lubricate the bullet and a knife to • Possible Bag - A shoulder bag or
trim the patches. pouch in which the necessary
accessories are carried.
• Powder Horn or Flask — a
container for powder made of
material such as horn, brass or
copper that will not generate sparks
or static electricity.
• Powder Measure — a brass

measuring scoop to ensure the
correct powder charge is loaded.
• Starter — a short and long starter f

are usually combined in one tool. i
r
The short starter fits the ball e
a
firmly in the muzzle and the long r
m
starter is used to move the ball s
down the barrel.
• Ramrod — the ramrod is used to

push the tight-fitting bullet down
the length of the barrel.
• Ramrod Accessories:
Worm - a corkscrew tip on the

Source: Alberta
ramrod used to remove cleaning

patches that have stuck in the bore.
229
d) Loading To test a percussion cap firearm, fire a cap

First check to make sure the firearm is in the unloaded gun. If the gun is in good
unloaded. Use the ram rod. working condition, a small curl of smoke
will come out through the barrel.
Or, if the muzzle is held near a leaf
or blade of grass, the puff of air
which comes out of the barrel will
move it.
Empty Mark
Target Load Mark To test a flintlock, prime the flash
Hunting Load Mark pan and flashhole with powder and
touch it off with the muzzle
pointing in a safe direction. Smoke
should show from the muzzle.
If the nipple vent on the

percussion cap gun or the
flashhole on the flintlock appear
to be closed, work the hole clear
with a nipple pick.
Source: CFSC
Before loading, the barrel of the

muzzleloader should be wiped
with a cleaning patch to remove
any fouling or oil residue.
For convenience, when on a

hunting trip, pre-measured powder loads
may be carried in small plastic pill
Ensure there is no percussion cap on the containers, or in individual paper tubes
nipple or priming powder in the flash pan. twisted tightly at each end.
f
i
r
e
a
r
m
s
230
2. Position lubricated
patching material over
the muzzle and seat the
ball – flat side up – using
the short starter.
1. Using measure, pour powder

charge into bore.
4. Using long starter

and a single blow from
hand, start the ball
down the bore.
3. Trim patch flush

with muzzle.
f
i
r
e
a
r
m
s
5. Use the ramrod – and 6. Place cap on nipple, applying

steady pressure – to firmly pressure to seat firmly.
seat ball against the
powder charge. Leave
no airspace.
231
e) Safety Considerations • Be certain the ball is seated firmly in

• Muzzleloaders must be handled with place. To shoot with a ball lodged
the same care afforded midway down the barrel will damage
other firearms. the gun and could severely injure
the shooter.
• Muzzleloaders are to be used with
black powder only. Never use a • Wipe the bore with a damp patch
smokeless powder. Black powder is after each firing.
highly combustible and can be
ignited by a small spark. Never smoke • It is important to know when a gun is
near black powder and be sure to loaded. Experienced muzzleloaders
store black powder far from any open mark the gun's ramrod at levels,
flame such as a campfire. which show the bore depth when the
bore is empty and when charged
• Never pour powder from the horn or with a heavy hunting load. When the
flask directly into the muzzle. After a ramrod is inserted in the barrel, it is
shot has been fired, smoldering immediately apparent whether or
residue often remains in the barrel, not the gun is loaded and, if loaded,
which could cause an explosion or with how heavy a charge. This safety
backfire into the powder container. precaution is especially important.
• Hold the muzzle away from the body

when loading. This will protect you
from burns if the powder is
accidentally ignited.
f
i
r
e
a
r
m
s
232
2. Archery a) Bows
Archery is defined as the art, practice or i) Bow Parts
skill of shooting with a bow and arrow. The bow's handle is the middle portion,
Bowhunting is the sport of hunting game called the riser. It includes the grip,
using archery equipment. arrowrest, and sight window.
Bowhunting does not require great The upper and lower sections of the bow
strength. Co-ordination and control are are the limbs. They are light, very flexible
more important than muscle power; and strong.
however, these skills can only be acquired
through practice. The outside surface of the limbs is the
back and the inside is the face. An easy
The equipment required for bowhunting way to remember this: you are face to face
need not be expensive. Learning how to when you draw a bow. The back is to the
shoot a bow is easy. Nevertheless, it is best outside.
to have an experienced archer teach you
the fundamentals. The bow tips are the extreme ends of the
limbs. The distance between the grip and
To become a bow hunter, it is important to the bowstring, before the bowstring is
learn what the bow can do and what it pulled back to shooting position, is called
cannot do. Learning the habits of game the brace height.
animals you expect to hunt and the ways
to hunt them are equally important.
The bow hunter should not hunt game

until he learns the fundamentals of
bowhunting and is capable of making
clean kills in the field.
Recurve bow
Handle Riser Section
Arrow Rest
Back f
i
r
Lower Limb Upper Limb e
Grip a
r
Brace Height Face m
String Sight Window s
Serving Nock Locator
Notch
Recurve String Tip
Pivot Point
Speed Bar
Idler Pulley Cables Eccentric
Wheel
String
Compound bow
233
ii) Bow Design iv) Bow Weight

There are three basic designs of bows: Bows also vary in their length and draw
straight limb, recurve and compound. weight. Draw weight means the number of
pounds of energy required to pull the
bowstring to a distance of 28 inches (71
cm) from the back of the bow. For
example, a 40-pound (18-kilo) bow is
one that requires a pull of 40 pounds
(18 kilos) to draw a 28-inch (71-cm)
Straight Limb arrow to the arrowhead. The draw
weight of a hunting bow may vary
from 40 pounds (18 kilos) upwards.
Recurve Hunting bows are usually shorter than

those used for target shooting because
a short bow is easier to handle.
v) Arrows
Compound
The basic parts of an arrow are the
shaft, head, fletching, and nock.
Arrow shafts are commonly made from

wood, metal or fibreglass. Although
many types of wood can be used, most
wooden shafts are cedar. Cedar is light in
iii) Bow Construction weight, straight-grained, and less
Bows may be made of a single material susceptible to warpage than most woods.
or a combination of several materials Wooden shafts are often preferred by
bonded together. If more than one hunters because they are inexpensive.
material is combined to form the bow it is
referred to as a laminate bow. Most bows Both fibreglass and metal shafts are more
today are laminate bows made from wood expensive than wood, but they have several
f and fibreglass. advantages. Because they are machine-
i made under rigid production controls, they
r
e
a
r
m
s
Arrow Length Measurement

Shaft
Crest or Cresting Nock

Head Fletching
234
are straighter and more uniform in Increased stability can be obtained by

diameter and weight. Shafts made of these increasing the number of feathers on the
materials are strong and will not warp. shaft from the normal three.
Arrowheads, or points, come in a variety One feather in the fletching is a different

of shapes: target point, field point, broad colour than the others. It is called the
head point and blunt. cock feather. The other two are called
hen feathers. When the arrow is nocked,
Target the cock feather is at a right angle to
the bowstring.
Field
Broadhead Cock Nock

Feather
Hen Feather
Blunt
vi) Spine
Spine is the stiffness of the arrow's shaft.
Accurate shooting depends on using
Bowhunting requires specialized heads. arrows that are spined correctly for the
When upland game birds or other small bow's weight.
game are the quarry, a blunt should be
used. Blunts are also used in field practice. When an arrow is released, the bowstring
whips forward with such force on the
To hunt big game, broadheads are arrow that the shaft bends around the bow
necessary. Broadheads are made of steel handle before it straightens out in flight. If
and come in several different shapes with a the shaft has a weak spine, it will bend too f
number of blades, all designed for much when shot from a heavy bow. If the i
r
maximum penetration of the animal. In shaft is too stiff, or has too much spine for e
a
Alberta, the law requires a bow hunter after the bow, it won't bend enough. In either r
m
big game to use a broadhead at least one case, the arrow will veer off course. s
inch wide or a multi-bladed broadhead.
Arrows are graded according to their
Beginning bow hunters should learn the spines. Bows having up to five pounds (2
safe, correct way to sharpen broadheads. kilos) difference in draw weight will use
arrows with the same spine. For compound
The nock and fletching are at the opposite bows, arrows should be spined for the peak
end of the arrow from the head. The nock draw weight of the bow. For example, in
is the notch or small slit into which the bows having a peak draw weight of 60
bowstring fits when the arrow is drawn. It pounds (27 kilos), use arrows graded as 60
is usually made of plastic or nylon. to 65 pounds (27 to 29 kilos) spine.
The fletching is made of turkey-wing When using a broadhead, increase your

feathers or plastic vanes. Its purpose is to spine weight approximately 5 pounds
guide and stabilize the arrow's flight. (2 kilos).
235
vii) Length
Arrows used for field shooting and
hunting should be the same length. The
field arrow is used for practice and should
be as close as possible to your hunting
From bottom of arrow in weight, length and spine.
nock slot to
back of bow at viii) Arrow selection
full draw. Matched arrows are a set of arrows
having the same weight, shafts of equal
stiffness and diameter, the same
fletching and the same length. An
arrow which differs from others in a set
will fly differently from the others.
Matched arrows are important for
consistent shooting.
1" (2.5 cm)
longer for ix) Bowhunting accessories
broadhead In addition to a good bow and arrows, a
bowhunter needs an armguard and a
three-fingered shooting glove or finger
tab to protect his forearm and fingers
from the snap and pressure of the
bowstring. The armguard is made of
leather or vinyl and protects the arm
against the lash of the bowstring when
the arrow is released. It also keeps the
Arrow length is measured from the base archer's sleeve from getting in the way.
of the arrowhead to the bottom of the The shooting glove or finger tab keeps the
nock slot. archer's three drawing fingers from being
rubbed sore or blistered by the bowstring.
Using arrows of correct length is important
f to safety as well as good shooting. The quiver or arrow carrier is another
i essential accessory. Quivers come in
r
e A practical method of determining the three basic designs; back, hip, or bow
a
r right length of arrow for you is to draw an quiver. The back or shoulder quiver is
m
s extra long arrow on a very light bow until slung across the archer's back so the
the length of draw is consistent and feels opening is just under the shoulder;
comfortable. While at full draw, have putting the arrow's nock and fletching
someone mark the shaft where it crosses end within convenient reach.
the bow back. The distance from this mark
to the bottom of the nock slot is the The hip quiver, sometimes called the
length of arrow you should use. If your belt or pocket quiver, is usually used to
draw length is 28 inches (71 cm), you hold field arrows.
should select 28-inch (71-cm) hunting and
28-inch (71-cm) field arrows. Most bowhunters prefer the bow quiver,
which is clipped or screwed to the bow
To avoid cutting your hand when drawing handle. This type is less likely to
broadhead tipped arrows, select arrows become entangled in brush, is fast, and
one inch longer than your draw quiet in the woods.
measurement.
236
Other practical accessories are an extra bowstring with frayed strands is

bowstring, spare rest and tube of dangerous. Replace it immediately. Be
bowstring wax, a flat file and honing stone sure the bowstring is firmly seated in
for sharpening broadheads, Allen the bow nocks.
wrenches, pliers for retrieving arrow
points from trees and stumps, a • Inspect all arrows for cracks and
bowstringer, string silencers and brush splinters. Never shoot an arrow with a
buttons, bowtip protectors, and some type damaged shaft. Cracked or loose
of bow camouflage. nocks should be replaced. Look for
loose or broken points and check the
x) Bow sights fletching for damage.
Bow sights are not used by all bow • Never nock an arrow or draw a bow
hunters. Many prefer to use the point-of- while facing someone.
aim technique. But for the beginning
archer, a bow sight is one of the best aids • Never draw an arrow and aim it at
in learning to aim accurately. anything you don't intend to shoot,
even in fun. Never aim a drawn bow
Bow sights come in many different at another person.
designs. They can be simple and
inexpensive, consisting of a single fixed • Never carry an arrow nocked in the
or moveable pin, or they can be bowstring. Sometimes bowstrings
complicated and expensive, utilizing snap and plastic nocks break,
precision optical devices. accidentally causing the arrow to fly
off. A stumble or fall might release
Most bow sights consist of a slotted bar the arrow, injuring one of your
fixed to the bow handle and an companions. Nock the arrow only
adjustable pin, bead or post, which can when you are ready to shoot.
be moved up or down and from side to
side. Some types use a prism or crosshairs • Be sure of your target. Never release
and others have a series of pins, which an arrow without full view of the
can be pre-set for various distances. path to and beyond the target.
f
xi) Bow handling • Never draw an arrow if someone is i
r
between you and the target or behind e
a
Primary Safety Rules the target. An arrow can be deflected r
m
by a branch or twig and travel a s
• Always check the condition of your considerable distance if it misses its
equipment before using it. mark. A bow hunter should never
shoot at something that is not clearly
• Check your bow for cracks, twisted visible. He should not shoot until he
limbs, and broken or splintered sees the entire animal, can identify it
bow tips. and pick a vital aiming spot.
• Never draw and release a bow • In practice, always use a safe

without first nocking an arrow. The backstop or shoot into a sandbank or
strain this action puts on the bow open hillside.
limbs and string can damage the bow.
• Never shoot an arrow straight up in
• Check the bowstring, especially the the air. What goes up must come
loops, for any sign of wear. A down. If you shoot an arrow straight
237
up to see how far it will go, you don't xiii) Equipment care
know where it will land. In falling, it
can be extremely dangerous. Care and maintenance
A bow and arrows will give many years of
• Always carry hunting arrows with service and enjoyment to the owner who
points covered for personal safety and gives them thoughtful care.
the protection of companions.
Fibreglass arrows are rugged and will not
• When carrying broadhead arrows be bend. Wooden arrows may warp.
especially careful to use a protective Aluminum arrows may bend if they hit a
covering or hood to prevent the razor- rock or tree stump. Check your wood or
sharp blades from cutting anyone. aluminum arrows to be sure they are
straight. A light coat of furniture polish
• Put your tackle away after use — to will protect wooden shafts and help
keep it in good condition and prevent prevent warping.
accidents
When an arrow hits a hard object, its
• Never store your bow standing on point may be bent. Check to be sure the
end. Instead, hang it horizontally on nock and head are properly aligned.
a wall rack or vertically on a hook.
Arrows should be stored in an arrow If an arrow's fletching is damaged, your shot
rack, which helps keep them straight will not be accurate. Make sure the feathers
and prevents warping. Arrows should have not loosened or come unglued.
be stored in an upright position.
Keep your arrows clean. A little dirt on the
xii) Safe handling in the field head will change the weight of the point
When carrying broadheads in the field be and cause a bad shot. Glass and metal
especially on guard when climbing. If you arrows can be cleaned with a little soap
are shooting from an elevated blind or tree and water.
stand, pull the bow and quiver up with a
length of cord. Secure Protect the bow's finish and keep out
yourself to the tree moisture by occasionally giving it a light
f stand with a safety line. coat of furniture polish.
i
r
e Always take an arrow Compound bows should be checked
a
r out of your bow and regularly to be sure all the bolts are tight.
m
s place it in the quiver The idler wheels and cams should be oiled
when not hunting. often and the cables checked for wear and
Never go into a camp, replaced when necessary.
dwelling or group of
people with your bow The bowstring should be waxed every time
and arrow in the bow is used. Wax will prolong the
shooting position. bowstring’s life. Rub the wax well into the
strands and remove any excess wax with a
Never use your soft cloth.
equipment without
having the basic
rules of bowhunting
safety uppermost in
your mind.
238
Stringing the bow To string the bow using a bow

Stringing must be done with care. If braced cord stringer:
incorrectly, the bow limbs may snap back
and hit you. The best method of stringing a) Slip the larger loop of the bowstring
a bow is to use a bow stringer. The stringer over the upper bow limb.
is a length of heavy test nylon with a b) Place the smaller bowstring loop in
leather pouch at each end. It is inexpensive the groove of the lower notch and
and can be carried in a pocket. secure with a rubber tip protector.
c) Fit the stringer pouches over the
bow tips.
d) Stand on the centre of the
bowstringer, pulling the bow up
while holding it by the handle.
e) When the bow has sufficient flex,
slip the upper bowstring loop in the
grooved notch.
Using as bow cord stringer f

i
r
e
a
r
m
s
239
Another way to string a bow is called the After you string your bow, check the brace
"step-through" method: height. This is the distance between the
face of the bow at the handle and the
a) Place the bottom bowstring loop in string. Most manufacturers specify the
the groove of the lower notch and proper brace height for each bow. Buying
secure with a rubber tip protector. a bowstring specified for your particular
bow is made easier by taking your old
b) With the right leg, step through or bowstring with you when purchasing a
between the string and bow and hook new one.
the lower recurve on the outside of
the left foot and over the instep. If your bowstring is slightly long, you can
twist the bowstring until you obtain the
c) Place thigh against the bow handle proper brace height.
and apply pressure backward. At the
same time, bend the bow by leaning Compound bows must be strung by using
forward from the waist and applying a compound bow stringer. Compound
pressure with the right hand. The bows are not unstrung after use, as are
string loop can then be slipped into other types of bows, so you will need to
place in the upper notch. Before use the bow stringer only when a worn
pressure is released, check to make string must be replaced. Follow the
sure the string loops are firmly seated instructions provided with the compound
in the bow notches. stringer carefully.
f
i
r
e
a
r
m
s
Using belt or rope to

avoid twist in limbs Using a compound
bow stringer
240
Marking the nocking point bowstring and arrow are at right angles.
You must have a specified point on your You can buy a tiny nocking bead to attach
bowstring to place the arrow for every to the bowstring to mark this point. Some
shot. The point where the arrow rests on archers use a double nocking point, and
the bowstring is called the nocking point. the arrow nock is positioned in the centre
Every time you place an arrow on the of the two markers.
string, or nock it, you should use the same
nocking point. xiv) Fundamentals of bow shooting
Master Eye
To find the nocking point, place an arrow As in rifle, pistol and shotgun shooting, it
on the bow with the shaft lying on the is necessary for an archer to determine
arrow rest on the handle and the nock which of his eyes is the more important
fitted onto the bowstring. one. Although both eyes should be used
when shooting the bow, the archer should
Adjust the arrow so it makes a 90-degree shoot from the right side if his right eye is
angle with the bowstring. The nocking his master eye, from the left if he has a
point is 1/8 to 3/16 of an inch (3 mm to master left eye. Otherwise, he will not be
5 mm) higher than the place where the shooting where he is looking.
f
i
r
Nocking Locator e
Nocking Point a
r
m
s
90˚
Nocking Height
241
Archery Fundamentals Stance

To shoot a bow properly and effectively, an The correct stance will give your body a
archer must learn the fundamentals of solid foundation from which to shoot.
archery thoroughly before putting them Stand at approximately a right angle to
into practice. Every beginning bow hunter your target. Your weight should be evenly
should learn to shoot under the guidance of distributed on both feet which should be
a competent coach or experienced bowman. spread apart far enough to give you a steady
balance and a comfortable relaxed position.
There are six basic steps in correct Keep your body erect but not stiff. Once
shooting techniques: you have turned your head towards the
target, keep very still. Any movement will
1. Stance affect the accuracy of the shot.
2. Gripping the bow
3. Nocking
4. Draw, anchor, and aim
5. Releasing
6. Follow-through
Regular Stance Oblique Stance
f
i
r
e
a
r
m
s
Approx. 12" Direction to Direction to

(30 cm) Target Target
Approx. 18"
(46 cm)
242
Gripping the bow are left-handed) around the bowstring.

The correct grip on the bow is essential to Your forefinger goes above the nock, and
good shooting. Hold the bow in your left your other two fingers go under the nock.
hand if you are right-handed; in your right The string should lie in the creases of your
hand if you are left-handed. The thumb finger’s knuckle joints.
and forefinger should form a “V” at the
inside of the bow handle. The bow handle Draw, Anchor and Aim
should press against the base of the thumb After you have nocked the arrow and while
and not against the heel of the hand. Your the bow is still in horizontal position,
grip should be firm but relaxed. Do not extend the arm that holds the bow toward
clench the bow tightly. Keep your wrist the target. With your outstretched arm
straight, but not rigid. If your wrist bends parallel to the ground, turn the bow to the
inward it will be stung by the bowstring upright position. Keep your bow-hand and
when it is released; if it bends outward, forearm level with your shoulder but bend
your grip will be weak and awkward and your elbow slightly to allow for clearance
the bow may waver. In either case, your of the bowstring.
aim will be poor and you are likely to miss
your target. Hold the bow lightly, just tightly enough
to prevent it from jumping away when the
Nocking string is released. The pressure as you draw
Grip the bow properly with your gripping will hold the bow firmly against the fleshy
hand. Hold the bow parallel to the part of your palm at the base of the thumb.
ground, about waist high, with the With the three fingers of your draw hand,
bowstring toward your body. Reach for an draw the string steadily back until your
arrow with the other hand. Using your drawing fingers touch a spot on your face
thumb and forefinger, grasp the arrow by or chin. This spot is called the anchor
the nock. Place the shaft across the arrow point. When your drawing hand touches
rest with the cock feather facing up, that your anchor point you’re at full draw.
is, at right angles to the bowstring. Slide
the arrow nock towards you so the The location of your personal anchor point
bowstring enters the slot. Then slide the is not particularly important. But it is very
nock on the string until it is positioned important that your draw is anchored at
just underneath the nocking point. exactly the same point on your face or f
When the arrow is nocked, hook the first chin each time you draw. If it varies, your i
r
three fingers of your right hand (left if you shooting will not be consistent. e
a
r
m
Drawing a bow is a dual action. You pull s
back on the bowstring, and at the same
time you press the bow itself forward. Be
sure to use your back and shoulder muscles
to do the pulling and not the arm or hand.
As you draw the bowstring steadily back,
breathe in deeply. Drawing, from the time
you begin to pull the string to your face
until the arrow is released, should always
be one smooth, continuous action.
Cock
Feather When your drawing hand reaches the
anchor position, hold it tightly against
your anchor point for a few seconds to
steady your aim. While holding the full
243
draw, tighten your back muscles. If you To set the bow sight, line up the head of
attempt to keep the bow at full draw the pin or other device with the target.
without increasing the pressure, your back Then shoot. If the arrow hits low, adjust
and shoulder muscles will quickly tire and the sight by moving the pin down. If the
the arrow will creep forward. Even a little arrow hits high, move the sight up. To
lessening of full draw will make your shot adjust the shot to the left or right, move
less powerful and not as accurate. the sight pin sideways. When the arrow is
left of the centre, move the sight pin left.
There are many aiming techniques but When the arrow is right of centre, move
two very reliable methods are to use a the sight pin right. Continue this trial-
bow sight or to shoot using the point-of- and-error adjustment until the arrows hit
aim technique. the target exactly.
When the sight is properly set for a

given distance, the archer lines up the
pin or other sighting device with the
target and shoots, usually with
remarkable accuracy.
Using the point-of-aim technique, the

archer focuses on the point of the arrow
instead of the target and lines up the
arrow’s tip with some point either above
or below the actual target.
The point of aim can be almost anything,

a rock, a post, a tree in the distance, or
specific spot of ground. On long shots, the
arrow tip should be focused on some point
above the true target. When distances are
short, focus below the target. By trial and
error and experience, the archer will learn
f where the point of aim should be for
i various distances.
r
e
a
r Release
m
s For consistent accuracy in shooting, a bow A crisp, straight, even release is very
sight has several advantages. Use of a bow important to accuracy. The release must be
sight is the surest of all methods of smooth and consistent. If it varies each
aiming. It is the quickest way for a novice time you shoot, so will the accuracy of
to become expert at hitting the target. your shot.
The sighting mechanism of most basic Hold the full draw just long enough to
sights is usually a moveable pin, bead or be sure your aim is correct. Then, simply
post. More sophisticated models and relax the three fingers holding the
telescopic sights use cross hair optical bowstring, letting the string slip away
devices as the sighting instrument. The smoothly. Don't jerk your fingers off the
sight mechanism can be moved up and string. This will cause the shot to veer
down or sideways to correspond with off its mark. There should be no
various distances marked on the panel of movement except for the easy relaxing
the bow sight. of the draw fingers.
244
Follow-Through Common Errors

The follow-through in archery means When you have learned the fundamentals
holding your shooting position until the of archery from a book or in the
arrow hits the target. If you don't follow- classroom, you should practice on the
through, keeping the bow-arm and hand target range. At first, the shot will
perfectly still and remaining in the same probably be erratic but you should not be
position as at full draw, your shot will not discouraged. With practice and
be accurate and on target. concentration, the arrows will soon begin
to group on the target.
If your arrows are not hitting the bulls-

eye, the following may explain why you
are missing the target.
• High - Overdrawing the bow; pulling

bowstring back beyond anchor point;
nocking point may be too low.
• Low - Insufficient draw; not pulling

back to anchor point; string hand
may be creeping forward at the
instant of release.
• Right - Arrows of insufficient spine

for bow weight; having fingers bent
too far around bowstring; improper
stance.
• Left - Arrows have too much spine;

gripping the bow handle too tightly;
moving string hand away from
anchor point.
Consistent accuracy and safe shooting f
depends on doing the same thing the • High and Right - Jerking the drawing i
r
same way every time you shoot. If you hand back and inward as arrow is e
a
practice the fundamental techniques of released; too much of the fingers r
m
archery regularly, safe and accurate around bowstring. s
shooting will soon become a habit.
• Low and Left - Dropping bow arm as
The practiced archer and bow hunter arrow is released.
doesn't need time to think about how to
shoot. He concentrates on the target and
thinks ‘Is it a safe shot? Is it legal game?
Should I take it?’
245
b) The crossbow an implement for hunting is increasing

The federal government has a provision with the recent surge of interest in archery.
that you will need a federal firearms licence
in order to purchase a crossbow. This The implement is a very strong bow (prod)
requirement is expected to come into place mounted upon a wooden or metal arm,
in 2003. At the time of revising the CORE similar to the stock of a rifle (a substitute
Manual, how this provision is to work is for the archer's arm), whose string is
still unknown. drawn by hand, or by a mechanical
device, to place the bowstring into the
In addition, certain sizes of crossbows, lock, ready for release by one of a variety
normally the small pistol-style crossbows. of trigger systems not too dissimilar from
are prohibited in Canada. those found on firearms.
i) History of crossbows This mechanical system allows the

Evidence from archaelogical studies places mounting of a bow whose draw weight can
the origin of the crossbow in China about be much greater than that which can be
two thousand years before Christ. arm-drawn on a simple or compound
longbow. It also enables the crossbow to
Historic evidence of crossbows suggests use arrows of a much greater range of
that military explorations brought the weight than found in conventional arrows;
weapon westwards into the near East and the heavier the prod, the heavier the bolt.
Europe. By the 11th century, it was a
common arm for defensive forces. Crossbow arrows, whether used in
competitive shooting or hunting, are
Crossbows persist today as useful hunting generally in the 14-18 inch (35 - 45 cm)
weapons in a number of primitive range. Construction of the bolt, or quarrel, is
hunting/gathering communities in Africa, similar to that of other archery arrows, except
South America, and Malaysia. In the that the forked nock is not usually present.
western world, it is an instrument of Rather, a straight butt or one with a slight
competitive target shooting whose use as concavity for string landing is provided.
Bolt (Arrow or Quarrel) - the projectile shot from a

f
i crossbow. Much shorter than the usual arrow shaft,
r generally from 14 to 18 inches.
e
a
r String Nock
m Rear sight
s
Channel Groove - a
grooved section down
the length of the barrel,
allowing the cock feather
to ride along the barrel.
Front sight
Nose - a solid portion at
the front of the bow,
which retains the prod
before shooting
String Nock
Trigger Mechanism - similar to the trigger Stirrup - cocking device which allows the bow-
on a rifle. It allow the bolt to be released. man to hold the bow in a stationary position
Prod - the actual bow section
using both hands to cock the bowstring.
246
ii) Hunting with a crossbow hunting arrow to perform similarly. Both, in

The ballistic capability of the modern general hunting situations, achieve about
crossbow is almost identical to that of a the same velocities, but in order to retain
hunting longbow and limits its use for any the power of penetration at optimum target
responsible hunting to distances of about distances, the crossbow bolt usually must
40 metres. The weapon is not a convenient weigh at least as much or more than the
device for a hunter on the move while longbow arrow. Increasing the draw weight
stalking game. The shape of the crossbow of the prod will not produce significantly
does not allow for silently moving through greater velocity, but it will enable the use of
trees and brush, and the retention of the a proportionately heavier arrow.
arrow in a loaded position is almost
impossible. While the longbow hunter v) Sights
places his arrow and draws the string only Sights of different forms are adaptable to
after sighting the quarry, the crossbowman the crossbow, the most common of which
must place the bolt against the string in the are a rear aperture with laddered forward
groove of an already cocked bow. This post sight, similar to the sight on a
action requires that the hunter stay in a longbow. Telescopic sights are debatably
fixed location. Thus, crossbow hunting is of benefit to the crossbow hunter because
effective only from a point of concealment of the varying performance of the bolt at
— often from a dominant elevation over - distance. Also, the trajectory of the arrows
looking a game trail or crossing. Such is so extreme that a mechanism to adjust
conditions impose severe restrictions on the entire scope sight must be
the crossbow hunter in his hunting incorporated in the sighting attachment.
strategy, and require a high degree of
shooting competence. He must have a Both the longbow (including the modern
thorough knowledge of the flight curve of compound format, which is now available
his arrows, be able to accurately estimate in manufactured crossbows) and the
distance, and be aware of the vital areas of crossbow present good opportunities for
the animals he seeks. close-quarter hunting. The expertise of the
hunter is more exacting for any bowhunter
iii) Safety than that commonly found in firearm
Safety considerations for the use of hunters. Only by constant practice with the
crossbows require special care, for, while instrument, through knowledge of the f
the longbow shooter manually draws and hunting locations, light, and weather i
r
holds his bowstring and may release or conditions, experience with arrow e
a
relax it under the same control, the performance, and a familiarity with the r
m
crossbow, once cocked, must, for safety of anatomy and behaviour of the quarry can a s
the hunter and for protection of the bow bow hunter become competent. And only
and string, be loosed under load. by such demonstrated competence can the
Movement on the ground with a cocked bow hunter gain the confidence necessary
crossbow loaded with a broadhead is to make proper killing shots on game.
hazardous as the arrow is held largely by
gravity alone in the groove of the c) Archery hunting regulations
bowstock, another reason for the stationary Bows and arrows and crossbows and bolts
hunting position of the crossbowman. (quarrels) may be used for hunting all big
game, small game and game birds except a
iv) Arrows (Bolts or Quarrels) crossbow is prohibited to hunt migratory
A crossbow arrow is similar in form to the game birds. The following restrictions apply
longbow arrow, but, being much shorter to the use of bows and crossbows province-
than a standard arrow, it must be much more wide. Check regional schedules for open
heavily constructed than the standard seasons and additional restrictions.
247
i) Crossbows A bow hunter should keep these following

(1) No person shall hunt big game, other thoughts in mind:
than deer, with a crossbow (does not
include compound crossbows) having a 1. He must get close to his quarry to be able
pull of less than 68 kg (150 lbs.) or a bolt to aim with a reasonable chance for
(quarrel) weighing less than 16.2 grams success. He must therefore become
(250 grains). familiar with the species of game to be
hunted; know when and where these
(2) No person shall hunt deer, small animals travel; where they feed and what
game, or game birds with a crossbow (does they eat; and learn their particular habits.
not include compound crossbows) having
a pull of less than 55 kg (120 lbs.) or a bolt 2. He must accept the limitations of his
(quarrel) weighing less than 16.2 grams equipment. An arrow, if well placed and
(250 grains). shot from a reasonable distance, will kill
an animal quickly, but the shot must be
(3) No person shall hunt wildlife with a accurate and hit a vital spot. The bow
compound crossbow having a pull of less hunter must master the skills of the
than 45 kg (100 lbs.) at peak weight or a bolt marksman before attempting to take
weighing less than 16.2 grams (250 grains). game in the field. The first shot is most
often the only shot the hunter will have.
(4) No person shall hunt game with a
crossbow having a bolt (quarrel) other 3. He must know the vital areas of the game
than one having a broadhead of at least species being hunted. As well as being
2.22 centimetres (7/8 of an inch) at the accurate, the bow hunter must know
widest point. where to aim in order to kill the animal
quickly and cleanly. The bow hunter must
ii) Long Bow and Arrow know where the animal's arteries, heart,
No person shall hunt big game with a long lungs, spine, shoulders and pelvis are
bow having a pull of less than 18 kg (40 lb.) located. These locations differ in various
within the archer's draw length and an arrow species of game.
other than one having a broadhead at least
2.22 centimetres (7/8 of an inch) at the 4. When game has been wounded, it must
f widest point. not be lost. The hunter should know the
i kind of wound and the extent of the
r
e No person shall hunt small game with a long injury, based on colour, thickness, and
a
r bow having a pull of less than 18 kg (40 lb.) amount of blood trail. He must pursue the
m
s within the archer's draw length. wounded animal until it is found, or until
he is sure the wound is slight and the
d) Bowhunting animal will recover.
Just as bowhunting requires special
equipment, the bow hunter must have 5. The bow hunter must be committed to
special knowledge of bow hunting the sport. If he needs to know game, he
equipment, its use and its limitations; learns about it; if he must shoot well, he
knowledge of the game to be hunted, its practices until he can; if the requirements
habits and habitat; knowledge of the for success are high, he must choose to
challenge; and knowledge of self. meet them and succeed.
The prospective bow hunter should learn by To the sportsman bow hunter who
reading as much as possible about the sport and examines these points and accepts the
learn the special techniques required under the challenge, the rewards are many and the
guidance of an experienced bow hunter. satisfaction complete.
248
PART VII
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. If you were using a .58 calibre flintlock rifle, what powder would you use for the:
Main charge _________________
Priming charge _______________
2. What is the purpose of the ramrod in a muzzleloading firearm? __________________

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
3. Is it a safe practice to pour black powder directly from the powder flask into the bore?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
4. To become a bow hunter, it is important to learn what the ______________ and

what it cannot do. ____________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
5. List the four types of arrow tips. ______________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
f
______________________________________________________________________________ i
r
______________________________________________________________________________ e
a
r
m
s
6. Which type of arrow tip is used for big game animals? __________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
249
GLOSSARY OF FIREARMS TERMINOLOGY
Action: The mechanism of a firearm directly behind the barrel, by which a gun is loaded,
locked, fired, unlocked, extracted and ejected.
Anvil: That part of the cartridge primer which is a solid surface, against which the firing pin
strikes to set off the priming powder.
Autoloading: See Semi-AutoMatic
Automatic: an action that fires cartridges in rapid succession during one sustained pressure of
the trigger.
Ball: The round lead missile fired by smoothbore firearms. (The term is used today when
referring to some types of bullets fired from rifled barrels).
Ballistic Coefficient: A number which indicates how a bullet's shape, length, weight,
diameter and nose design affect its stability, velocity and range against air resistance.
Ballistics: The study of what happens to moving projectiles in the barrel and in flight - their
trajectory, force, impact and penetration. Internal ballistics refers to what happens inside
the barrel before the bullet or shot leaves the muzzle; external ballistics is what happens
after the bullet or shot leaves the barrel and travels to its final point of impact and terminal
ballistics is what happens to the bullet at the final point of impact.
Barrel: The metal tube of a firearm made from iron or steel, through which the bullet or shot
charge passes when the firearm is fired.
Base Wad: The paper filler at the rear of the powder charge of the shotgun shell.
Battery: The metal arm of a flintlock mechanism, against which flint strikes to create sparks in
the flashpan (also called the frizzen).
Beavertail: A wide, flat fore-end of a rifle or shotgun.
Bedding: That part of the stock into which the barrel fits.
Belt: The narrow band around the rear section of a cartridge case just forward of the extractor
groove. (The belt arrests the progress of the case into the chamber and controls headspace.)
f Berdan Primer: See Primer
i
r
e Black Powder: A finely ground mixture of three basic ingredients - saltpetre (potassium
a
r
nitrate), charcoal (carbon) and sulphur.
m
s Blown Pattern: A shotgun pattern with erratic shot distribution, generally caused by gas
escaping past the wads and getting into the shot.
Bluing: A process of treating metal gun parts in a bath of metallic salts and water, which
colours them blue to prevent rust.
Boattail: The tapered rear end of a bullet. (Also called "taper heel", this design is used to
increase ballistic efficiency at long range.)
Bolt: A steel rod-like assembly which moves back and forth in a bolt action, sealing the
cartridge in the chamber during firing.
Bolt Face: The forward end of the bolt which supports the base of the cartridge and contains
the firing pin.
Bore: The tunnel down the barrel of a firearm through which the projectiles travel.
Bore Diameter: The measurement from one side of the bore to the other. In a rifled barrel this
means measurement of the bore before the rifling grooves are cut.
250
Breech: The rear end of the barrel (in modern arms, the portion of the barrel into which the
cartridge is inserted). See Chamber.
Breechblock: A metal block that closes and locks the breech of the barrel.
Breechloader: A firearm loaded through the breech.
Buckshot: Large lead pellets used in shotshells.
Bullet: A single projectile fired from a firearm.
Butt: The rear end of a rifle or shotgun. (The portion that rests against the shoulder.)
Buttplate: A plate which covers the butt. (Some steel buttplates have trap doors covering a
recess for storage of cleaning equipment.)
Calibre: The diameter of the bore of a rifle before the rifling grooves are cut.
Cannelure: A groove around the circumference of a bullet or case. (For example, the
lubrication grooves of lead bullets, or the grooves into which the mouth of the cartridge
case is crimped, or the extractor grooves of the rimless or belted case.)
Cant: To tilt or lean a gun to the side when aiming.
Cap: See Percussion Cap.
Carbine: A light, short-barrelled rifle.
Cartridge: A case, usually made of brass or copper, containing the powder charge, the primer
and the bullet. (Before development of the metallic cartridge, the term was used to mean a
roll or case of paper containing powder and shot. Modern cartridges are generally classified
in two categories: centrefire and rimfire.
Centrefire: See Cartridge.
Chamber: The enlarged portion of the barrel at the breech in which the cartridge is placed,
ready for firing.
Checkering: A diamond-like pattern on fore-ends and grips of firearms. (The diamonds are
made by cutting crossing lines into the material with special tools.)
Choke: The constriction at the muzzle of a shotgun barrel by which the spread of the shot
pattern is controlled.
f
Cup: A detachable metal case designed to hold a number of cartridges for loading into the i
r
firearm. e
a
Cock: To set the action into position for firing. (On some firearms the action has an r
m
intermediate position called half cock. On early weapons, such as the flintlock and s
percussion cap, the hammer was called a cock.)

Comb: The upper edge of a rifle or shotgun stock where the cheek rests.
Cone: The sloping portion at the front end of a shotgun chamber in which the chamber
diameter is decreased to the diameter of the muzzle. Also, the rear portion of the choke at
the muzzle of a shotgun.
Conical Bullet: A cone-shaped bullet.
Cordite: A double-base, smokeless powder made of nitroglycerine and guncotton, which is
used in the form of long, stringy cords.
Core: The part of a bullet that is covered by a jacket.
Corrosion: The gradual eating away of the metal parts of a firearm by rust.
Creep: The movement of the trigger before it releases. (Also called drag or crawl.)
251
Crimp: The portion of a cartridge case that is bent inward to hold the bullet in place, or in the
case of shotshell, to hold the shot charge in place
Cross Hairs: The sighting lines in a telescopic sight.
Damascus Barrels: Barrels made of strips of iron and steel welded together in a spiral fashion.
(Modern ammunition should not be used in such firearms.)
Deterrent: A material added to an explosive to slow its burning rate.
Double-Base Powder: A rapidly burning powder made by absorbing nitroglycerine into
nitrocellulose (guncotton). (Cordite is a double-base powder.)
Doughnut Pattern: A shotgun pattern with a hole in the middle generally caused by the
interference of the top wad.
Down Range: The direction from the shooting position to the target on a range. See Range.
Drift: The departure of a bullet or shot charge from the normal line of flight. (This can be
caused by wind or the unbalanced spinning of the bullet.)
Drilling: A three-barrel gun with a rifle barrel beneath two shotgun barrels. (Generally of
German manufacture.)
Ejector: The mechanism which throws the cartridge case free from the gun.
Elevation: The degree of adjustment of a rear sight or scope reticule necessary to cause the
bullet to strike higher on the target.
Energy: The amount of work done by a bullet, expressed in foot pounds.
Erosion: The wearing away of a barrel’s metal surface by a bullet or shot charge or by the heat
of powder gases.
Extractor: A hook device which pulls the case out of a chamber as the breech mechanism is
opened. (The extractor generally brings the case within reach of the ejector, which then
flips it out of the gun.)
Feed: The action of moving live cartridges from the magazine of a firearm into the chamber.
Firing Pin: The part of the breech mechanism which strikes the primer of the cartridge. (In
most firearms, the firing pin is part of the bolt assembly.)
f
i Flinch: To move or jerk a firearm involuntarily while shooting.
r
e
a Flint: A piece of stone held in the cock of a firearm. (When it strikes the steel battery, or
r
m
frizzen, this causes a shower of sparks to fall into the flashpan and ignite the powder.)
s
Flintlock: The gunlock of early firearms in which flint is thrown against steel, causing sparks
to ignite the powder charge.
Floor Plate: The detachable metal plate at the bottom of the cartridge magazine of a bolt
action rifle. (The floor plate is usually hinged at the front and held by a release spring
located just ahead of the trigger guard.)
Fore-End: The forward portion of a shoulder-arm stock. (Located under the barrel, the fore-
end serves as a hand-hold.)
f.p.s.: Abbreviation for feet per second. A term used in expressing the velocity of a bullet.
Frizzen: See Battery.
Fulminate Of Mercury: A highly sensitive explosive used as a primer compound.
Gain Twist: Barrel rifling which increases in pitch from the breech to the muzzle to accelerate
the spin of a bullet.
252
Gas Check: A metal cup placed on the end of a lead bullet to protect the lead against the hot
gases of the burning powder charge.
Gas Port: A small hole in the barrel of a gas-operated firearm through which expanding gases
escape to power the autoloading system.
Gauge: Measurement of shotgun bores derived from the number of bore-sized balls of
lead to the pound. For example, 12 balls which fit the bore of a 12-gauge shotgun
weigh one pound.
Grip: The small portion of the stock gripped by the trigger hand.
Grip Cap: A cap fastened over the end of a pistol grip on a rifle or shotgun stock.
Grooves: See Rifling.
Group: A series of shots fired with the same sight setting and the same aim.
Half Cock: See Cock.
Hammer: The part of the action that drives the firing pin forward.
Hammerless: Refers to a firearm whose hammer and striker are concealed within the
metal frame.
Hand Cannon: A variety of small, crude cannons used in the early 15th century.
Hangfire: Delay in firing a cartridge after the firing pin has struck the primer.
Headspace: The distance between the base of the cartridge and the face of the bolt or
breechlock. (This is determined by the rim of rimmed cartridges, the belt of belted
cartridges and the shoulder or rimless cartridges).
Heel: The rear end of the upper edge of a gunstock. Also the base of a bullet.
High Intensity: Refers to cartridges having velocities of 2,700 feet per second
(822.96 metres per second) or more.
High Power: A term applied to the first smokeless powder cartridges with velocities of
approximately 2,000 feet per second (609.6 metres per second).
Holding: The action of keeping the sights on the target while applying pressure to the trigger.
Hollow Point: A bullet with a nose cavity designed to increase its expansion on impact. f
i
Igniting Charge: The charge used to ignite the propelling charge. (See Primer). r
e
a
Inertia Firing Pin: A firing pin which moves freely forward and backward in the breechblock. r
m
(The striker impels it forward while the explosion of the primer impels it backward). s
International Ballistics: See Ballistics.

Iron Pyrites: See Pyrites, Flint.
Jacket: The outer covering over the inner metal core of a bullet.
Jaws: The vise-like device on a flintlock hammer used to hold the flint.
Jump: The amount of change in the bore axis, measured both vertically and horizontally,
while the projectile moves from the chamber to the muzzle when it is fired.
Kentucky Rifle: A flintlock rifle with a long barrel and short, crooked stock.
Keyholing: The failure of a bullet to remain balanced in flight so that it enters the target
sideways, leaving an elongated opening.
Kick: The backward movement of a firearm generated by the discharge of the projectile.
See Recoil.
253
Knurled Surface: A metal surface which contains a pattern of ridges or beads. (This rough
surface aids grasping a metal part to move it.)
Lands: In the rifling of a bore, the uncut portions of the barrel’s inner surface left after the
rifling grooves have been cut into the metal. See Rifling.
Leading: Fouling of a firearm bore by metal particles from bullets adhering to the metal
surface caused by heat or friction.
Lede: The bevelled portion of the rifling at the rear end of the barrel (and the forward portion
of the chamber) where the bullet first engages the lands.
Length Of Pull: The distance from the front trigger of a shotgun to the centre of the butt.
Lever Action: An action operated by a lever located underneath it. (A secondary purpose of
the lever is to serve as a trigger guard.)
Line Of Bore: An imaginary straight line through the centre of the bore of a firearm
extending to infinity.
Line Of Sight: An imaginary straight line from the eye through the sights of a firearm
to the target.
Load: A charge of powder, a projectile or a cartridge. Also, to prepare a gun for firing by
inserting ammunition into it.
Loading Gate: The hinged cover over the opening through which cartridges are inserted into
the magazine.
Lock: The firing mechanism of a muzzleloading weapon. In breech-loading firearms, the lock
is the firing mechanism and breech-sealing assembly.
Locking Lugs: A series of projections on the bolt of a firearm designed to fit into
corresponding slots in the receiver to lock the action in closed position for firing.
Lockplate: A metal plate on which the firing mechanism is mounted on percussion
and earlier firearms.
Lock Time: The interval of time between trigger release and the detonation of the primer.
(Also called lock speed.)
L.R.: Abbreviation for long rifle.
f
i Machine Gun: A firearm which continuously fires ammunition at a high rate of fire when the
r
e trigger is pulled only once. See Automatic.
a
r Magazine: The part of a repeating firearm which holds the cartridges or shells in position
m
s ready to be loaded one at a time into the chamber. (The magazine may be an integral part
of a firearm or a separate device attached to the action.)
Magnum: A cartridge or shell with greater power than normal (i.e., .300 magnum rifle, 3 inch
magnum shotshell).
Mainspring: A strong spring which activates the striker or hammer of a firearm.
Match: A long cord of hemp, flax or cotton, saturated in saltpetre, which burns slowly without
a flame. (It was used to ignite powder in early firearms.)
Matchlock: A firearm action which relies upon a serpentine or S-shaped piece of metal to hold
a smoldering match. By pressing the lower end of the serpentine, the upper end holding
the burning match contacts the priming powder in the pan.
Metal Cased: A bullet with a lead core and a solid metal jacket.
Metallic Cartridge: A cartridge with a metallic case. (Early cartridge cases were made of linen,
paper, etc.)
254
Metallic Sight: A non-telescopic firearm sight.

Mid-Range: The point in the trajectory halfway between the muzzle and the target.
Millimetre: A metric measurement equalling .03907 inches. (Its abbreviation is mm.)
Misfire: Failure of a cartridge to discharge after the firearms firing pin has struck the primer.
See Hangfire.
Mouth: The open end of a cartridge case into which the bullet is inserted.
Mushroom: The shape many bullets assume when the tip expands upon striking. (Sometimes
called mushroom bullets.)
Musket: A smoothbore shoulder gun (commonly used by military in the 17th, 18th
and 19th centuries.)
Musketoon: A musket shortened for cavalry use.
Muzzle: The forward end of a barrel.
Muzzle Blast: The violent disturbance in the atmosphere after discharge of a firearm, caused
by release of powder gases into the air.
Muzzle Brake: A slotted device attached to the muzzle which softens the kick of the firearm.
Muzzle Energy: The energy of a bullet as it emerges from the muzzle. (Usually expressed
in foot pounds.)
Muzzle Flash: The bright flash at the muzzle of a firearm resulting from burning of gases.
Muzzeloader: A firearm that is loaded through the muzzle.
Muzzle Velocity: See Velocity.
Naked Bullet: A bullet not covered by a metal jacket or patch.
Neck: The forward portion of a bottlenecked cartridge case. Also the portion of a rifle chamber
in which the neck of the cartridge case rests.
Needle Gun: The first rifle known to use a bolt action.
Nipple: A small metal tube extending through the breech of a percussion firearm through
which the flame passes from the percussion cap to fire the powder charge. f
i
Nose: The point of a projectile. r
e
a
Obturation: The expansion of the cartridge case, which seals the chamber, preventing gases r
m
from escaping. s
Open Sight: A non-telescopic firearm sight. See Sight.

Optical Sight: Usually a telescopic firearm sight. See Sight.
Over-And-Under Gun: A firearm with two or more barrels placed one over the other.
Pan: The small dished container located on the side or top of a matchlock, wheel-lock or
flintlock forearm used to hold the priming powder charge.
Parallax: The displacement of an object viewed from two different position. (For example,
when using a telescopic sight, the apparent movement of the reticule in relation to the
target when the eye is shifted to a different position.)
Parkerizing: A non-reflecting, rust-preventive finish used on the metal of firearms.
Patch: A piece of leather or cloth. The patch is greased and placed around a bullet before
ramming it down the barrel of a muzzleloader.
255
Patch Box: Covered compartment in the buttstock of a muzzleloading rifle used to carry
patches or other small items.
Pattern: Distribution of shotgun pellets. This is measured at a standard distance of 40 yards
(37 m) using a 30 inch circle (762 mm). (A full choke charge should throw a pattern of at
least 70 percent of the shot into the 30 inch circle at a distance of 40 yards.)
Penetration: The distance travelled by a projectile from the point where it strikes the target to
the point where it stops.
Pennsylvania Rifle: See Kentucky Rifle.
Percussion Cap: A small metal explosive-filled cup which is placed over the nipple of a
percussion firearm. (As the cap is struck by the hammer, it explodes and sends a flame
through the flashhole in the nipple to the main powder charge.)
Pistol Grip: See Grip.
Pitch: The angle of the barrel of a rifle or shotgun away from the angle of the stock. (It is
measured by placing the butt of the stock on the floor and measuring the angle of the
muzzle away from a line perpendicular to the floor.)
Powder: The general term for any propellant used in firearms which burns upon ignition.
(The two major types are black powder, which is a physical mixture of charcoal, sulphur
and saltpetre, and smokeless powder.
Prime: To prepare or charge a muzzleloader for firing.
Primer: The collective term for the chemical primer compound, cup and anvil which, when
struck, ignites the powder charge.
Primer Cup: The housing in a shotgun cartridge base which holds a primer.
Primer Pocket: The depression in the base of a centrefire cartridge which contains the primer.
Priming Pan: See Pan.
Projectile: A bullet or shot in flight after discharge from a firearm.
Propellant: The chemical substance which imparts movement to the projectile in a firearm.
Pumpkin Ball: A large round ball of lead used in shotguns. (These projectiles are the same size
f as the shotgun bore.)
i
r
e Pyrites: A mineral used to produce sparks in primitive firearms. (It was replaced by flint.)
a
r Ramrod: A wood or metal rod used to force the wad and bullet down the barrel of a muzzle-
m
s loading firearm.
Range: The distance travelled by a projectile from the firearm to the target. Pointblank range is
the distance a projectile will travel before it drops the extent that sight adjustment is
required. Effective range is the greatest distance a projectile will travel with accuracy.
Extreme range is the maximum distance a projectile will travel. Also, a facility designed for
the safe shooting of firearms.
Receiver: The metal frame of a rifle or shotgun which contains the breech, locking
mechanism and reloading mechanism.
Receiver Ring: The portion of the receiver which is threaded so the barrel can be attached to it.
Receiver Sight: A sight attached to the receiver.
Recoil: The backward force of a firearm caused by expansion of powder gases which also
impels the bullet out of the barrel. Recoil is measured in foot pounds. See Kick.
256
R.F.: Abbreviation for Rimfire.

Rifle: A shoulder firearm with a rifled barrel designed to fire one projectile at a time. See Rifling.
Rifled Slug: A large, single projectile used in shotguns.
Rifling: Spiral grooves cut into the inside barrel surface to cause a bullet to spin, thereby
stabilizing it. The cut-away portions of the rifling are called Grooves and the uncut
portions are called Lands. See Lands and Grooves.
Rim: The edge on the base of a cartridge case which stops the progress of the case into the
chamber. (It’s also the part of the case the extractor grips to remove it from the chamber.)
Rimfire: A cartridge in which the priming compound is contained in the rim at the base of the
cartridge. (See also Cartridge.)
Safety: A device that blocks the firing mechanism of a firearm.
Sear: The part of a firearm which links the trigger and the firing pin and releases it when the
trigger is pulled.
Sectional Density: The relationship between the weight of the bullet and the
cross-sectional area.
Semi-Automatic: An action which fires, extracts, ejects, reloads and cocks with each separate
pull of the trigger and is powered by the propellant gases. (Also called autoloading.)
Serpentine: See Matchlock.
Setscrew: A screw that regulates the amount of pressure needed to release the sear.
Shotgun: A firearm with a smooth bore designed to fire small pellets, called shot, or rifled slugs.
Shotshell: See Cartridge.
Shoulder: The sharply sloping portion of the cartridge case joining the body and neck. (Found
only on bottleneck shaped cartridge cases.)
Sight: The device on a firearm designed to help the shooter aim accurately.
Slack: The amount of movement in a trigger mechanism before it engages the sear.
Sling: A strap used to carry and aid in shooting a rifle.
Sling Swivel: A metal loop, sometimes detachable, by which the sling is attached to the firearm. f
i
r
Small Bore: Generally refers to a .22 calibre firearm. e
a
Small-Of-The-Stock: The narrow portion of the stock between the comb and the receiver of a r
m
shoulder firearm. s
Smokeless Powder: See Powder.

Smooth Bore: A firearm with a bore that is not rifled.
Snap Shot: A quick shot taken without deliberate aim.
Spanner: A small metal wrench used to wind the mechanism of a wheel-lock.
Spent Bullet: A projectile which has lost nearly all its energy and lacks the force needed to
penetrate the target.
Spitzer: A bullet with a sharp point for better stability during flight.
Stock: The part of a shoulder firearm by which it is held for firing and into which the metal
parts are fitted.
Straight-Pull Action: A bolt action in which the bolt is pulled and pushed straight backward
and forward.
257
Striker: The front part of a firing pin which strikes the cartridge.
Swivel: See Sling Swivel.
Tang: A metal strip extending rearward from a rifle or shotgun receiver to attach the action to
the stock.
Throat: The forward portion of the chamber where it is tapered to meet the bore.
Toe: The bottom part of the butt of a rifle or shotgun.
Trajectory: The path a bullet travels from muzzle to impact.
Trigger: The part of a firearm mechanism which releases the firing pin.
Trigger Guard: A metal loop around the trigger designed to protect it.
Trigger Plate: The metal part under the receiver of a rifle or shotgun through which the trigger
projects.
Trombone Action: A pump or slide action.
Turn-Bolt Action: A bolt action which is locked by pressing the bolt handle in and down,
thereby turning its locking lugs into the receiver.
Twist: The angle of rifling grooves relative to the bore axis. (Expressed as the distance in inches
over which a turn or twist is completed, i.e., 1-10, 1-22.)
Velocity: The speed at which a projectile travels. (Usually measured in feet per second or
metres per second.)
Wad: A disc used to separate powder from shot; or to seal propellant gases behind the shot; or
to hold shot together in the barrel.
W.C.F: Abbreviation for Winchester Centre Fire.
Wheel-Lock: An early firearm mechanism in which a wheel with serrated edges is wound
against the tension of a strong spring and spins against a piece of iron pyrite, sending a
shower of sparks into the pan to ignite the charge.
Wildcat Cartridge: A non-standard cartridge usually made by modifying the shape of a
standard cartridge.
f Windage: The lateral drift of a bullet in flight caused by wind.
i
r W.R.F.: Abbreviation for Winchester Rim Fire.
e
a
r Zero: Sight adjustment so the bullet will strike the target at the point of aim.
m
s
258
FIREARMS
CHAPTER REVIEW TEST
answered all the questions, you may wish to refer back to the material found in this chapter to
check your answers.
appointment to challenge the CORE written and practical firearms handling exams.
The CORE Examiner may request to see the completed Chapter Review Test prior to
accepting you for a challenge test.
1. Which type of firearm does NOT contain a magazine?

a. Hinge action
b. Lever action
c. Semi-automatic action
d. Pump action
2. A rifle bullet will travel more than ______________feet per second.

a. 500
b. 1000
c. 2500
d. 5000
3. The three main parts of a rifle and shotgun are:

a. Hinge, barrel, stock
b. Barrel, stock, magazine
c. Action, barrel, stock f
i
d. Muzzle, action, bolt r
e
a
4. Which cartridge has the largest calibre? r
m
a. .22 Long Rifle s
b. .223 Rem
c. .308 Win
d. .375 H&H
5. Which shotshell has the largest gauge?

a. 10
b. 12
c. 20
d. 28
259
6. The two types of modern ammunition are rimfire and pinfire.

True or false
7. If you purchase new ammunition for your hunting rifle, and the weight of the bullet changes
from 150 grain to 180 grain, you should:
a. Expect no change in trajectory of the bullet.
b. Be prepared for greater recoil.
c. Rechamber your firearm.
d. Resight in your firearm.
8. A shotgun shell contains multiple projectiles called:

a. Pellets
b. Bullets
c. Wads
d. Primers
9. .300 Savage and .300 Win Mag cartridges are interchangeable.

True or false
10. When you pick up any firearm you should:

a. Admire the craftmanship in the stock work.
b. Assume the firearm is loaded.
c. Squeeze the trigger before opening the bolt.
d. Examine the bore.
11. It is both legal and safe to store your unloaded firearm in a safe.
True or false
12. The most stable shooting position is the:

a. Standing
b. Sitting
f c. Kneeling
i
r d. Prone
e
a
r
m 13. When shooting a shotgun, you want to ___________the trigger.
s
a. squeeze
b. slap
c. caress
d. stroke
14. The leading cause of firearms-related death in Canada is:

a. murder
b. suicide
c. accidents
d. legal intervention
260
15. What carry is this? USE SliNG CARRY FIG 57

a. Two-handed
b. Elbow
c. Side
d. Sling
16. Muzzleloading firearms will use __________powder.

a. Gun
b. Black
c. Talcium
d. Smokeless
17. When loading a muzzleloading firearm you should point it away from your body.
True or false
18. When carrying broadhead arrows you should put them in a magazine.
True or false
f
i
r
e
a
r
ANSWER SHEET m
s
1. _____2. _____3. _____4. _____5. _____6. _____7. _____8._____ 9. _____
10. ____11._____12._____13._____14._____15._____16._____17.____18._____
261
NOTES
f
i
r
e
a
r
m
s
262
NOTES
f
i
r
e
a
r
m
s
263
NOTES
f
i
r
e
a
r
m
s
264
Chapter
Animal 7
Identification
GOAL
The student will identify game animals and protected/endangered species

through knowledge of their characteristics, habitat, and distribution.
OBJECTIVES
The student will:
1. Identify ungulate species hunted 4. Identify protected and endangered

in BC. animals of BC.
2. Identify common small game 5. Define common terms related to
animals hunted or trapped in BC. mammals.
3. Identify carnivore animals
hunted or trapped in BC.
265
Chapter 7 — Animal Identification Conservation & Outdoor Recreation Education
This chapter is broken into 5 parts: IV. Small mammals

a) Overview of small mammals, their
I. Animal identification, why do it, and classification and the law
some tools to help i) Classification: why use it and how
a) Terminology it works
b) Techniques of animal and ii) Small mammals to know in B.C.
bird identification b) Rodent Order (Rodentia)
i) The Squirrel Family (Sciuridae)
II. Key to British Columbia ungulates ii) The Porcupine Family
a) The Cattle Family (Bovidae) (Erithizontidae)
b) The Deer Family (Cervidae) iii) The Beaver Family (Castoridae)
iv) The Mouse Families
III. Key to large British Columbia v) The Pocket Gopher Family
carnivores (Geomyidae)
a) The Cat Family (Felidae) c) Carnivore Order (Carnivora)
b) The Dog Family (Canidae) i) The Skunk Family (Mephitidae)
c) The Bear Family (Ursidae) ii) The Weasel Family (Mustelidae)
iii) The Raccoon Family
(Procyonidae)
d) Lagomorph Order (Lagomorpha)
i) The Hare Family (Leporidae)
ii) The Pika Family (Ochotonidae)
e) Marsupial Order (Marsupialia)
f) The Opossum Family (Didelphidae)
g) Conclusion
V. Review test
PART I.
ANIMAL IDENTIFICATION,
WHY DO IT, AND SOME TOOLS TO HELP
It is important for hunters to be able to • It gives the hunter a feeling

accurately identify wildlife animal species. of confidence and familiarity
Study of their habitat will allow you to be able with his surroundings.
to know in what types of areas you will look
for and find certain animals. The physical • It adds immeasurably to
characteristics including colour, shape, and the interest of the hunt
m tracks will help you identify similar species. by suggesting a variety of
a Understanding their habits will also be an aid features and habits that
m
m in identification as well as tracking. the hunter can identify
a and examine.
l
s
The ability to recognize various animals
and their actions, and to be able to predict a) Terminology
where they will be and how they will act, There are a number of terms used
adds to the pleasure and safety of your to describe wild mammals. It is
hunting experience in several ways: important to know these so you will
understand the terms when you are
• It enables the hunter to properly reading about animals, and so you will
identify game animals, resulting in be able to use the terms correctly when
safe, legal hunting. you are talking about the animals.
266
Conservation & Outdoor Recreation Education Animal Identification — Chapter 7
Some of the important Browser: an animal that feeds on

terms include: leaves, twigs, shoots and other off-the-
ground foliage.
Annuli: darkened rings which indicate
periods of slower horn growth; can be Brow tine, tine: projection on an
counted to measure animal's age. antler, in particular, the tine above
the forehead.
Antlers: bony structures that grow from
short pedestals on the skull of certain Carnivore, carnivorous: meat-eating
ungulates and are shed annually. During animals.
their development the antlers are
covered with a hairy skin called velvet Cattle family: see bovides
which has a rich supply of blood vessels
and nerves. Unlike horns, antlers grow Cervid or deer family: the common
from the tips rather than the base (like term for the family of animals named
horns). As the season progresses the Cervidae, which includes split-hoofed
antlers become ossified or bony. This mammals that have antlers which
ossification finally cuts off the blood are shed every year. They are all
vessels and nerves killing the skin and ruminants. These include deer, elk,
making the antler itchy. This causes the moose, and caribou.
animal to rub the antlers which removes
the velvet and exposes the bony surface Deer family: see cervids.
which becomes shiny from the rubbing.
Antlers of mature animals tend to be Gestation, gestation period: pregnancy,
large and ornate in relation to the length of pregnancy.
animal's body size. Antlers grow during
the summer season and are fully Grazer: an animal that feeds on growing
developed by the fall. They are used by grass or herbage.
the males to assert dominance over other
males during fall courtship rituals. By Habitat: the region or environment
January many animals start shedding where a plant or animal is normally
their antlers. Shedding is caused by the found. Animals will choose certain
reabsorption of some of the basal bone habitats where their preferred food is
which weakens the joint so that the plentiful, climate is favourable and other
antler falls off if it is knocked or rubbed. requirements (such as denning, hiding,
and birthing areas) are available (e.g.,
Bell or Dewlap: a pendant of hair-covered rocky, rugged escape terrain for
skin that hangs from under the throat of mountain sheep; swampy areas for
an animal, e.g., the moose. moose; talus slopes for grizzlies where m
they can dig out rodents). a
m
Bovids: the common term for the Family m
Bovidae, sometimes called the Cattle Herbivore, herbivorous: a plant- a
l
Family. This family includes split-hoofed eating animal. s
animals that have horns which are never
shed and are not branched. Horns are Horn: a solid, bony core that is part of
present on both sexes. This group the animal's skull covered by a sheath of
includes the wildlife species bighorn and hard fibrous horn. The horn sheath
thinhorn sheep, bison, and mountain grows from the base or skin at the skull.
goat, and the domestic species cattle, As new growth is formed the old growth
sheep and goats. They are all ruminants is forced away from the skull. The shape
and have no upper incisors. that the horn sheath takes is formed by
267
Predator: an animal that hunts other

animals for food.
Ruminant: an animal that has a four-

chambered stomach. Their method of
eating is called rumination; this is a
process that permits an animal to
forage and ingest food rapidly, then
complete the chewing at a later time.
When they forage and eat they chew
their food and it enters one chamber
of the stomach. Later, while they are
resting, they regurgitate their food,
chew it a second time, then swallow it
again to complete the digestion.
Ruminants do not have upper incisors.
Rut: annual fall breeding period of

ungulates; often includes
competitions between males, such as
pushing or butting, for dominance.
Tine: a point or branch of an antler.

the inner bony core, which also
continues to grow. Horns are never shed Ungulate: split-hoofed animals. This
but continue to grow throughout the grouping contains the Order
animal's life. Both males and females Artiodactyla (even-toed ungulates
have horns but they may vary in shape or like deer) and Order Perissodactyla
size by sex in some species. (odd-toed ungulates like horses).
Metatarsal, tarsal and interdigital

glands: The metatarsal and tarsal glands b) Techniques of animal and
are tufted, discoloured hair patches found bird identification
on the hind legs of deer. These areas are a
source of scent used for communication. Reading and studying pictures, visiting
The metatarsal gland is located on the zoos and game farms, and watching
outside of the lower leg, the tarsal gland is television programs or films will help
inside the hock ("elbow" of the hind leg) you learn to identify wildlife, but
m and there is also an interdigital gland practice in the field is essential to
a between the toes. develop this necessary skill. Take
m
m opportunities to go out and identify
a Migratory: migration: moving from one animals and tracks at different times of
l
s
place to another in search of food, better the year, in different habitats and
climate, or other environmental features. different weather conditions. Practice
with someone who is experienced in
Omnivore, omnivorous: an animal that identifying wildlife.
eats both meat and plant food.
Palmate: a shovel-horn type of antler When you are identifying wildlife there
characterized by broad, up-reaching, are many factors that you will consider.
parallel palms, e.g., moose antler, fallow First, you must know the geographic
deer antler. distribution of a species to know if it will
268
be in an area. The season will also number and size of spikes or tines. Never use
influence the geographic distribution of a telescopic sight on a rifle as a substitute
migratory animals. for binoculars. Never point a firearm at
anything you do not intend to shoot.
Next, you must know what type of habitat
in which each specie will likely be found. A distribution map of wildlife is useful to
Habitat locations include where the specie show you where you can expect to find
will eat, mate, sleep, keep out of the cold or certain species, and where you will not
wind, etc. These also change seasonally. find others. Consult a map and discuss
The habits and behaviour characteristics of hunting areas with others.
the specie combined with habitat will give
you clues on identification. Wildlife handbooks, especially ones with
colour pictures, can be very useful items to
Other animal signs will also assist in take hunting and there are some very good
identification. Tracks can be an important ones on the market. You can refer to them
factor in identification. Droppings, the when you are uncertain or want to confirm
type of browsed vegetation, hair on bark your identification, improving your skill.
or twigs, and other physical signs of
animals can also help.
Animal sounds, gait or type of movement,

and whether an animal is alone or in a
group, are other factors that you should Ungulate Tracks
use to help you identify or confirm your
identification of a specie.
You must be able to identify the sex and

age of game animals to ensure that you
do not target an animal that you can't
legally hunt. Moose
Although eye shine can help to identify an

animal at night it is not an entirely Whitetailed
Mule Deer
reliable tool as it depends on the type of Deer
light you see them in (e.g., halogen or
krypton versus ordinary headlights or a
flashlight). Height of the eyes (off the
ground), number of animals, movement
of the animal once seen, and habitat in m
which you spot them may also give you a
clues for identification. Caribou Bison m

m
a
l
There is some equipment that you can use to s
help you identify wildlife. Binoculars and
spotting scopes are extremely useful,
Elk
especially at long range. They will help you
see such details as colours and patterns of
different species’ antlers or horns. In fact,
today’s hunting regulations may require you Bighorn Mountain
to identify not only animal specie and sex, Sheep Goat
but horn size to within inches and antlers to
269
KEY TO Horns, brown, in
UNGULATES males heavy to

massive, curling
back in spiral.
Females, horns
thinner, back-
ward curling.
Not as above.
Antlers heavy,
wide, spread
horizontally,
palm points
facing forward
No horns or Antler near head

horns
antlers is “deer-like”
then becomes
palmate with
points facing
back
Has horns Antlers, deer like

or antlers in appearance
Paimitate antlers
m
a
(wide, flat, heavy
m or partially so) Antlers not
m
a prominent.
l
s
Antlers not as
described
above.
Antlers
prominent
270
Antlerless ungulates (e.g. doe, white-tail)
Thinhorn Sheep
Horns heavy,
cattle-like,
curved up from
Bighorn Sheep
the head. Similar
in both sexes Bison
Horns slender,
black, with Mountain Goat
slight backward
curve.
Moose
Fallow Deer
Antlers thin,
forward sweep-
ing, unbranched
tines on the
White-tailed Deer
main beam.
Antlers upswept, Mule Deer

Antlers upright,
branching,
not forward
no prominent
sweeping.
brow line
m
a
m
m
Antlers upswept, a
branching, l
V-pronged tines, Caribou s
prominent brow
line.
Elk
271
ANIMAL DROPPINGS
(during Hunting Season)
Bighorn Sheep
Mountain Goat
Moose
Mule Deer White-tailed Deer
m
a
m
m
a
l Elk
s
Caribou
272
PART II.
KEY TO BRITISH COLUMBIA
UNGULATES
The ungulates of British Columbia have a) The "Cattle" Family (Bovidae)

two major characteristics in common: The "cattle" family, Bovidae, are split-
hooved mammals that are ruminants and
a. All are split-hooved animals with have horns that are not shed but grow
an even number of toes. They throughout the animal’s life. Both sexes
have a large pair of hooves that have horns. Bovids include mountain
the animal walks on and a small sheep, mountain goats, and bison.
pair on the underside of the ankle
that serve no apparent function. Mountain Sheep
Two of the five main types of wild sheep in
b. All are ruminants, animals that the world are found in North America –
have four-chambered stomachs, the thinhorn sheep of the north and the
and none have upper incisors. bighorn sheep of the south. Wild sheep are
larger than domestic sheep and have
They are split into two major groups: those smooth coats. The hoof prints of wild
with horns, called bovids, and those with sheep are nearly identical; it will be the
antlers, called cervids. The bovids include area you find them in that will indicate
the bighorn and thinhorn sheep, which species made them. Hooves are
mountain goats, and bison. The cervids dished and rough so that they give good
include the deer, caribou, elk, and moose. traction on rocks. Their breeding (rut)
period occurs in November/December and
The species will be discussed individually, lambs are born in late May or early June,
but where there are characteristics in after a gestation (pregnancy) of about 6
common for a group of species, a comment months. Mountain sheep do not occur on
will precede the individual descriptions. any of the offshore islands of B.C.
m
a
m
m
a
l
s
273
Ewe
Ram
Tracks 31/2"
BIGHORN SHEEP
Common name: Bighorn sheep
Scientific name: Ovis canadensis
Ovis canadensis canadensis
– Rocky Mountain bighorn sheep white on the belly, the insides of the legs,
Ovis canadensis californiana and the rump. The white rump is a striking
– California bighorn sheep feature that enables the sheep to be
m
Scientific classification: Ungulate – bovid spotted at a great distance. Part of the
a Male name: Ram muzzle usually is also white. The tail is
m Female name: Ewe
m small and dark, contrasting strongly with
a Offspring name: Lamb the light rump. California bighorns tend to
l
s
be darker than Rocky Mountain bighorns.
There are two types of bighorn sheep – the Body size and characteristics: A large
Rocky Mountain and the California. They ram will stand about 3-1/2 ft. (105 cm)
are very similar and location will be a guide at the shoulder and weigh around 300
to which species you are hunting. to 325 lb. (135 to 145 kg). Ewes are
smaller than rams. California bighorns
Colour: The two bighorn subspecies are very tend to be smaller than the Rocky
similar in appearance, being brown with Mountain variety.
274
Distribution: The natural range of the Rocky

Mountain bighorns occurs in two separate
locations in British Columbia: in the Rockies
from the U.S. border to Golden, and in
scattered bands north of Mount Robson. In
100 0 100 200 km
addition, transplanted bands have been

Rocky Mountain established at Chase, Castlegar and at Spences
Bighorn Sheep Bridge, and transplants from a Washington
project have spread back into B.C. near Salmo.
The California bighorn is confined to the
south Okanagan, Similkameen, and mid-
Fraser River basin area. A reintroduction was
California
made north of Kamloops Lake, and new herds
Bighorn Sheep
have been introduced to the Grand Forks and
Dog Creek areas.
Bighorn sheep distribution
General comments: Sexes usually separate
in the summer after lambing. The rams
Horns: A distinctive feature of the mature rejoin the ewes and lambs in the fall for the
male bighorn is a set of massive brown rutting season. Spectacular head-butting
horns which spiral backwards from the competitions are characteristic for bighorn
top of the head, curling down around the rams during the rut. Bighorns are very social
small ears and then upwards above the and are usually found in herds, sometimes of
nose as the animal grows older. The horns as many as 100.
continue to grow throughout the life of
the animal and, because growth slows in
winter, annual rings (annuli) occur. The Bighorn sheep — Key Points
number of annuli shows the ram’s age. An
old male may have horns that complete a • Both bighorn species are similar
full circle (full curl), although the tips are in appearance
often broken or "broomed" from fighting • Brown with white belly and a
or rubbing on rocks. Horns can reach 50 white rump which can be seen
in. (127 cm) from base to tip and up to 17 from a distance
in. (43 cm) around the massive base. The • Look like domestic sheep but
horns of the female are much smaller, larger and have a smooth coat
being thin and erect much like the horns • Massive curling horns which
of female domestic goats, and only are close to the head on the
reaching 12 in. (30 cm) in length. Annuli males, smaller and shorter horns
on the ewes are closer together and it is on females m
difficult to age an animal reliably from • Found on open, mountainous a
m
them. The California bighorn often has a slopes with rugged escape terrain m
more open horn curl than the Rocky • Located in the southern 1/2 a
l
Mountain bighorn. of province s
Habitats: Mountain slopes with sparse

growths of trees and rugged "escape"
?
terrain. They move to lower elevations in
the winter where snow is lighter and Using the Hunting Synopsis
vegetation is exposed earlier in the spring. What is a full curl bighorn sheep?
They are both a browser and grazer and
feed on a great variety of plants.
275
Ram
Ewe
Source: Hunter’s Guide, Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources.

Copyright 2002 Queens Printer Ontario
THINHORN SHEEP
Common name: Thinhorn sheep
Colour: Dall’s are the only white wild
Scientific name: Ovis dalli
sheep in the world, but they are not
Ovis dalli dalli – Dall’s sheep
true albinos since they have the golden
Ovis dalli stonei – Stone’s sheep
Scientific classification: Ungulate – bovid
eye common to all mountain sheep.
Male name: Ram
There may also be a few black hairs at
Female name: Ewe
the tip of the tail. The hooves and
m Offspring name: Lamb horns are pale with a golden or
a yellowish tinge and present a striking
m
m contrast to the white coat.
a
l
s
There are two types of thinhorn sheep: Stone’s sheep tend to be very dark (gray
Dall’s and Stone’s, both named after the to black) except for white on the face,
biologists who identified them. They are belly, inside of the legs, and rump
called thinhorns because the horns of the patch. Their horns are midway in
rams, compared to bighorn sheep’s, are colour between the brown of the
thinner throughout their length and bighorns and the yellow of the Dall’s.
more pointed. The horns also spiral out, They may be much paler because of
away from the head, more than the mixed breeding and sometimes only
bighorn sheep’s. the saddle, tail, and lower legs are dark.
276
Stone’s sheep grasses in the winter. They also eat tender

twig tips in winter as they are both
grazers and browsers.
Distribution: Thinhorn sheep are found

Dall’s sheep 100 0 100 200 km
in the northern part of the province, in

remote and very rugged terrain. Dall’s
sheep are mainly in the Yukon, Northwest
Territories and Alaska but a small number
occur in the far northwestern corner of
B.C. near the Tatsenshini River. Stone’s
sheep occupy the southern and eastern
parts of the thinhorn range. They are
found from the eastern slopes of the Coast
Thinhorn sheep distribution Mountains and east into the north end of
the Rockies. The Pine River is considered
the dividing line between thinhorns and
bighorns and Bennett Lake, 80 km west of
This intermediate colour phase between Atlin, as the boundary between Dall’s and
Dall’s and Stone’s used to be called Stone’s sheep.
Fannin’s but this phase is no longer
considered a separate subspecies. This General comments: Thinhorns are
colour type occurs where the Dall’s and usually found in bands of 6 or more. In
Stone’s sheep ranges overlap. the fall, the sexes band together and rams
compete by head-butting for dominance
Body size and characteristics: The rams and the right to breed with the females. In
are larger than the ewes. Dall’s sheep are 3 early summer, after lambing, rams head
to 3-1/2 ft. (.9 to 1.2 m) tall and 125 to 242 for higher elevations, often singly or in
lb. (57 to 110 kg). Stone’s sheep are similar small groups.
in body size; their colour is their
distinguishing feature. Thinhorn sheep — Key Points
Horns: Both sexes have horns; however, • Dall’s sheep are white, Stone’s sheep
the rams have longer, heavier horns which are dark
spiral widely. The horns of a ram can reach • Both thinhorn species have thinner
44 in. (111 cm) from base to tip but the horns than bighorn sheep and their
bases are smaller than in bighorns, horns spiral out from the head
reaching 14 in. (35 cm) in diameter. The instead of the bighorn’s tight curl
ewes’ horns are generally only 10 in. (25 • Both thinhorn species are about 1/3 m
cm) long and are similar to the bighorn smaller than bighorn sheep a
m
ewe. The annuli can be used to age a ram. • Look like domestic sheep but larger m
As with bighorn ewes, the annuli on and have a smooth coat a
l
thinhorn ewe horns do not reliably reflect • Horns on females similar to bighorn s
the animal’s age. ewes, smaller than rams
• Found in open, mountainous slopes
Habitats: Rough terrain, mountain with rugged escape terrain
tundra slopes, rockslides; in winter they • Located in remote north of province;
usually move to lower slopes where snow Dall’s in the extreme northwest,
is lighter and where spring green-up Stone’s spread across the northern
occurs sooner. Thinhorns graze on broad- mountains
leaved plants in spring and summer and
277
Billie
Nannie
Tracks 2"
larger horn tapers
horn base with gradual
curve
MALE
wider
space horn
betwen tapers
horns with
sharper
FEMALE curve
(Reproduced with permission from the Hunting

Regulations Sumary, Department of Renewable
Resources, Yukon Government.)
MOUNTAIN GOAT
Common name: Mountain goat
ridge from their shoulders to their rump
Scientific name: Oreamnos americanus
and down to near the ankles on both the
front and hind feet. More long hair on
Male name: Billy
their lower jaw gives them a bushy beard.
Female name: Nanny
They have short tails and longish ears.
Offspring name: Kid
Billies are slightly larger, from 3 to almost
4 ft. (90 to 120 cm) tall and weigh 155 to
The mountain goat is not actually a goat 260 lb. (70 to 120 kg), while nannies
but is a mountain-dwelling antelope related weigh about 120 to 165 lb. (55 to 75 kg).
m to the chamois of the European Alps.
a Horns: Both males and females have
m
m Colour: Mountain goats are entirely white slender, erect, stiletto-like black horns up
a throughout the year. At times, however, to 12 in. (30 cm) long. On both sexes the
l
s
they may appear yellow or off-white as annuli can be used to estimate age.
their hair becomes stained or soiled. Nose, Nannies’ horns are thinner, have a slightly
eyes, lips, horns, and hooves are black. larger space between them on the
forehead (the space is greater than the
Body size and characteristics: Both sexes diameter of a horn), and are straighter
are blocky in profile with massive front with a curved tip, while billies have a
shoulders to give them the strength for more uniformly curved horn and it often
climbing cliffs and pawing for food looks like the horns are touching at the
through snow. Long, rough hair runs in a base on the forehead (the space is less
278
Goat hair is very thick and of two types:

long (up to 8 in., or 20 cm): hollow outer
guard hairs and a fine, dense undercoat
that is 2 to 3 in. (5 to 8 cm) long. This coat
100 0 100 200 km
keeps the animals warm even in intense

cold and high winds.
One aid to identification of sex is how they

are encountered. If you see a small group of
animals that includes kids, this will be a
nursery group of nannies with their kids
and yearlings. Billies often live alone or in
small groups of two to four. There will be no
Mountain Goat distribution kids with the billies. Occasionally a dry
female will be found by herself.
than the diameter of a horn). However, it Goat hooves are very well designed for their
can be very difficult to tell the two apart. habitat. There is a tough pad that extends
It is often easier to identify the sexes by beyond the hard outer hoof that gives them
looking at the group they are in. good traction on slippery rocks. Also, the
toes can spread to distribute weight or can
Habitats: Goats are found on steep, rocky grasp (like pliers) around rocks to add
slopes and cliffs, usually at or above the traction when moving downhill.
timberline, although they can be found at
the tideline on parts of the rugged coast. The rut occurs in November/December.
They occur in both wet and dry habitats but Billies do not compete with intense head-
the terrain is always steep. They are a very butting like mountain sheep but will
versatile feeder, both grazer and browser, wallow in pits in which they have urinated
feeding on grasses, lichens, herbs, bushes, and threaten each other. Gestation is about
and both deciduous and coniferous trees, 6 months and a single kid is born.
depending on what is available. Goats are
usually above the timberline in summer and
Mountain Goat — Key Points
at lower elevations in the winter. Wintering
sites often are where the snow is either • Both males and females are very
shallow or gets swept away by winds. Most similar in appearance
seasonal migrations are up or down in • White all year, blocky shape, long
elevation and not great distances, although shaggy hair, black hooves and horns
salt licks are very important in summer and • If you see a group of animals
goats will travel some distance, even including kids, the adults are most m
through woods, to get to them. likely nannies a
m
• They are not true goats but are m
Distribution: In Canada, mountain goats antelopes related to the chamois of a
l
are found in Alberta, Yukon and B.C. They the European alps s
do not occur on Vancouver Island, the • Larger diameter horns with a
Queen Charlotte Islands or on other uniform curve on males; smaller
coastal islands. diameter horns that are straight with
a curved tip on females
General comments: Along with Dall’s • Found on rugged, mountainous
sheep and polar bears, they are the only slopes and cliffs
large mammal that is completely white • Located throughout B.C.
throughout the year for their entire lives.
279
BISON
Common name: Bison
Tracks 4"
Scientific name: Bison bison
Bison bison athabascae – Wood bison
Bison bison bison – Plains bison
Male name: Bull
Female name: Cow
Offspring name: Calf
in relation to their hindquarters. The head

is large with short, black horns, they have
a large shoulder hump and a relatively
Bison, sometimes incorrectly called long tail with a tuft of hair at the end.
buffalo, are B.C.’s largest ungulate big Mature bulls are about double the size of
m game species. Both subspecies occur cows, reaching almost 7 ft. (2 m) in height
a in the province. at the shoulders and weighing from 1,100
m
m to 1,980 lb. (500 to 900 kg). They also
a Colour: The front quarters of bison, have thicker hair on their faces and a
l
s
including the head, hump and front legs, larger hump than cows; however, it may
are covered in thick, chocolate brown, be easier to identify the sexes by
woolly hair while the rest of the body is behaviour and herd groupings. Wood
covered in smooth, short, copper-brown bison are a bit larger and darker and have
hair. The tail also has a tuft of dark a larger shoulder hump than plains bison.
coloured hair.
Horns: Bison horns are black and
Body size and characteristics: Bison are relatively short. Horns on the bulls
massive animals with huge front quarters generally curve in towards the head while
280
General comments: The unusual shape of

W: Wood Bison a bison is an adaptation to be able to push
W P: Plains Bison and paw through deep snow to forage.
They also swing their massive heads to
clear away the snow from their food.
P
100 0 100 200 km

During most of the year mature cows,
immature animals of both sexes, and
calves form herds of varying sizes. Bulls
form bachelor groups or live alone until
the rut. In the north, the rut can occur
from July to September. Competitions
among the bulls during the rut consists
mostly of threat displays and roaring but
sometimes fights result in serious injury or
death. Bulls also wallow and "tree-horn"
more at this time. Gestation is 9 months
and a single, red calf is born between mid-
April and early June.
Bison — Key Points

Bison distribution
• Both males and females are very
similar in appearance but mature
males are about twice the size
cows’ horns curve up, but this is not a of females
totally reliable identification key. • Largest ungulate in B.C.
• Massive front quarters and shoulder
Habitat: Bison are specialized grazers that hump, hind quarters much smaller,
eat sedges and grasses almost exclusively. In short black curved horns, long tail
summer, a small portion of their food is with a tuft at the end
browsed willow leaves. Wet meadows with • Head and front quarters covered in
sedges and reedgrass, willow openings, and shaggy dark brown hair, hind
open prairie are favoured habitat. Bison will quarters and rest of body covered
travel through forests and use them for in short, coppery hair
summer shade or winter storm shelter but • If you see a group of animals
do not usually forage there. including calves, the adults are most
likely cows m
Distribution: Both plains and wood bison • Found in boreal forests and a
m
used to occur naturally in B.C., the Wood open plains m
bison in the boreal forests and the plains • Located in northern B.C. a
l
bison in the more open prairie habitats of s
northeastern B.C. With settlement, all
were wiped out but an escaped herd of 50
Plains bison has now grown to over 1,000
?
head in the Pink Mountain area in the
Using the Hunting Synopsis
North Peace; about 100 head of wood
What grain of bullet must be used
bison have been reintroduced in the
when hunting bison?
northeastern part of the province. Bison
are also farmed in B.C.
281
QUIZ ON THE FAMILY BOVIDAE
This quiz is a self-test to help you learn each section of this chapter. The final quiz at the
end of the chapter is multiple choice, which is what your final exam will be like.
1. What is a bovid? ______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________
2. Give two examples of wild bovids in B.C. ________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________
3. Describe how a horn grows. ____________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________
4. Name the two subspecies of thinhorn sheep. ____________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________
5. How can you tell a thinhorn from a bighorn sheep?

(include where they are found) ________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
6. How can you tell a mountain goat from a Dall’s sheep? __________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
7. What are some clues to be able to tell the difference between

a nanny and billy mountain goat? ______________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
8. Mountain sheep and goats live in similar habitats.

Describe this habitat. __________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
9. Describe a bison. ______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________
10. What are some clues to tell a bull and cow bison apart? __________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
11. What is a bison’s preferred habitat and food. ____________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________
m
a 12. Where are bison found in B.C.? ________________________________________________
m ____________________________________________________________________________
m
a
l 13. What makes an animal choose a certain habitat to live in? ______________________
s ____________________________________________________________________________
14. What are annuli? ____________________________________________________________
What are they useful for and when can they not be used? __________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
282
b) The Deer Family (Cervidae) feeding on hay bales meant for cattle, and
The deer family, Cervidae, are split-hoofed in alfalfa fields during the summer.
mammals that are ruminants and that
have antlers that are shed every year. They While deer and moose eat many of the
include deer, elk, moose, and caribou. same foods, during the critical winter
Male cervids grow antlers that can be used period, deer and moose are separated to
in identification. Of the female cervids, some extent because deer cannot move
only female caribou commonly have easily in snow deeper than about 1-1/2 ft.
antlers. It is not that uncommon, (.5 m). Deer and elk may also share the
particularly in the Peace region, to same winter range but elk tend to graze and
encounter does with a full or partial rack; deer browse at that season.
however, this must be considered a genetic
mutation and not the norm. Deer communicate with scent produced by
glands on their legs. The metatarsal gland is
Deer located on the outside of the lower leg, the
Deer are abundant throughout all except tarsal gland is inside the hock ("elbow" of
the extreme northern and northwestern the hind leg) and there is also an
portions of the province. The deer native interdigital gland between the toes. The
to B.C. include mule deer, Columbia metatarsal gland produces a scent when the
black-tailed deer, Sitka black-tailed deer, deer is alarmed, the tarsal gland is for
and white-tailed deer. Fallow deer occur in individual identification and the
restricted areas of southern B.C. and are interdigital gland leaves a scent along trails
also farmed but this species is not native where the deer walk.
to the province.
It takes a lot of practice to tell the
Deer are important prey animals for difference between a mule deer and a
predators, which include cougar, wolves, white-tailed deer by their tracks. The mule
coyotes, lynx, bobcat, and bear. It deer track is generally wider than a
depends where you are in the province whitetail’s and tends to be straight sided on
as to which predator is most important. the inside of the toes while the whitetail is
Domestic dogs also sometimes kill deer. slightly curved and leaves a bigger gap
Fawns are particularly vulnerable, about mid-toe. This can be difficult to see
although predation is an important unless the track is very clear. In general, a
natural process that "weeds out" sick and mature buck of any species with a large
weak animals. Numbers of deer will also rack will leave a track with spread toe tips
vary due to winter severity and natural due to the weight of its chest and rack,
swings in predator numbers. Larger while does will not have this spread unless
predators can scatter herds on wintering they are running. A large mule deer buck
ranges, thereby achieving wider use leaves a longer track than a large white- m
of browse. tailed buck. An alarmed mule deer also has a
m
a distinctive track when it "stotts," or m
Deer feed primarily at dawn, dusk and bounces stiff-legged, compared to the a
l
into the night. During the day they rest in gallop of a whitetail. The tracks will be s
areas that hide them from sight. They grouped almost in a rectangle with a large
thrive in disturbed habitats such as gap to the next set where the mule deer
logging clear cuts or forest fire scars that jumped. The galloping whitetail will leave
are starting to fill in with herbs and almost uniformly distanced tracks. In both
shrubs. Deer may compete for food with cases, the toes will be spread and you may
cattle, sheep, elk and moose although this see the marks made by the dewclaws (the
is often only during certain seasons. They "toes" on the ankles) as the animal lands
can also become a problem in winter by and the ankle flexes down.
283
Mule deer and the two black-tailed deer Antler descriptions given for each species here
species are related and share some are for "typical" animals. "Non-typical" variations
characteristics in common. White-tailed are common; however, the general shape and
deer are quite different and a treated structure will be the same as the typical, even if
separately here, as are fallow deer. the details, such as branching, vary.
Doe
Tracks 3 1/4"
Buck
MULE DEER
Common name: Mule deer
Scientific name: Odocoileus hemionus hemionus
Scientific classification: Ungulate – cervid
Male name: Buck
with black hair. The bucks in winter are
Female name: Doe
usually grayish brown, while the does and
Offspring name: Fawn bucks in summer are reddish brown. They
m are yellower than white-tailed deer. They
a have a light throat, face and muzzle with a
m
m dark forehead and their characteristically
a Mule deer and the two black-tailed deer large ears have black borders with white
l
s
species (Columbia and Sitka) are hair on the inside.
subspecies of the same specie, Odocoileus
hemionus. They are mainly separated by Body size and characteristics: Male mule
geography, size, to some extent colour, deer weigh between 160 to 250 lb. (70 to
and behaviour. 115 kg) but can weigh up to 405 lb. (205
kg). They grow to about 3 ft. at the
Colour: Mule deer in general are brownish shoulder (90 cm). Does are smaller and
in colour. They have a large white rump rarely exceed 160 lb. (70 kg). Mule deer get
patch and a slender white tail that is tipped their name from their large ears.
284
General Comments: Mule deer are more

curious than white-tailed deer and are
often seen in open areas. When running
for cover, they often pause to look back,
100 0 100 200 km
giving the hunter a good opportunity for a
standing shot. When startled, they bounce
Mule Deer high and stiff-legged as if on springs
("stotting"); because of the great distance
covered with each bound the mule deer
appears to spend most of its time in the
air. If not as alarmed, they also will walk,
Columbia trot or gallop. The fawns and does, though
Black-tailed Deer seldom heard, make a bleat; bucks have a
guttural grunt, especially during the rut;
Mule & Black-tailed deer distribution both sexes snort when alarmed.
Antlers: The antlers of the male mule deer The rut usually occurs in November/
grow in forked pairs. Each antler has two December. Bucks compete by threatening,
main beams, and each of these split again pushing, fighting, and bush-thrashing. Twin
as the animal matures. (This is in contrast fawns are born after 6 to 7 months. Mule
to the white-tailed deer antler which has and black-tailed deer do not have strong
one main beam with unbranched tines social bonding and will be found either
coming off it; see figure.) Mule deer may alone or in small groups. Occasionally mule
also have a single "brow tine" near the base deer will gather seen in larger groups.
of the antler which is often quite small. A
mule deer’s rack (both antlers together)
curves out to the side, then up (in contrast Mule Deer — Key Points
to the whitetail whose rack wraps
forwards; see diagram). Antlers are used • Largest of the 3 native deer species
for fighting during the rut and then are (mule, black-tailed, white-tailed)
shed between January and March. The • Antlers in forked pairs
older bucks shed their antlers first. Antlers • White rump patch with narrow,
are regrown between April and August. black-tipped tail
• Very large ears
Habitats: Mule deer live in a wide variety of • Light face and muzzle with dark
habitats such as coniferous forests, desert forehead
shrubland, grassland with shrubs, and the • When startled, will run with high,
mixed boreal forests of the north. They stiff-legged bounce
favour openings in these areas, browsing on • May stop to look back when running m
shrubs and twigs and adding grass and for cover a
m
herbs at times. In summer they tend to • Found in a wide variety of habitats m
migrate to higher elevations and move to • Most widely distributed deer in B.C. a
l
lower elevations with less snowfall in the s
winter. Winter range is often shared with
elk, white-tailed deer, and domestic cattle.
Distribution: Mule deer are the most

abundant deer in B.C. and are found
east of the Coast Mountains throughout
the remainder of "deer country" in
the province.
? Using the Hunting Synopsis
What is a four-point mule deer?
285
Blacktailed buck
Mule doe
BLACK-TAILED DEER
Common name: Black-tailed deer
Scientific name: Odocoileus hemionus columbianus
– Columbia black-tailed deer
Odocoileus hemionus sitkensis
– Sitka black-tailed deer
Male name: Buck
Female name: Doe
Offspring name: Fawn
Mule Deer Whitetailed

Colour: Black-tailed deer have almost no Deer
m rump patch and a broad tail that is either
a brown or black on top and always has a
m
m black tip with a white underside. deer or white-tailed deer. Mature
a Coloration of the black-tailed deer is warm Columbia bucks weigh from 105 to 200 lb.
l
s
brown to gray brown. Columbia blacktails (48 to 90 kg) and the does between 90 to
are a bit darker than mule deer and Sitka 140 lb. (40 to 65 kg). Sitka blacktails are
blacktails are darker than Columbias. The even smaller. They both have smaller ears
facial markings are subdued; they have a than mule deer.
light face and muzzle but do not have a
very dark forehead. Antlers: The antlers of the male black-
tailed deer grow in forked pairs like a mule
Body size and characteristics: Black- deer but lack the number of possible tines
tailed deer are smaller than either mule that can grow on mule deer.
286
Whitetail deer
antlers
Mule deer Whitetailed deer

“stotting” running
Habitat: Old-growth forests are important Mule deer

for coastal blacktails as the habitat antlers
provides shelter, forage, and stops buildups
of deep, heavy snow. In the southern parts
of their range, this old growth is less
important due to abundant open areas and
milder climate. Blacktails are browsers in
winter and early spring and then mix in
grasses and a wide variety of herbs, as well
as browse, in summer and fall. Winter
ranges are often shared with Roosevelt elk.
Black-tailed Deer — Key Points
Distribution: Columbia black-tailed deer • Smallest of the 3 native deer species
are found along the mainland coast west of (mule, black-tailed, white-tailed) and
the Coast Range and generally south of Sitka blacktail is smaller than
Rivers Inlet, on Vancouver Island and Columbia blacktail
associated Gulf islands. Sitka black-tailed • Antlers in forked pairs, like mule deer
deer occur on the Queen Charlotte Islands • Almost no rump patch with wide,
and the mainland coast and islands north black-surfaced tail m
of Rivers Inlet. Columbia blacktails overlap • Small ears a
m
with Sitka blacktails in the Rivers Inlet area • Light face and muzzle but forehead m
and with mule deer range in isolated places not dark a
l
in the Coast Mountains where they • When startled, will run with high, s
sometimes interbreed. stiff-legged bounce, like mule deer
• Found in forests and forest edges
General comments: Many of the • Located on B.C. coast west of the
comments for mule deer apply to the two Coast Mountains and on the
blacktail subspecies. They are very good coastal islands.
swimmers. When running, a black-tailed • Columbia blacktails occur in the
deer bounces like a mule deer but usually south, Sitka blacktails in the north
holds its tail straight out.
287
Doe
Buck
Tracks 2 1/4"
WHITE-TAILED DEER
Common name: White-tailed deer
Scientific name: Odocoileus virginianus Body size and characteristics: White-
Odocoileus virginianus dacotensis tailed deer are generally smaller than mule
– Dakota white-tailed deer and bigger than black-tailed deer. A
Odocoileus virginianus ochrourus mature buck stands about the same height
– Northwest white-tailed deer as a mule deer (3 ft., 90 cm) but they
Scientific classification: Ungulate – cervid typically weigh less (150 to 225 lb., 68 to
Male name: Buck 102 kg). Whitetail does are about the same
Female name: Doe size as mule deer does.
Offspring name: Fawn
Antlers: The antlers of a typical white-
tailed buck have a single main beam with
Colour: White-tailed deer have a broad, unbranched tines coming off it. The main
long tail that is cinnamon coloured on top beam curves slightly backwards from the
with a white fringe and white on the head then turns out and wraps forward
m underside. When the tail is raised in alarm, over the head. (See the diagram and
a the deer presents a large, flashing white description for mule deer to see the
m
m rump patch and under-tail that is visible differences.) Whitetails usually have a
a from a good distance. The white-tailed brow tine, which can be quite large, near
l
s
deer is generally a cinnamon coloured deer the base of the main beam. As with the
in summer changing to grayish in winter. other deer, antlers are used for fighting
Its belly, inside of its legs, around the eyes during the rut and then are shed generally
and its chin and throat are white. The face between January and March.
has less white on it than a mule or black-
tailed deer but it does not have the dark Habitat: The white-tailed deer lives in
forehead of a mule deer. Both subspecies in forests, swamps, and the open brushy
B.C. look the same, the difference is in areas nearby, and prefers valley bottoms
where they live. and farmland. Good habitat is often
288
General Comments: White-tailed deer are

most often seen in early morning or late
Dakota
afternoon when they move out on the
Whitetail
100 0 100 200 km
edge of open areas to feed. At other times
they stay in thick bush. Whitetails are
much more wary than mule deer and they
run in undulating leaps with broad white
tails "flagging" (held erect and waving
from side to side). Their voice is rarely
heard; it is a low bleat by fawns, guttural
grunts by old bucks in rut; and both sexes
Northwest
give a loud, sharp, whistling snort when
Whitetail
alarmed. They are excellent swimmers.
White-tailed Deer distribution
In spring and summer the basic group is a
doe and her fawns. Bucks live alone or in
found beside streams and rivers. They small groups until the November rut when
eat twigs, shrubs, fungi, and grass and they search out the does and fight each
herbs in season since they are both other for dominance. Gestation is about 7
grazers and browsers. Although they can months and twins are most common. They
overlap with elk, mule deer and cattle, sometimes form groups of up to 25 in
mule deer choose steeper hillsides in winter, especially when the snow gets deep.
winter and elk normally graze during
that period while the whitetails browse.
White-tailed Deer — Key Points
Competition becomes more important if
the range is overpopulated. • Mid-sized of the 3 native deer species
(mule, black-tailed, white-tailed)
Distribution: White-tailed deer in the past • Antlers have a main beam with
were found only in the southeastern unbranched tines coming off
portion of the province (the Northwest • Wide brown tail covers white rump
subspecies) and the Peace River area (the until startled; then animal runs with
Dakota subspecies). The Kootenays and the tail, which is white underneath, held
Grand Forks area currently have the largest high and waving from side to side
population numbers in the Peace vary (called "flagging") and white rump
usually with winter severity. Over the last patch exposed
20 years, however, whitetails have been • Small ears
expanding their territories westward and • When startled, will gallop with
the actual distribution is a lot more hazy. undulating leaps m
Whitetails have now moved into the • Very wary a
m
Merritt and Princeton areas, Kamloops Lake • Found in a variety of habitats but m
area, and west of the Fraser River. A large generally more valley bottom than a
l
enough population now exists in the south mule deer s
Cariboo and the Smithers area to support a • Mainly found in southeastern and
hunting season and they have been south-central B.C. and Peace country
reported in Fort St. James, Vanderhoof, and but range is expanding
Mackenzie. This migration is likely due to a
?
number of consecutive winters of low
snowfalls. Two restricting factors for them Using the Hunting Synopsis
are snow depth and human development What is a four-point white-tailed deer?
in valley bottoms.
289
photo by Bob Jones

FALLOW DEER
Common name: Fallow deer
Scientific name: Dama dama
Scientific classification: Ungulate – cervid cm) but they have a much lighter build
Male name: Buck and appear thin, ranging from 90 to 175
Female name: Doe lb. (40 to 80 kg). The doe is slightly shorter
Offspring name: Fawn but weighs only about 100 lb. (45 kg). The
front legs are somewhat shorter than the
hind legs. The buck has a prominent
penile sheath and an "Adams apple".
Colour: The fallow deer is usually light
brown with white spots but the Antlers: The antlers of a mature fallow
background colour can vary from nearly deer are very distinctive. The base of the
white through silver to very dark. The antler is narrow, similar to other deer, and
winter coat is darker and spots tend to sweeps back from the head. There is a
m fade. A black stripe runs down the back prominent brow tine and a second tine
a onto the tail and a distinctive white line farther back; neither of these tines is
m
m runs horizontally along the flank. Inside branched. Beyond the second tine the
a of legs and belly are white. The tail is very antler becomes palmate with a fringe of
l
s
long for a deer; besides the black stripe, variable length tines pointing back (unlike
the tail is brown, surrounded by a light moose whose tines point forward). Where
coloured area and a black or brown fringe. the antler starts to become palmate, it
Fallow deer are the only deer in B.C. sweeps up. Although both moose and
which have a spotted coat as adults. fallow deer have palmate antlers, the
shape and difference in size and weight
Body size and characteristics: A fully easily distinguish them. Antler
grown fallow deer will be approximately development, use, and shedding are
the same height as a whitetail (3 ft., 90 similar to other deer.
290
Rutting behaviour is different from that of

native deer. A fallow buck will set up a
small territory consisting of a scrape and
Saltspring the surrounding trees and bushes which
Island he will thrash. The bucks do not use their
scrapes as wallows although they do
urinate in them and on themselves. Bucks
have a characteristic groaning call during
Vancouver the rut which attracts the does to their
Island territory. Bucks will push each other
during the rut and sometimes inflict
James & wounds with their antlers.
Sidney
Island Does are very vocal and use a variety of
squeaks and bleats to communicate. The
Victoria bucks tend to vocalize only during the rut.
Fallow Deer distribution
Habitat: Fallow deer are both grazers and

Fallow Deer — Key Points
browsers. They prefer relatively open
habitat but also require deciduous or • Thin, non-native deer from the
mixed forest to hide, browse, and to have Mediterranean region
their fawns. Fallow deer seldom drink but • Large antler has 2 tines along a
get the majority of their water narrow base, then antler sweeps up
requirements from the food they eat. and becomes palmate with
backward-pointing tines along edge
Distribution: Fallow deer are native to the (moose have forward-pointing tines)
Mediterranean area of Europe and Asia • Light brown with white spots but
Minor; however, they have been introduced background colour can vary from
around the world. The first known white to very dark
introduction was by the Normans into • Black stripe down back and onto
England at the end of the eleventh century. long tail, white line along flank
In B.C., fallow deer have been introduced • Bucks have penile sheath and Adams
successfully to a number of the Gulf Islands apple
and are also farmed throughout the • Buck sets up a scrape and calls does
province. The principal islands where they to it
occur are Sidney and James Islands off the • Found in open habitat with forest to
southeast coast of Vancouver Island. hide in m
• Occur mainly on Sidney and a
m
General comments: Fallow deer are herd James Islands off Vancouver Island, m
animals although the groupings will differ widely farmed a
l
depending on the time of year. During s
most of the year the main grouping will be
does with their fawns and yearlings, with
the bucks living separately in groups. The
?
groups band together for the rut which
can start in late August but reaches its
What species licence do you need
peak in October. A single fawn is born
for a fallow deer?
generally in May or June after a gestation
of about 8 months.
291
Bull
Cow
Tracks 5 1/4"
MOOSE
Common name: Moose
Scientific name: Alces alces slim and set lower than the front quarters.
Alces alces andersoni The tail is short and not seen at a distance.
– Northwestern moose Moose are 5 to 6-1/2 ft. (150 to 195 cm) in
Alces alces gigas – Alaskan moose height. The males weigh 990 to 1,180 lb.
Alces alces shirasi – Shiras’ moose (450 to 535 kg) and the females are 700 to
Scientific classification: Ungulate – cervid 925 lb. (315 to 420 kg). B.C. has three
Male name: Bull subspecies that all look similar, the main
Female name: Cow difference is size; the smallest, the Shirasi,
Offspring name: Calf occurs in the southeast corner of the
province, and the largest, the Alaskan,
Colour: Moose are dark brown with in the northwest corner.
grayish legs and, at a distance, appear
black. Cow moose have a lighter coloured Antlers: The male’s antlers have massive,
patch on their rump around the tail which shovel-like (palmate) plates with small
m can help identify them from antlerless prongs (tines) projecting forward from the
a bulls in late winter and early spring. borders. They begin to develop in late April,
m
m the velvet is usually shed by September, and
a Body size and characteristics: Moose are antlers are shed between mid-November
l
s
the largest member of the deer family. and late March. As they grow older, a lower
They have long legs, a shoulder hump, big (brow) palm develops, which protects the
ears, a large overhanging upper lip, and face during fights. Young bulls generally
bulls have larger antlers than any other have two or three points but no palm.
member of the deer family. A pendant of Antlers of older moose vary greatly in size
hair-covered skin, called a bell or dewlap, and number of points but can spread 66 in.
hangs under the throat and is variable in (168 cm) tip to tip. As with other deer,
size and shape. In bulls it can reach 10 in. antlers are used during the rut for fighting
(25 cm) in length. The hindquarters are to establish dominance.
292
General Comments: Moose generally live

singly or in small groups, although during
Northwestern the rut the groups may get as large as 8 or 10
Alaskan Moose animals. Because moose normally have a
Moose 100 0 100 200 km
small home range, without protection local
populations may be quickly reduced if there
is easy access for hunters.
Shiras
Moose
The rut occurs from late September to
November. During the rut, bulls will grunt and
bellow, lock horns and push each other for
dominance. The dewlap is used for
communication, both by sight and smell.
During the rut a bull will rub the cow with his
Moose distibution chin ("chinning") and the dewlap transfers this
bull’s scent to the female. The size and shape
Habitats: Moose live in forests with lakes of the dewlap may also be an indicator of
and swamps that grow the abundant browse dominance to other bulls, just as the size of
they require. In mountainous regions, they antlers is. Gestation is about 8 months and
usually move to higher elevations in usually a single calf is born in late May or June.
summer and return to the valley bottoms in
winter. In summer, moose spread out but in Long legs are an adaptation to the habitat
winter, particularly in years of deep snows, and climate the moose lives in. Moose have
moose tend to concentrate in the willows little difficulty moving around in snow up
and shrubs along river valleys, wetlands, to 27 in. (70 cm) deep, stepping over fallen
burns, and clear cuts. Up to 80 percent of trees, walking through muskeg, and pushing
their diet is woody browse. In winter they through bush. Their hair is of two kinds:
feed on twigs, bark, saplings. They add long guard hairs and a fine, dense
aquatic vegetation, new leaves and herbs to undercoat, which allows them to live in the
their diets in summer. Moose, like elk and most severe winter conditions.
deer, can cause problems tearing apart hay
bales intended for livestock.
Moose — Key Points
Distribution: Moose are widely • Largest of the deer family
distributed in British Columbia. They are • Dark brown to black with grayish legs
most common in the central interior and • A bell or dewlap under the throat
northern boreal mountains and the mixed • Antlers are massive and palmate
boreal forests of the Peace River region but • Distinctive shoulder hump and
are still expanding their range. They are overhanging upper lip m
less common on the coast and in dry • Often solitary a
m
southern interior valleys. Moose are not • Found in forests with lakes m
found on any coast islands. and swamps a
l
• Widely distributed in B.C. except in s
Very few moose were found south of Prince dry interior valleys and on the coast;
George until shortly after 1900. The reason do not occur on any coastal islands
for this expansion south was the creation of
new habitat due to clearing by settlers,
?
miners, loggers, and forest and range fires.
As the new vegetation began to spring up,
What is a tri-palm Bull Moose?
it provided ideal browse for moose. This is
continuing today.
293
Bull
Cow
Tracks 4 1/4"
ELK
Common name: Elk
Scientific name: Cervus elaphus
Cervus elaphus nelsoni – Rocky Mountain elk
Cervus elaphus roosevelti – Roosevelt elk
Male name: Bull
Female name: Cow
Offspring name: Calf
Colour: In summer, elk are a reddish- Antlers: The antlers of mature bulls consist of
brown colour with dark legs, head, and a long, round beam that sweeps up and back
neck. They have a large rump patch that from the skull with tines that are unbranched.
is cream in colour and contrasts with the The normal number of tines on a mature bull
rest of the body. By August their body is six; the tip of the antler points down from
colour changes to their winter coat of the main beam and the other five tines are
gray-brown with head, neck, and legs located forward and point up. Generally two
dark brown. Both males and females have of the tines are above the forehead. Antlers
a dark mane, which gets heavier in usually start growing in early May, are
winter. The rump patch remains creamy complete by late August, and are shed
m coloured and distinctive. Roosevelt elk between late February and early April. The
a are slightly darker than the Rocky tips of antlers on Roosevelt elk sometimes
m
m Mountain subspecies. consist of a "crown" of three or four points. As
a with others in the deer family, antlers are used
l
s
Body size and characteristics: Elk are to compete for dominance during the rut.
smaller than moose, much larger than
deer and only slightly larger than caribou. Habitat: Elk generally live in mountainous
Mature bulls stand 4 to 5 ft. (120 to 150 areas with habitat as varied as dense coastal
cm) tall at the shoulder and weigh 580 to forest to semi-open interior forest. They are
1,000 lb. (265 to 450 kg). Females are most active in mornings and evenings and
smaller at 420 to 600 lb. (190 to 270 kg). feed on grasses, herbs, twigs, and bark,
Mature Roosevelt elk are generally a bit usually lower-growing species than those
larger than Rocky Mountain elk. chosen by moose. This restricts their range to
294
just before the rut. During the rut bulls bugle,

wallow, spray urine, thrash vegetation with
their antlers, and fight, both with antlers and
front hooves. Bull elk, unlike other deer, will
form harems of cows that they will protect
100 0 100 200 km
from other bulls. Most females are bred in

September but the rut may continue into
Rocky November. Gestation is 8 months and a
Mountain single calf is born.
Elk
They have a characteristic "alertness" of
appearance that comes from holding their
Roosevelt Elk
head high as they move. This is in contrast to
caribou, which move with their heads down.
Elk distribution The calf has a high-pitched squeal when in
danger; the cow has a similar squeal, also a
areas that do not have deep snow in sharp bark when travelling with a herd;
winter. In severe winters when grazing is males have a high-pitched bugling call that
difficult elk will browse for food and may starts with a low note and ends with a few
even strip and eat trees. They can be very low-toned grunts and is generally heard
destructive in alfalfa fields and on hay during rutting season, especially at night.
bales and even drive off livestock that are
trying to feed. In spring and summer they
head for higher elevations. Although elk
Elk — Key Points
may share winter ranges with deer, • Larger than deer and caribou,
bighorn sheep, moose or caribou, each smaller than moose
species targets different food. Cattle can be • Reddish brown with dark brown
serious competition however. head, legs, neck (opposite to caribou)
• Large, distinctive cream-coloured
Distribution: Roosevelt elk are found on rump
Vancouver Island and have been • Antlers are a long, backward-
successfully transplanted to the Sunshine sweeping main beam with
Coast. Rocky Mountain elk are found in the unbranched, upward-sweeping tines
Kootenays, west to Grand Forks, and the • Hold head high as they move
east slope of the Rocky Mountain foothills (opposite to caribou)
in the South Peace River area up to the Liard • Usually found in groups
River, as well as the Muskwa and Tuchodi • Bulls have distinctive bugling call
river areas. They have been transplanted to during rut
numerous areas including southern • Both grazers and browsers but choose m
Vancouver Island, the Queen Charlotte low-growing species so need areas of a
m
Islands, Grandby River, Lower Arrow Lake, shallow snow m
Williston Lake, Kechika River, Bridge River, • Prefer semi-open forested areas from a
l
Naramata, Princeton, and Squamish areas. sea level to alpine s
• Distributed in mountainous areas of
General comments: Elk are the only the coastal islands and eastern interior
members of the deer family, other than
caribou, that form large social groups.
Twenty-five or more cows, calves and
yearlings will stay together until the fall rut,
which starts in September. Bulls form
smaller, separate groups or live singly until
295
What is the six-point elk rule?
Bull
Cow
Tracks 4 1/4"
CARIBOU
Common name: Caribou
Scientific name: Rangifer tarandus caribou
– Woodland caribou
Male name: Bull lichens. The hoof print usually shows the
Female name: Cow dewclaws, which provide extra support on
Offspring name: Calf soft surfaces.
Antlers: Caribou are the only ungulate of

Caribou are wild reindeer similar to the wild which both the male and female commonly
and domesticated reindeer of Eurasia. carry antlers. Caribou bull antlers differ from
Although there is only one species of other deer in that one or two flattened, heavy
reindeer in the world, two distinct types tines called "shovels" extend out over the
occur in Canada: the woodland caribou and forehead. The main stem of the antler
the tundra caribou. In British Columbia, we extends back, up, and out to the side, and the
have only the woodland caribou. tips of the antlers are branched. Caribou
antlers are flatter and wider than those of the
Colour: Caribou are generally a dark mule and white-tailed deer. Cow caribou
chocolate brown on the body with limited have smaller antlers than the bulls and some
m white areas on the belly, rump and lower may be antlerless.
a legs, and a whitish neck (opposite to elk).
m
m Habitats: Woodland caribou, a creature of
a Body size and characteristics: Woodland the boreal and subalpine forest, seek the
l
s
caribou are mid-sized, between mule deer seclusion of mature spruce and other
and elk, and have long legs. They are about coniferous forests or remote alpine
3-1/2 to 4 ft. (105 to 120 cm) tall at the meadows. They are not great travellers and
shoulder. Males are about twice the weight may move only a few miles from summer
of females and reach 400 to 600 lb. (180 to range of alpine tundra to winter range in
270 kg). They have large, concave hooves timber lower on a mountainside. In more
that splay widely to support the animal in level areas of the boreal (northern
snow or muskeg, efficiently scoop through coniferous) forests, they may graze and
snow sometimes a metre deep to uncover browse limited areas of bogs, low-lying
296
sociable and are often in small groups. In areas

where their habitat is more open (for example
the Spatsizi Plateau) herds can consist of several
hundred animals during the rut; however, it is
100 0 100 200 km
not uncommon to encounter caribou of either
sex travelling alone. The rut is much shorter for
caribou than other deer and occurs in mid-
October. Gestation is 7 to 8 months and a
single calf is born in late May or early June.
Wolves are the main predator of caribou. In the

north, before logging and mining provided
new growth and access for moose, caribou were
relatively separated from wolves. But with the
Caribou distribution movement of moose into overlapping habitats
and increased access from roads, the wolves
grassy areas, or lichen-rich glades, and followed and predation on caribou increased. A
move perhaps only a short distance to a similar situation was created in the south with
wintering area where tree and ground cougar following the expansion of elk and deer
lichens are available. They are primarily into caribou habitat. Snowmobiles can also
grazers through spring and early fall but, force them to leave critical winter habitat
as they live in areas with long, cold leading to higher death rates.
winters, winter food is extremely
important for survival. Lichens, both tree Caribou — Key Points
(arboreal) and ground (terrestrial), are of
great importance to their diets. As lichens • Larger than deer, smaller than moose
are very slow-growing, the best sources are or elk
in old lodgepole pine and black spruce • Very dark brown with white neck,
forests. In winter they will choose wind- belly, rump and lower legs
swept alpine areas where it is easy to get at (opposite to elk)
terrestrial lichens or move to mature • Both sexes may be antlered but bulls
forests where snow depth allows them to have a distinctive brow tine or "shovel"
reach arboreal lichens. • Hold head low as they move
(opposite to elk)
Distribution: In the northern half of B.C., • Large hoof to be able to walk on soft
caribou are found east of the Coast snow or muskeg; print often shows
Mountains to the eastern foothills of the dewclaws
Rocky Mountains. In the southern half of • Grazers and browsers
the province, caribou generally occur in the • In winter, lichen, both in trees m
Columbia and Rocky Mountains and range (arboreal) and on the ground a
m
west (Selkirk and Monashee Mountains). (terrestrial), is a very important food m
They are not found in the southern Rockies. • Prefers mountainous areas with a
l
mature forests and muskeg s
General comments: The animal most • Distributed mostly in the north, east
closely resembling the caribou is the elk, of the Coast Mountains, with a few in
but even at a distance the caribou’s the central interior and the east
distinctive brow tine, large feet, light
?
mane, and habit of holding its head low
when moving are unmistakable features.
What is the five-point bull
They do not form large herds in the forested
Caribou rule?
areas of their distribution, but they are
297
QUIZ ON THE FAMILY CERVIDAE
1. What is a cervid? ______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
2. Give two examples of wild cervids in B.C. ______________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
3. Describe how an antler grows.__________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
4. What are the four native deer species in B.C.? __________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
5. How can you tell a fallow deer’s antlers from a moose’s antlers? __________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
m 6. Name the largest 3 wild cervids in B.C. in order of size. __________________________

a
m ______________________________________________________________________________
m ______________________________________________________________________________
a
l ______________________________________________________________________________
s
298
7. Give 3 unique identifying characteristics of moose. ______________________________

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
8. If you are handed an elk antler and the tip consists of a "crown" of 3 or 4 points, what
type of elk is it from and where would you be likely to find it? __________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
9. What special adaptation does a moose have for living in its chosen habitat? What
about caribou? ________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
10. When elk, white-tailed deer and moose occupy the same winter habitat, how do
they keep from competing with each other for food? __________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
m
a
m
m
a
l
s
299
PART III.
KEY TO LARGE
BRITISH COLUMBIA CARNIVORES
Carnivores are meat-eating mammals There are a lot fewer carnivores than
which have teeth along the sides of their herbivores in the wild because it takes
jaws for cutting or shearing their food and many prey species to feed a single
spear-like canine teeth for puncturing and carnivore and a carnivore is often not
tearing. Bears have different teeth from successful in its attempt to take an
other carnivores; their back teeth are flat- animal (it is estimated that a predator is
topped and are similar to those of successful only once in seven attempts).
humans; they crush rather than shear If there were too many carnivores, they
food. Bears eat a great variety of plant would starve. The "food chain," in simple
material as well as meat but are included form, is actually more like a pyramid. At
in the carnivore group of animals. the bottom you have a large number of
rapidly reproducing prey species, such as
Large carnivores are generally cat-like mice, that a lot of animals eat (such as
(cougar, lynx, bobcat), dog-like (wolf, the mammalian carnivores, birds of prey,
fox, coyote), or bear-like (grizzly, black and reptiles). These animals must
bear) animals. Each of these carnivores reproduce rapidly to keep their species
has distinctive tracks. The cats have a from disappearing due to being eaten.
roundish track that does not show claws, The next levels up are larger animals, still
the dogs have a roughly 5-sided track mainly herbivorous prey species, that
that shows the toenails, and the bears reproduce rapidly and can overuse their
walk flat on their feet with an almost habitat and starve unless they are
human-like back footprint and a front removed by predators. Examples are deer
print that resembles a human walking and rabbits. The next levels up consist of
on the ball of his/her foot. animals that both prey on other species
Recognizing species by tracks
m
a
m
m
a
l cat family bear family
s
Note: Cat tracks

leave a circular print
while the dog family
leaves a 5-sided
(pentagonal) print.
dog family
300
and are preyed on themselves, such as fewer predators than prey species. It is
foxes. At the very top, you find the relatively easy to find a herd of deer or
primary predators, which have few or no lots of evidence of mice and rabbits, but
predators that prey on them, for you may never see a wolverine or a
example, wolverines, cougars, wolves, cougar. Bears are more common because
and bears. These top predators will they do not strictly depend on prey
sometimes prey on each other or others species but choose a wide variety of food,
of their own species, but other species both plant and animal, in their diet. You
almost never prey on them. Each level don’t have to chase a plant to eat it, so a
higher on the pyramid is smaller, bear’s diet is easier to obtain than, for
representing a smaller number of instance, a cougar’s and therefore, a bear
animals. This is why you will see far is less likely to starve than a cougar.
The Food Chain
Primary Predators
e.g., cougars,
wolves, bears
Animals that
are both prey
and predator
e.g., foxes, lynx
Larger, rapidly
reproducing prey species m
e.g., deer, rabbits a
m
m
a
l
s
Prey species
e.g., mice
301
a) The Cat Family (Felidae) (A dog-family print will have a pointed

Except for colour and size, all cats (felids) front to the main pad; the back of the pad
look alike. They have short faces, small is variable.)
rounded ears, and well-developed
whiskers. They have five toes on each All cats living in Canada have strong,
front foot, and four on the back foot. The retractable claws for holding prey and
fifth toe on the front foot does not leave a climbing trees and these claws almost
print as it is located on the ankle (you can never show up in footprints. (As a note of
check this on a domestic cat). Cats that interest, cheetahs are the only cats that
live in colder regions (e.g., lynx) have fur have dog-like, non-retractable claws.) Cats
covering their toes so will leave a smudgy are solitary except for a brief time during
print. If you do see a clear print, the front breeding and are often nocturnal. They do
part of the main pad shows a single indent not eat carrion except in extreme
at the front and two indents at the back. circumstances.
COUGAR
Common name: Cougar
(also called mountain lion
Tracks 3"
or puma)
Scientific name: Felis concolor
Scientific classification: Carnivore – felid
Male name: Male (or Tom)
Female name: Female
Offspring name: Kitten
m
a months. It can be important to be able to
m
m Colour: The upper parts of the body, tell a male from a female when hunting
a including the tail and head, are tawny, and this can be difficult unless the
l
s
grayish, or reddish. The belly and rump animal is treed. The female has darker
are white often overlaid with buff. The hair around the vulva and the male has a
chin, throat, and whiskers are white. The penile sheath, but these can be obscured
backs of the ears are black and there is a unless the cat is above you.
black patch at the base of the whiskers
and the tip of the tail. Kittens have Body size and characteristics: The cougar
blackish spots on a buff-coloured body is the largest cat in B.C. It has a slender
and the tail has dark rings; these form, long cylindrical tail, short ears and
markings disappear entirely within a few prominent whiskers. A mature cougar is
302
Breeding may occur in any season and,

after a gestation of about three months,
two to four kittens are born. It is rare to see
cougars as they are very secretive and
usually solitary. They can be active at any
time of the day but are usually nocturnal.
Cougars prey mainly on deer, but also on

elk, moose, and mountain sheep. Beavers,
mice, squirrels, porcupines, snowshoe
hares, and birds also form part of their
diet. They are not capable of long chases
so will either stalk an animal or lie in
ambush, often in a tree or on a rocky
outcropping. Cougars can kill prey up to
Cougar distribution
four times their size by jumping on the
prey’s back, severing the spine with
strong teeth and ripping open the throat
about 26 to 30 in. (65 to 75 cm) tall at the with its claws.
shoulders, 6 to 7 ft. (180 to 210 cm) long
(3 ft. [1 m] of which is tail), and weighs Cougars generally have naked footpads,
from 100 to 200 lb. (45 to 90 kg). Females which can show up clearly in the
are smaller. footprint. Other than the toes, the feet are
well haired to aid in the silent stalking of
Habitats: Cougars prefer mature and prey. The tail, which is roughly the
second-growth forests in rocky and diameter of a person’s arm, is held out and
mountainous terrain, but may also be used for balance when in motion and is
found along the seashore, on estuaries, often held down when at rest.
and occasionally near human habitation.
Cougars that approach humans are Cougar — Key Points
generally young adults that have been
pushed out by their mothers and are • Largest cat in B.C.
trying to find a new territory, or are old or • Solid tawny colour with white belly,
sick animals that are trying for an easy chin, rump
meal in the form of a domestic pet. • Back of ears, base of whiskers, and
tip of tail are black
Distribution: Cougars are found mainly • Tail is long, cylindrical and used
south of the Skeena and Peace Rivers in for balance
the Coast Mountains, Interior Plateau • Main prey is deer m
and Rocky Mountains. They are also on • Prefers mountainous forests a
m
Vancouver Island. Over the past few years for habitat m
they have been expanding their • Distributed mainly south of the a
l
territories enough so that there is now a Peace and Skeena Rivers but are s
hunting season for them in the Peace and expanding their range
Skeena regions.
General comments: Although not very

vocal, cougars yowl like an ordinary
tomcat, but much magnified. At times they
communicate with bird-like whistles,
especially with their kittens. They also purr.
303
What are the dates in Region 4 for
“pursuit only” of cougars?

LYNX
Common name: Lynx
Tracks 4"
Scientific name: Lynx canadensis

Female name: Female
Offspring name: Kitten
m
a
m
m Body size and characteristics: The lynx is
a Colour: The lynx is almost solid gray and 18 to 24 in. (45 to 60 cm) tall at the
l
s
has a short tail that is black at the tip on shoulder and 32 to 36 in. (80 to 90 cm)
both top and bottom (unlike the bobcat long with a 4 in. (10 cm) long tail. They can
whose tail tip is black only on the top). weigh up to 40 lb. (18 kg) or more and are
The summer coat may be slightly larger than the bobcat. The legs are long
brownish. Ear tassels are black. There is a (often the hind legs will give the
distinctive fringe around the face which appearance of being longer than the front
forms two long white "ruffs" on each side legs) and the feet are conspicuously large, 9
of the chin. The outside edge of this ruff is in. (22 cm) or longer, with light-coloured
generally black. pads. They have long, tassel-like ear tufts.
304
Bobcat
Lynx distribution
Habitats: Lynx habitat is mixed deciduous

and coniferous boreal forests where it
usually remains in or near the cover on
burned areas and natural forest clearings.
Distribution: Lynx occur throughout

British Columbia east of the coast range
Lynx
but they choose isolated wilderness areas.
General comments: This cat is sometimes

called "link" in the north. Its food consists
primarily of snowshoe hares, but rodents,
birds, and the young of deer, moose, and Lynx — Key Points
caribou are also preyed upon. Like cougars,
lynx will stalk and ambush their prey. • Same general shape but larger than
bobcats (up to 40 lb.[18 kg] or more),
The foot is very well-furred, enough to long legs
cover the toes so that they do not easily • Almost solid gray with a short tail m
show up in the footprint. The size of the tipped in black, top and bottom a
m
paws is an adaptation to life in the deep, • Distinctive long, black ear tassels m
soft snow of the boreal forests where the • Distinctive large, furred feet a
l
lynx can use its feet like snowshoes to • Distinctive ruff around face ending s
walk on top of the snow. in two white ruffs on each side
of chin
Lynx are usually nocturnal and solitary, • Main prey is snowshoe hare
except during mating, which occurs from • Prefers mixed deciduous/coniferous
mid-March to May. Nine weeks after forest habitat
mating, two or three kittens are born. • Distributed throughout B.C., east
Lynx are not very vocal but will yowl and of the Coast Mountains
purr like domestic cats.
305

Tracks 2"
BOBCAT
Common name: Bobcat
Scientific name: Lynx rufus
m
a Female name: Female Body size and characteristics: Bobcats are
m Offspring name: Kitten
m smaller than lynx but larger than house
a cats. They stand up to 22 in. (55 cm) at the
l
s
shoulder, are 25 to 30 in. (65 to 75 cm)
long with a 5 in. (12 cm) tail. They weigh
15 to 35 lb. (6 to 16 kg). The ear tufts are
Colour: The coat of the bobcat is short, short and inconspicuous. Like lynx, they
buffy and heavily spotted. The belly and have a ruff of fur around their face but it is
chin are lighter in colour than the back. not as long. Their feet are smaller than
The short tail is black spotted on top with lynx, up to 7 in. (24 cm), and black
a tip that is black on the top only and underneath. Toes are less likely to be
whitish below. covered by fur than a lynx.
306
Bobcat distribution
Bobcats are versatile predators preying

mainly on rodents, hares, birds, and
Habitats: The bobcat is a southern cat and fawns. Like other cats, they stalk their prey
prefers open brushland or semi-wooded or lie in ambush.
country. It occurs from valley bottom to
timberline though it generally is found in Mating occurs in February or March with
mixed cover at lower elevations. The generally two to four kittens born about
bobcat is much less fussy in its choice of eight weeks later. Like lynx, they rarely
habitat than lynx and will even live close vocalize but, if heard at night, they often
to humans. sound like a baby crying. Bobcats are
solitary and generally nocturnal.
Distribution: Bobcats are found south of
Finlay Forks in the Rocky Mountain Trench,
southward on the Interior Plateau, on the
Bobcat — Key Points
coast from Bute Inlet southward, and in the
Rocky Mountains from Mount Robson • A bit smaller than lynx (15 to 35 lb.
southward. They are absent from the coastal [6 to 16 kg]); they are less "leggy"
islands. Over the past few years it appears than lynx m
that they may be expanding northward • Buff coloured with black spots a
m
through the Rocky Mountain Trench. • Short tail is spotted and the tip is m
black only on the top a
l
General comments: Lynx and bobcats can • Ears tufts and face ruff are smaller s
be mistaken for one another as they are and not as conspicuous, and feet are
similar in size. Distinctive features which smaller than on a lynx
can help identification are that bobcat are • Versatile carnivores
less streamlined and have shorter legs, they • Adaptable to many habitats; prefer
have smaller paws, the ear tufts are not semi-open, brushy forests
conspicuous, the tail tip of a bobcat is • Distributed farther south in the
black only on top, and their body buff and province than lynx
spotted in colour.
307
b) The Dog Family (Canidae)

These animals are dog-like in appearance Members of the dog family, although they
and, as a group, are called canids. They actively hunt prey, also eat carrion. Wolves
have five toes on each front foot (the are most active at night, while coyotes and
inside toe is high on the ankle and is not foxes are active either during the day or
seen in a footprint; you can check this on night, but night is preferred.
a domestic dog) and four toes on each
back foot. Each toe has a non-retractable Vocal communication is variable among
claw. Footpads are naked and the footprint the species but territory may also be marked
is approximately 5-sided in shape and by urinating and scraping at certain areas
usually shows the toenails. The main pad along the edges of the territories.
is pointed at the front. They have a scent
gland at the top base of their tail, which is
covered by black-tipped hairs.
Tracks 4 3/4"
WOLF
Common name: Wolf
(also called gray or timber wolf)
Scientific name: Canis lupus
m Scientific classification: Carnivore – canid
a Male name: Male
m
Female name: Female (or Bitch) Body size and characteristics: The
m
a Offspring name: Pup wolf is the largest member of the dog
l
s
family in British Columbia and
resemble an extra tall, leggy German
Colour: Wolves are usually gray in colour Shepherd dog. They are 26 to 28 in. (65
with a sprinkling of black although they to 70 cm) tall at the shoulder and
can vary from nearly white to black. The weigh 70 to 120 lb. (32 to 54 kg). Their
hair of the muzzle, forehead and back is total length is about 5 to 6 ft. (1.6 to 1.9
always darker than the sides and belly m), which includes a 15 to 20 in. (38 to
region. The coloration is much more 50 cm) tail. They have a lithe,
variable than that of the coyote. muscular, deep-chested body, long
308
Wolf packs have a complex social structure

with a dominant male and female (the
alpha pair), sub-dominant adults, and
pups. Usually only the alpha male and
female breed. Mating occurs in February or
March and five to seven pups are born
after about nine weeks. The whole pack
helps to raise the young. Communication
is complex and consists of facial
expressions and body language (curled
lips, bristling fur, sticking the tongue out,
"smiling", tail position and wagging,
rolling over and exposing the belly) and
Wolf distribution vocalizations (howling, whining, barking).
Wolves and coyotes may be misidentified;

however, coyotes are about 1/2 the size,
slender legs, a bushy tail, a long slender have a narrower, more pointed face and
muzzle, and large erect ears. They have a carry their tail lower. To tell the difference
wider nose pad and are larger and heavier between a large dog and a wolf, tracks can
than coyotes. Wolves carry their tails high be an aid. Domestic dogs have narrower
while running (coyotes generally carry hips than chests and the back footprint
their tails below the level of their backs). will be inside the front print. A wolf’s
front and back tracks will tend to overlap
Habitats: Wolves live in forest areas in and they tend to travel in a straight line.
habitat that is favoured by their prey, Wolves also have a larger head, bigger
which consist mostly of ungulates. paws, and a bushier tail than dogs.
Where you find the deer family, you will
find wolves.
Distribution: Wolves are found Wolf — Key Points

throughout British Columbia with the
exception of the Queen Charlotte Islands. • Largest dog-like carnivore in B.C. (70
They had previously been exterminated in to 120 lb. [32 to 54 kg])
parts of the Interior Plateau and the • Colour variable, from white to black,
Kootenays but are now returning. usually gray
• Long legs, big feet
General comments: Wolves have an acute • Tail held high when running m
sense of hearing, sight, and smell. They • Hunts in groups, main predator of a
m
are social animals and a pack may contain large ungulates m
three or four to 24 animals, although in • Prefers forest habitat a
l
the north of the province packs of over • Distributed throughout B.C. except s
100 have been recorded. They usually Queen Charlotte Islands
hunt together and can kill animals as large
as deer, elk, caribou and moose. They also
?
eat smaller animals such as beaver,
muskrats, mice, and snowshoe hare, and Using the Hunting Synopsis
will eat carrion. They hunt mainly by Is there mandatory reporting of a
scent and usually catch their prey by a wolf kill in Region 1?
swift, open chase.
309
Tracks 4 3/4"
COYOTE
Common name: Coyote
Scientific name: Canis latrans
Scientific classification: Carnivore – canid
m Male name: Male Body size and characteristics: Coyotes
a Female name: Female (or Bitch) are mid-sized between wolves and foxes.
m
m
Offspring name: Pup They stand about 23 to 26 in. (58 to 65
a cm) at the shoulder, and have a total
l
s
length of 39 to 55 in. (1 to 1.4 m),
Colour: The coyote is usually grayish- including a 12 to 18 in. (30 to 46 cm) tail.
fawn, white or almost so on the throat and They weigh about 20 to 50 lb. (8 to 23 kg).
belly, with heavy dark-tipped hairs on the They have a narrow chest and longer legs
back and tail. The "hackles" above the than most dogs. The muzzle is long and
shoulder blades consist of longer, black- narrow; the ears are long and pointed. The
tipped hair. The top of the snout is often tail is bushy and is usually carried low and
reddish, as are the backs of the ears, and close to the hind legs, unlike the wolf,
the forehead is gray. which carries its tail high.
310
Coyotes are very vocal and will start their

howling with a series of sharp yaps. They
Coyote distribution also bark. It is very common for a single
coyote to start what becomes a chorus of
many individuals, although the
vocalizations of one animal can be so
Habitats: They are found in almost any diverse that it sounds like more than one.
habitat as their diet is so varied, although They also communicate with body
it is more common to find them where the language, much like wolves, although they
habitat has open areas. They have greatly do not have the complex social structure
expanded their range since they have that wolves do.
taken advantage of land opened up by
people and the control of wolves, their Mating occurs from February to March
major predator. Coyotes have adapted so with five to seven pups born after about
well to living near humans that they have two months gestation. Both parents help
become established in downtown raise the young.
Vancouver and other urban centres.
Distribution: Coyotes are located

Coyote — Key Points
throughout British Columbia east of the • Mid-sized between wolves and foxes
coastal areas and on the Fraser Delta. They (20 to 50 lb. [8 to 23 kg])
are not found on Vancouver Island or the • Grayish-fawn with lighter belly and
Queen Charlotte Islands. throat, black hairs on back and tail
• Bushy tail usually carried low, unlike
General comments: Prey consists a wolf m
principally of hares, rodents, and birds; • Face is narrower and more pointed a
m
but it appears that anything that is edible, than wolf, narrower chest than wolf m
either vegetable or animal, can become • Can be found alone or in packs a
l
part of their diet. Carrion is an important • Very versatile eater, including prey, s
source of food. Although it was thought carrion, plants, and berries
that coyotes normally hunted alone, they • Found in many different habitats,
are very versatile, and will hunt in packs commonly seen where habitat is
to bring down larger animals, particularly open, even successful in cities
in winter. (Packs of up to 15 animals have • Distributed everywhere in B.C.
been noted in the Peace region.) They except coastal islands and the coast
tend to be more solitary when prey north of the Lower Mainland
species are small.
311

RED FOX
Common name: Red fox
Tracks 2-3"
Scientific name: Vulpes vulpes

Scientific classification: Carnivore – canid
Male name: Male (or Dog)
Female name: Female (or Vixen)
m
a Offspring name: Kit
m
m
a Body size and characteristics: Foxes are
l
s
the smallest of the dog family in B.C. They
Colour: Colour varies from pale yellowish stand 15 to 16 in. (27 to 40 cm) tall at the
red to deep reddish brown. In addition, shoulder and weigh from 7 to 15 lb. (3 to 7
silver or black colour phases may occur, as kg). A fox has large, pointed ears, a long
well as the cross phase, which has dark hair sharp muzzle, and large bushy tail that is
along its back and across its shoulders. The as long as its body.
belly and chest are white; legs, feet and the
backs of the ears are black; and the bushy Habitats: As with coyotes, they are very
tail is tipped with white. adaptable to living in almost any
312
Red Fox distribution
environment and even close to humans. pounce on their prey, use their tail for
They are animals on the "edge," balance (like a cougar), and fluff their hair
inhabiting the edges of parklands, the and arch their back in threat displays. If
alpine, lake and river shores, logged-off low branches are available, foxes will
areas, and farmland. climb trees to gain a vantage point.
Distribution: They are found

throughout British Columbia east of
the Coast Mountains.
General comments: Foxes are

Red Fox — Key Points
omnivorous, eating such varied items as • Smallest of the dog family
small mammals like mice and voles, small (7 to 15 lb; 3-7 kg)
birds and waterfowl, insects, eggs, grass, • Usually reddish with white chest
carrion and fruit. and belly, black legs and a black-
tipped tail; can also range from
Mating occurs from late January to mid- silver to black m
March and a typical litter consisting of • Bushy tail as long as the body a
m
five kits is born about two months later. • Large, pointed ears and long, m
Both parents raise the kits. Coyotes are sharp muzzle a
l
major predators of foxes, as are wolves • Found alone or in family groups s
and lynx. Foxes live either alone or in a • Omnivorous, small prey
family unit. • Found in variable habitat, but
usually on edges of fields,
Foxes are vocal, although less so than forests, farmland
coyotes and wolves. Most often heard is a • Distributed east of Coast Mountains;
sharp yapping especially during denning. have recently been found on
Foxes have many characteristics that are Vancouver Island
similar to the wild cats. They stalk and
313
c) The Bear Family (Ursidae) will show just in front of the toe prints. A
Bears (ursids) are the largest living land- grizzly’s toes are close together and are in a
dwelling carnivores. Although classified as fairly straight line while the toes of a black
carnivores, they have a wide-ranging diet bear are spaced out and form more of an
consisting of carrion, fish, any animal, arc than on a grizzly. The print of the hind
succulent vegetation, roots, berries, and foot of a bear can look surprisingly like a
insects and, like humans, have the teeth of human’s. Bears walk in a shambling gait
both herbivores and carnivores. Both black and their footprints show this as being
and grizzly bears are capable of killing "pigeon-toed" with their toes turned in.
large, healthy adult ungulates although
black bears especially tend to choose food Both species of bears have short tails that
that takes less energy to capture. Both can are almost hidden by their fur. Their ears
run very fast (they can outrun a horse both are small and rounded and their eyes are
uphill and downhill), are good swimmers, small. A bear does not depend on its
and are extremely strong. eyesight as much as its hearing, which is
excellent, and its sense of smell which is
Bears walk on the entire foot and have five extraordinarily sensitive as they can smell
toes on both the front and back feet, all of carrion or garbage from many miles away.
which will show up in a footprint. Each Although both species sleep in dens in the
toe has a non-retractable claw. The winter, neither species is a true hibernator
footprints of the two species are clearly since their body temperature does not
different. A grizzly has long claws which significantly drop and they can be
will show in the track at quite a distance awakened from their sleep. In the north, it
in front of the toe prints; they sometimes is not uncommon for male grizzlies to
look more like a slash than the pointed tip emerge once or twice from their dens
of a claw if the ground is soft. A black during the winter and then return to sleep.
bear’s claws are significantly shorter and Recent research shows them excerising
m
a
m
m
a
l
s
Photo credit: Sid Nielsen
314
during hibernation by walking inside their avoiding looking at whatever is upsetting

den. Mating occurs in June or July for them. Communication is also achieved by
both species but the embryos do not start clawing, biting, scratching, and rubbing
to develop until the sow dens up for the trees to mark territories.
winter in about November. This unusual
adaptation, called "delayed implantation", The two species of bear deal with prey
is designed to protect the breeding female. carcasses differently. A grizzly will drag a
If, by the time she has to go into her den kill some distance, feed, then bury the kill
she does not have enough fat stores to under sticks, vegetation and other
support both herself and the fetuses available debris. It will then move off to
through the winter, her body will reabsorb rest but will not travel far and will return
the embryos. One or two cubs are born in when it is hungry again. A black bear will
January and feed and develop while the not usually drag a kill from the kill site and
mother sleeps. They come out of their it does not bury its food. It will feed, then
dens in about April or May. move off a distance to rest, watch and
listen and then return when it is hungry.
Bears can be quite vocal using a variety of Coming across a kill is extremely
grunts and growls. Warning sounds dangerous as both species of bear will
include hissing, growling, jaw "popping", aggressively protect their food and will
clicking their teeth, and woofing. Non- usually be close by. Even if another animal
vocal aggressive communication includes has made the kill, a bear will often take
raised hackles, ears laid back, frothing at possession of it. If you see or smell a kill,
the mouth, shuffling back and forth, and leave the area immediately.
m
a
m
m
a
l
s
Photo credit: Sid Nielsen
315
Tracks 10"
GRIZZLY BEAR
Common name: Grizzly bear
(also called brown bear in the U.S.)
Scientific name: Ursus arctos
Scientific classification: Carnivore – ursid
Male name: Boar
Female name: Sow
Offspring name: Cub
shoulder and weigh 325 to 1,000 lb. or
m more (150 to 450 kg). Females and
a Colour: Grizzly bear coloration ranges younger animals are smaller. They are
m
m from blond through all shades of brown medium to large bears.
a and black. Some bears with darker
l
s
underhair have long blond or white guard Grizzlies have four distinguishing
hair on the shoulders and back; it is this characteristics: a shoulder hump, a large
coloration that gave rise to the name head with concave or dish-faced profile
grizzly or silvertip. (unlike the straight face of black bears),
short roundish ears (compared to the
Body size and characteristics: The head larger, more pointed and erect ears of a
and body height can be 6 to 9 ft. (1.8 to black bear), and they have very long,
2.7 m) tall when standing on their hind slightly curved, light-coloured claws on
legs. They are 3 to 3-1/2 ft. (1 m) tall at the both front and hind feet. These claws
316
large urban centres. They appear to be

re-establishing in the Okanagan and
introductions are being attempted in the
Lower Mainland and Manning Park
areas. These bears are not found on the
coastal islands.
General comments: Grizzlies are solitary

animals, particularly the males, although
coastal grizzlies will tolerate each other’s
company when feeding on salmon runs.
The cubs remain with the mother for up to
three years.
Grizzly bear distribution They are omnivorous and eat any

available animal, fish, carrion, or
succulent vegetation, root, or berry. Road-,
make it difficult for an adult to climb trees avalanche-, and winter-killed animals are
as easily as black bears, but a motivated a very important food source when the
grizzly will climb. Coat colour is not bears emerge in spring before vegetation
necessarily a good clue for distinguishing starts to green up. This carrion, plus
grizzlies from black bears as both bears ungulate fawns, provide high-energy food
have variable coat colour and many at a time that food can be scarce. Grizzlies
grizzlies do not have the light-tipped can also become a problem by preying on
guard hairs. domestic livestock.
The grizzly has soft, thick, underfur There is no general open hunting season
and long guard hairs that give it a for grizzlies in British Columbia. All
shaggy appearance. hunting is carried out under Limited
Entry Hunting regulations.
Habitats: Grizzlies live in mountainous (See note at the end of this section for an
and wilderness areas, except on the coast. excellent website for testing yourself on bear ID.)
In the coastal regions they come to
estuaries for the new vegetation in spring, Grizzly — Key Points
and salmon spawning streams when the
fish are running, but can be found in the • Larger of the two bear species
alpine, rock slopes and forests at other (to 1,000 lb. or more)
times of the year, depending on changing • Usually blond or brownish with
seasonal food availability. In the interior silver-tipped guard hairs, but can be m
they are usually found at higher altitudes almost black a
m
around rockslides, talus slopes, subalpine • Shoulder hump, concave face, long m
openings, and forest fire openings where claws a
l
berries and rodents are common, although • Found alone or in family group s
they can be found down in valley bottoms (female and cubs)
as well. In the Peace region, they are • Omnivorous, will eat any plant or
widely spread in all habitats. animal, including carrion
• Prefers mountainous wilderness
Distribution: Grizzlies are generally habitat
found in more remote mountainous and • Located throughout B.C. except
wilderness areas of the province but are coastal islands
not uncommon in rural areas away from
317
Tracks 7"
BLACK BEAR
Common name: Black bear (14 different colour
phases have different common
names: Kermode, glacier,
cinnamon, brown, etc., but they
are all black bears)
Scientific name: Ursus americanus
Scientific classification: Carnivore – ursid
Male name: Boar
Female name: Sow glacier bear, which has a blue-white
Offspring name: Cub coat, has been reported from the far
northwest of the province.
m
a Body size and characteristics: Although
m
m Colour: Black bears are not necessarily the black bear is smaller than the grizzly, it
a black. Commonly they are either glossy is nevertheless a large animal. Its head and
l
s
black, with a brown snout (sometimes body are 5 to 6 ft. (150 to 180 cm) high
with a white patch on the chest), or when standing on its hind legs and it is 2
brown with a lighter snout, but many to 3-1/2 ft. (60 to 110 cm) high at the
shades of black, brown, cinnamon, and shoulder. They weigh 200 to 475 lb. (90 to
blond occur regularly, even in the same 215 kg) or more and move with a flat-
litter. The Kermode bear is a white, footed, shuffling gait.
although not true albino, colour phase
which lives on the mid- and north Black bears have a straight face in profile
coasts and inland near Terrace. The (from the forehead to the nose), no
318
Black bears are opportunistic omnivores,

like grizzlies, but tend to eat more
vegetative matter. Foods are varied and
include fruit-bearing shrubs, lush grasses,
roots, clover, and other succulent plants,
salmon and other fish, rodents, insects
and their larvae, carrion and the young of
other mammals, including livestock. On
occasion, adult animals are also targeted.
There is no hunting season for Kermode

or glacier bears.
Black Bear — Key Points

Black bear distribution
• Smaller than grizzlies (to 475 lb.
or more)
• Usually black with a brown snout
but varies from black through brown
to white
• Straight face, short curved claws, no
shoulder hump, and have shorter, more shoulder hump
curved claws on both front and hind feet. • Found alone or in family group
These claws make it easy for black bears to (female and cubs)
climb trees and they do so with amazing • Omnivorous, will eat any plant or
speed. The head is often smaller in animal, including carrion
comparison to its body than a grizzly’s and • Chooses diverse habitat with
their ears appear more erect, larger and thickets to hide in, coastal to
more pointed than a grizzly’s. mountain and even close to humans
• Located throughout B.C. including
Habitats: They can be found in all coastal islands
habitats from coastal beaches and
estuaries to dry grasslands, forests, and
subalpine and alpine areas. They prefer Note:
open forests where dense thickets of The Montana Department of Natural
timber provide cover and seclusion, and Resources has set up an internet site
intermittent open areas (such as those (http://fwp.state.mt.us/bearid) with an
caused by forest fires or clear cuts). informative self-test on grizzly and black bear m
identification in the field. It is an excellent a
m
Distribution: Black bears are widely resource and also has a training section. Take m
distributed throughout B.C., including the test more than once as it has more than a
l
coastal islands, and can become pests in one set of photos for you to test yourself with. s
both rural and urban areas if they become
accustomed to eating garbage, fruit from
orchards, or grain crops. They are the most
?
widely distributed bear in North America. Using the Hunting Synopsis
Is it unlawful to hunt black bears in
General comments: They are solitary a family group?
animals, but cubs remain with the sow for
a year or more.
319
QUIZ ON B.C.’S LARGE CARNIVORES
1. What is a carnivore? __________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________
2. How does a bear’s diet differ from that of other carnivores? ______________________
______________________________________________________________________________
3. Of the large carnivores in B.C., what 3 families are represented?

Give examples of each. ________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
4. What is a felid?______________ a canid?_______________ an ursid?__________________
5. If you saw a clear footprint, how can you tell if it is a felid or canid track?
______________________________________________________________________________
6. What does a black bear track look like (both front and back paws) and how is it differ-
ent from a grizzly track? ______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
7. What are the 3 canid species in B.C.? __________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________
m ______________________________________________________________________________
a
m
m
a
l 8. How can you tell a coyote from a wolf? ________________________________________
s
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
9. What are the 3 felid species in B.C.? ____________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
320
10. How can you tell a bobcat from a lynx?________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________
11. If you came across a partially eaten deer that was covered in brush and debris, what
specie is likely feeding on it and what should you do? __________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
12. Can bears climb trees? ________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________
13. What are 3 characteristics that will help you tell grizzlies from black bears?
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
14. Which is the largest wild cat in B.C.? __________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________
15. Which is the smallest wild dog in B.C.? ________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________
16. How can you tell a fox from a coyote? ________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________
17. Why will you find fewer carnivores than herbivores in B.C.? ____________________
____________________________________________________________________________ m
a
m
m
a
l
s
321
PART IV.
SMALL MAMMALS
Goal a) Overview of small mammals, their

The goal of this supplementary chapter is classification and the law
to familiarize the student with some of the Small mammals are hunted, trapped, or
small mammals in B.C. that are harvested for the protection of property
commonly seen and/or of economic and/or native wildlife. The diversity of small
importance, and how to identify them by mammals is vast in B.C. Proper identification
their appearance, habitat and distribution. is critical as some species may be hunted while
other species are listed as endangered. For
Objectives example, you may capture or kill a yellow-
The student will learn to identify com- bellied marmot located in the dry interior
mon small game animals that are hunted (Kootenay, Cariboo, Okanagan, and Nicola
or trapped in B.C. or that appear as spe- Valley) to protect property (a Schedule "B"
cial cases in the Hunting and Trapping animal) but there is no regular hunting season
Regulations Synopsis. for them. However, the Vancouver Island
marmot is listed as endangered and may NOT
This section is broken into 6 parts: be hunted, trapped, captured or harvested.
a) Overview of small mammals, their You are encouraged to review the Hunting
classification and the law and Trapping Regulations Synopsis regarding
i) Classification: why use it and small mammals. All native species of
how it works animals in the province have been
ii) Small mammals to know in B.C. designated as "wildlife," giving them full
protection under provisions of the Wildlife
b) Rodent Order (Rodentia) Act. The general rule is if there is no open
i) The Squirrel Family (Sciuridae) season listed in the Hunting and Trapping
ii) The Porcupine Family Regulations Synopsis then the wildlife cannot
(Erithizontidae) be harvested. The synopsis also provides
iii) The Beaver Family (Castoridae) you with Schedules "B" and "C," and the
iv) The Mouse Families trapping regulations.
v) The Pocket Gopher Family
(Geomyidae) Schedule "B" lists animals that may be
captured or killed only for the specific
c) Carnivore Order (Carnivora) purpose of protecting property unless an
i) The Skunk Family (Mephitidae) open season is designated by regulation. Here
ii) The Weasel Family (Mustelidae) are a few of these animals: snowshoe hare,
m iii) The Raccoon Family (Procyonidae) porcupine, voles, yellow-bellied marmot,
a woodchuck, Columbian ground squirrel,
m
m d) Lagomorph Order (Lagomorpha) striped and spotted skunk, and raccoon.
a i) The Hare Family (Leporidae)
l
s
ii) The Pika Family (Ochotonidae) Schedule "C" lists animals that may be
captured or killed anywhere and at any time
e) Marsupial Order (Marsupialia) in the province. These are mostly
introduced species and are detrimental to
f) The Opossum Family (Didelphidae) property and native wildlife. Hunting these
species requires a hunting licence. The list
g) Conclusion includes: opossum, eastern cottontail,
European rabbit, eastern grey squirrel and
eastern fox squirrel.
322
To trap in British Columbia you must species of animals. For instance, Fannin’s
complete a trapper education course sheep used to be classified as a separate
approved by the Director of Wildlife. subspecies of thinhorn sheep but now they
Trapping is defined as the act of setting or are viewed simply as a colour variation
placing a trap in an operative condition, or where Dall’s and Stone’s sheep overlap.
killing by the use of a firearm. Trappers seek
fur-bearing animals such as fox, beaver, All living organisms are classified by class,
marten, lynx, bobcat, mink, muskrat, river order, family, genus, species and subspecies.
otter, raccoon, skunk, squirrel, wolverine, It can be more complex than that for the
wolf, coyote, and black bear. enthusiast but this is a useful list for this
book. In this book we look at just the Class
i) Classification: Mammalia (mammals) and Class Aves
Why use it and how it works (birds). There are many more classes, which
All plants and animals in the world are include everything from fish to fungus and
organized in a classification system to make bacteria to boa constrictors. We already
comparisons easier. Classification had been have looked at Order Artiodactyla (split-
attempted many times in the past but a hoofed mammals, a part of the Ungulates1
method that actually worked was not which includes all hoofed mammals). And
conceived until, in the mid-1700s, a we have looked at the larger members of
Swedish scientist by the name of Linnaeus the Order Carnivora (meat-eating
worked out a scheme that we use today. mammals). Below is an example of
This system is flexible. Even today there are mammals we have already looked at and
discussions as to how to "lump" or "split" how they are classified.
Mammal Scientific Classification
Class Mammalia (animals with vertebrae, hair, feed milk to their young 2 )
Order Artiodactyla (split-hoofed mammals) Carnivora (meat-eating mammals)
Family Cervidae (deer family, antlers) Felidae (cat family)
Genus Odocoileus (deer group) Lynx (lynx group, short tails)
Specie hemionus (mule deer group) rufus
Subspecie columbianus
Common name Columbia black-tailed deer Bobcat
1 Many people consider "Ungulate" to be an Order, but it is actually a grouping based on how an animal
walks. Ungulates are animals that have evolved to walk on the very tips of their toes (unguligrade locomotion) m
and include those with even-numbered toes (Order Artiodactyla, for example, bovids and cervids) and odd- a
m
numbered toes (Order Perissodactyla, for example, horses and rhinos). Hooves are modified claws. Animals
m
that walk fully on their toes but not flat on their "palm" are "digitigrade" (for example, dogs and cats), and a
those that walk flat on their palms and toes are "plantigrade" (for example, bears and humans). Try this l
yourself by putting your hand flat on the table (plantigrade), raising the palm and thumb (digitigrade, the s
thumb becomes the dewclaw), then raising your hand again until just the tips of a couple of (or one) fingers
are still on the table (unguligrade). You have also just classified the relative speeds of animals. Plantigrade
animals are the slowest (usually), digitigrade faster, and unguligrade the fastest.
2 Most people also think of mammals as warm-blooded and, to a great extent they are. However, some
mammals have difficulty controlling their body temperatures. An example in B.C. is the mountain beaver
(Aplodontia rufa), which constructs its burrows to maintain fairly constant temperature and humidity to survive.
Another, non-Canadian, example is the sloth. If you shave a sloth’s hair, even though it lives in the tropics, it will
die of exposure.
323
You can see that some groups need more bamboo; apes have these characteristics but no
subdivisions (such as subspecies) than others. tail and usually walk on the knuckles of their
Common names can be misleading as they are front feet, raccoons have these characteristics
sometimes quite localized and vary from but have a long tail. As you can see, knowing a
country to country. It is usually easier to be few simple details can help you identify
sure of the animal you are searching for by animals much more easily. For fun, guess what
using their genus and species names, which are Order giraffes belong to (they have split
universal around the world. As an example, hooves)? How about camels (they have two
"moose" in Canada is called "elk" in northern soft-soled toes with hard toenails)? If you
Europe but everywhere in the world the guessed Order Artiodactyla, you were right,
scientific name, Alces alces, is used for this although the families are different (Giraffidae,
animal. The genus and species names together which has only giraffes, and Camelidae,
are the "formal" name for an animal. To camels and llamas).
remember how it works, try this trick. Genus is
like a family name for people (e.g., Gordon), ii) Small mammals to know in B.C.
while in a scientific name, genus tells the The small mammals we are going to cover in
group the animal belongs to (e.g., Felis which this section are by no means the complete list
means cat in Latin). The second part of the for B.C. However, they are important for you
name (species) is like the given name of a to know about as they can be hunted,
person (e.g., Peter), being a particular member trapped, or captured, or they are protected.
of the group "Gordon", or concolor, which For small mammals in B.C. we are concerned
means "all one colour" for the cougar, Felis with the orders of rodents, carnivores,
concolor. No two species share the same two- lagomorphs and marsupials that live on land.
part scientific name. This is why the Hunting
and Trapping Regulations Synopsis uses scientific Rodents (Order Rodentia) are small,
names as well as common names in its gnawing mammals having a single pair of
Schedules "B" and "C", so that there will be no continually growing incisors (front teeth) in
mistake in the animal they are talking about. both the upper and lower jaws. Usually we
Usually any names from genus and below think of rats and mice as rodents, but this
(genus, species, subspecies, etc.) are in italics order also includes chipmunks, marmots,
and the genus name is capitalized while the beavers, and squirrels.
species name is not (e.g., Lynx rufus). It is
important to make sure that you can correctly Carnivores (Order Carnivora) are mammals
identify the species and subspecies. that feed chiefly on the flesh of other
animals, rather than plants, although some
By now you already have some skills which will are omnivores (eat both meat and plant
help you find an unknown animal in a matter). This order includes cats, skunks,
guidebook, no matter where you are in the weasels, dogs, bears, and raccoons.
m world, without having to leaf through the
a whole thing. Think of some of the key Lagomorphs (Order Lagomorpha) are
m
m identifying features from the large mammals we rodent-like mammals. They are different
a have looked at. For example: split hooves and from rodents in that they have two pairs of
l
s
horns (ungulate, bovid); split hooves and upper incisors, one behind the other,
antlers (ungulate, cervid); looks like a dog specialized for gnawing. This order is
(carnivore, canid); looks like a cat (carnivore, composed of rabbits, hares and pikas.
felid); teeth for eating both meat and
vegetation, walks flat on all four feet, powerful Marsupials (Order Marsupialia) are mammals
forelegs, short tail (carnivore, ursid). You may whose young are born at a very early stage of
think this last one is too vague to correctly guess development, continuing their growth outside
the bear family. But pandas, which are not true of the womb, usually in a pouch. A kangaroo is
bears, do not have teeth for meat as they eat the best-known marsupial.
324
b) Rodent Order (Rodentia)

The rodent order consists of the squirrel,
porcupine, beaver, mouse and pocket
gopher families. The squirrel family consists
or marmots, squirrels, chipmunks and
woodchucks.
i) The Squirrel Family (Sciuridae)
Marmots
British Columbia has three species of
marmots: hoary, yellow-bellied and
Vancouver Island. Marmots are stout-
bodied, stocky and short-legged. They all
have tails, which can reach up to a foot (30
cm) in length. Hoary marmots (Marmota
caligata) live on mainland B.C. at higher
elevations, in colonies in or near rock piles
that are close to meadows of lush
image credit: arttoday.com
vegetation. They are not found in the

northeast or at low elevation in the dry
interior. They generally weigh 10 to 15 lb.
(4.5 to 7 kg), and are a grizzled gray colour,
which accounts for their name. There is no
season on this animal. Hoary mammot
Yellow-bellied marmots (Marmota

flaviventris) inhabit the dry interior in the
Kootenays and Southern Interior and form
colonies in rock piles near meadows. They
are generally smaller than a hoary marmot
(4-1/2 to 11 lb., 2 to 5 kg), have a distinctly
yellowish or orangey belly with a darker
back, and the feet are never black. Yellow-
bellied marmots are listed in Schedule "B" as
they can be destructive to farmland.
As its name states, the Vancouver Island

marmot (Marmota vancouverensis) is located m
on Vancouver Island, with colonies a
m
inhabiting rocky slopes close to good m
meadows, in or near the alpine. It generally
a
l
weighs 6-1/2 to 13 lb. (3 to 6 kg) and is dark s
brown with white nose, chin and chest.
The Vancouver Island marmot is on the

endangered list (the Ministry of Water,
Land and Air Protection’s "red list") and Woodchuck
may NOT be hunted, trapped, captured,
or harvested.
325
Woodchucks Squirrels
The woodchuck (Marmota monax) is also British Columbia has the following species
called groundhog. As a member of the of squirrels: eastern grey, eastern fox, red,
marmot family, it is the same general Douglas, northern flying, Arctic ground,
shape as other marmots, and can get to be Columbian ground, golden-mantled
as large as a yellow-bellied marmot (5 to ground, and Cascade golden-mantled
10 lb.; 2 to 4-1/2 kg). It is brownish, with ground squirrel.
an overall frosted look and the feet are
dark brown or black (unlike yellow-bellied Eastern grey (Sciurius carolinensis) and
marmots whose feet are never black). Like eastern fox (Sciurius niger) squirrels are
other marmots, it has a bushy tail. introduced species. The eastern grey
Woodchucks prefer meadows close to squirrel is found in the Greater Vancouver
wooded areas. They are found in the and Victoria areas and is usually the black
northern half of the province, the colour phase. The eastern fox squirrel is
Cariboo, the eastern portion of the found in the extreme southern Okanagan
southern interior, and western portion of Valley. It is rusty on the upper body with a
the Kootenay region. They are not found pale yellowish belly and its tail is bordered
along the Alberta border from Jasper south by a tawny fringe. Both species are much
or coastal regions of the province. larger than the native, tree-dwelling
Woodchucks are listed in Schedule "B" as species listed below (eastern grey is 8 to 10
they can be very destructive in farmland. in. [20 to 25 cm] and eastern fox is 10 to 15
in. [25 to 63 cm] body length, not
including tail). These squirrels live alone.
In areas of plentiful food, their territories
may be small and they may seem to be in
groups (for example, Stanley Park in
Vancouver). The eastern grey and eastern
fox squirrels are listed in Schedule "C" and
they may be hunted anywhere (with
permission on private land), any season as
long as you have a hunting licence.
Douglas squirrels (Tamiasciurius douglasii)

are located in the southern coastal area of
Red Squirrel Mainland B.C. They are small native tree
squirrels (6 to 7 in.; 15 to 18 cm) that are
brownish on the back and an orangey
colour underneath and around the eye.
m Red squirrels (Tamiasciurius hudsonicus)
a are found throughout British Columbia
m
m except for the Queen Charlotte Islands
a and the southern coastal region. They are
l
also small tree squirrels (7 to 8 in., 18 to 20
s
cm) but they are brown above and white
below with a white eye ring. Northern
flying squirrels (Glaucomys sabrinus) are
found on mainland B.C. They are active at
night and it is a special privilege to catch
their "flying" acrobatics. They are smaller
Flying Squirrel
(5-1/2 to 6-1/2 in.) than Douglas and red
squirrels, have large eyes (because of their
326
Arctic ground squirrels (Spermophilus parryii)

are found in the Skeena region and form
colonies of burrows in meadows, lakeshores
and sandy hills. They are grayish or rusty
coloured with whitish dapples on their backs,
and cinnamon on their heads and bellies.
There are no seasons on these squirrels.
Columbian ground squirrels (Spermophilus

columbianus) are located in the Rocky, Purcell,
image credit: Sandra Naharnoff
Selkirk, Monashee, and Cascade Mountain

ranges of the eastern portion of the province.
They are cinnamon coloured on the back with
black-tipped guard hairs, have a tawny face
and belly, and a light-coloured ring around
the eye. They are large squirrels weighing from
1 to nearly 2 lb. (450 to 850 g). There is an
open season on Columbia ground squirrels,
Ground Squirrel on private land only, and they are listed in
Schedule "B" since they can form extensive
colonies in farmer’s fields.
The Cascade golden-mantled ground

squirrel (Spermophilus saturatus) is found
only in the Cascade Mountains of
southwestern B.C. and down into
Washington state. It is a muted grayish
brown with lighter undersides, a rusty head,
neck and shoulders, and a white eye ring. A
single white stripe runs down each side of the
image credit: Sandra Naharnoff
back with a faint black stripe on each side of

the white stripe. They live alone in rock piles
and talus slopes at high elevations. Golden-
mantled ground squirrels (Spermophilus
lateralis) live alone in mountain forests of the
Columbian and Rocky Mountains, generally
inhabiting the same type of habitat as the
Cascade golden-mantled although they
Golden Mantled Squirrel occur often at lower elevations. Their m
colouring is less muted than the Cascade a
m
golden-mantled and they usually have a rich m
nocturnal habits), soft gray-brown fur on chestnut head and shoulders, a gray back and a
l
the back and cream-coloured hair on the buff eye ring. As with the Cascade species, s
belly. Although they are not capable of two dark stripes surround a single white
true flapping flight, they can glide long stripe on each side of the back but the black
distances using a special fold of skin that is much darker. Either of these ground
extends from their "wrists" to their squirrels could be mistaken for chipmunks
"ankles" and a wide, flat tail which is used but they are both larger (6 to 8 in., 15 to 20
as a rudder. These three squirrel species cm) and they do not have stripes on their
also live alone. There is no season on faces as chipmunks do. There is no season
these squirrels. for these ground squirrels.
327
Chipmunks ii) The Porcupine Family

British Columbia has four species of (Erithizontidae)
chipmunks: least (Tamias minimus), There is only one member of this family in
red-tailed (T. ruficaudus), Townsend’s Canada, the porcupine (Erithizon
(T. townsendii), and yellow-pine dorsatum), but there were others in
(T. amoenus). They all live alone but, if food prehistoric times. The porcupine is the
is plentiful, there may be many in a small second largest rodent in B.C., reaching 22
area. Chipmunks are smaller (3-1/2 to 6 lb. (10 kg); the beaver is often twice the
in.; 9 to 15 cm) than squirrels. They are weight or more. "Porkies" can be nearly 3 ft.
generally grayish brown or cinnamon on (1 m) long and are a chunky build with a
the upper parts and buffy on the short face and legs and long claws. Their
undersides. All chipmunks have five dark upper body, tail and flanks are covered with
and four light stripes on the centre of the thousands of long, barbed quills which
back and three dark and two light stripes detach easily and embed themselves in any
on each cheek, although the stripes are attacker. When alarmed, the porcupine
muted on the Townsend’s. It can be raises its quills, turns its back to the threat,
difficult to tell them apart but distribution and lashes its tail. If a predator can flip a
may help. Townsend’s are found in the porcupine over, the belly is not protected
Lower Mainland, Manning Park and and it can be killed. The under fur is dark
Whistler areas; red-tailed are found in two brown, and there are very long, yellow-
small areas, one in the Selkirks and one in tipped guard hairs interspersed with the
the Rockies, in the extreme southeast of quills. Porcupines are mainly solitary,
B.C. The two other species are widely nocturnal, slow moving, and prefer the
spread, with the least chipmunk found in tender bark of twigs and branches in winter
the northern half and the yellow-pine in and fresh greenery in summer. They also
the southern half. Chipmunks do not love salt (eating sweat-stained gloves,
occur on the coast except in the area of the boots, and wooden handles of tools) and
Fraser Valley. (This is a rough plywood (for the glue), so they can be real
simplification because they have pests. Porcupines are found throughout
overlapping ranges.) There is no season B.C. except Vancouver Island and the
on chipmunks. Queen Charlotte Islands. They are listed in
Schedule "B" of the Hunting Synopsis
because of their pest status, but can only be
killed to protect property.
m
a
m
m
a
l
s
Porcupine
Chipmunk
328
iii) The Beaver Family (Castoridae) dig out two or more underwater
The beaver (Castor canadensis) is the only entrances and one or more chambers that
North American member of this family are above water and dry. In areas where a
and is the largest rodent in Canada, stream is too large to be dammed, beavers
reaching weights of 65 lb. (30 kg). It is will build their dens in the stream banks.
similar in general shape to a porcupine, It is estimated that a single beaver needs
being thickset, short legged, with a broad more than 200 trees and that a family of
head and short neck. However, beavers are five requires an acre of poplars (or other
covered in glossy, dark brown, dense fur favoured tree species) per year for food.
and have a large, wide, scaly, flattened tail, In the fall, they will cut branches for
webbed back feet for swimming, and winter food and store them close to the
prominent orange incisors (front teeth). lodge. The beaver has very valuable fur
The lips can actually be closed behind the and was largely responsible for Europeans
teeth so that the beaver can chew under exploring Canada. It is so important in
water without getting water or mud in its Canada’s history that it was put on the
mouth. The tail is used as a rudder when back of the 5-cent coin. Beavers are found
swimming, slapping on the water as an throughout British Columbia. Even
alarm, helping stabilize the animal when though they can be extremely
it is cutting trees, and it is a fat reserve. destructive, they are not included in
These animals live in family groups in either Schedules "B" or "C" and there is no
areas with plenty of fresh water and trees season on them, but they are a very
so that they can build their dams, ponds, important fur-bearing species for
and lodges, and have enough fresh trappers. It is possible to contact a trapper
aquatic vegetation and bark of deciduous to remove a problem beaver during legal
trees and shrubs for food. Beavers build trapping season (winter); the Ministry
their lodges of mud, stones, and branches also has a list of trappers that have a
and they can be very large. Once the pile special license to remove problem beavers
is complete, the beavers will chew and during other seasons.
m
a
m
m
a
l
s
Beaver
329
iv) The Mouse Families known as packrat), and, as stated in

There are actually three "mouse" families Schedule "B", "all of the species of the
in B.C. but members of only one of them subfamily Arvicolinae and lemmings,
appear in Schedule "B". The three families except muskrats". The subfamily
are: the Jumping Mouse Family Arvicolinae includes all voles and
(Zapodidae), the Pocket Mouse Family lemmings and also includes muskrats, so
(Heteromyidae), and the Mouse Family Schedule "B" is listing all of them, except
(Muridae). Only members of the Mouse muskrats, as being legal to kill to protect
Family appear in Schedule "B". property. The mouse family is large,
widespread and reproduces rapidly,
There are three jumping mouse species in making them very important small prey
B.C.; they are difficult to distinguish from species. Brief descriptions of the Schedule
one another but characteristics that "B" groups are given below, as well as
separate them other mice are that they live muskrats because of their importance as a
in wet habitats near running water, they fur-bearing mammal and because it is quite
have extremely long tails and they can common to see them or their signs in B.C.
jump up to a metre to escape danger.
Deer mice are similar in shape and size to a
The Pocket Mouse family is represented by house mouse, having a pointed face, large
only one species in B.C., the Great Basin ears, large protruding eyes and a long tail,
pocket mouse. To tell the difference but the tail is furred and distinctly bi-
between deer mice and pocket mice, read coloured, that is, dark above and light
the description for the deer mouse, below. below. It is important to be able to recognize
There is no season on jumping or pocket the common deer mouse (Peromyscus
mice. maculata) as its droppings can carry the
deadly Hanta virus. The upper parts can
Members of the Mouse Family show up a vary from buffy to grayish or blackish
number of times on Schedule "B" due to brown and the undersides and feet are
the conflict between their life habits and white. They are common in sheds, barns
those of humans. Included in the list are and cabins, can be as destructive as house
deer mice, the bushy-tailed woodrat (also mice, and are found throughout B.C. except
m
a
m
m
a
l
s
Jumping mouse
330
on the north coast and the Queen pungent smell, but the cabin’s contents
Charlottes. The pocket mouse is restricted to will be strewn everywhere and
extremely hot, arid areas of B.C.; it is miscellaneous items will be stuffed into
nocturnal and it does not need to drink as it unlikely places. This woodrat is a constant
gets its water from its food. If you had one in collector of things and will drop one
each hand, the pocket mouse and the deer thing to pick up another. It will often visit
mouse look quite different but their campsites in the night and pilfer anything
descriptions are similar. Here’s how to tell that is left out. The bushy-tailed woodrat
them apart: they both have a tail that is dark resembles a very large deer mouse (7 to 9
on top and light on the bottom; however, in., 18 to 23 cm) except for its long, bushy
the pocket mouse’s tail is at least as long, tail, which is gray above and white below.
often longer, than its body and a deer It is pale gray-brown, or darker, above and
mouse’s tail is generally shorter than or whitish below and its whiskers are
equal to its body length. The deer mouse extremely long. Since the woodrat is
looks like a house mouse in shape (pointed nocturnal, it is more common to find its
face, protruding eyes, large ears) while the large, messy nest than the animal itself.
pocket mouse has small ears, a less pointed The nest will contain a collection of the
face, a short neck and its eyes do not packrat’s "treasures". It occurs throughout
protrude. Also, the pocket mouse has long, B.C. except on the coastal islands. This
black-tipped guard hairs over its olive animal is found in Schedule "B".
coloured fur, the tail can be crested (hairs
sticking up) at the end, and its hind feet are Lemmings look somewhat like hamsters
very long. Both have light under parts but, in shape but are a bit larger (4 to 6 in.;10
from the side, a pocket mouse looks like the to 15 cm). They have large heads and are
dividing line was drawn with a ruler while densely furred all over, including their
the white on a deer mouse follows the characteristic short tail and ears, to protect
contours of the body. The Keen’s mouse them from the cold as they live mostly in
(Peromyscus keeni) occurs on the entire coast alpine tundra or cold, muskeg areas. They
and the coastal islands. It has gray upper are brownish in colour. Lemming’s trails
parts and its tail is slightly longer than that are chewed right to the ground through
of the deer mouse. Deer mice are found on vegetation, just like little highways, and
Schedule "B". the animals also construct underground
burrows. There are two species in B.C. and
You will know if your cabin has been they are widely spread but not often seen.
colonized by a bushy-tailed woodrat
(Neotoma cinerea), also known as a
packrat, as soon as you walk in the door.
Not only do they have a distinctive
m
a
m
m
Packrat a
l
s
Lemmings
331
Voles are a large group (11 species in B.C.) will nest on it. Once the pile is complete,
and are one of the most important small the muskrat will chew up from underneath
prey species in the province because they and create one or more above-water
reproduce so rapidly. They are similar to chambers inside, much like beavers do.
lemmings in shape and size but their tails Muskrats also may build bank dens like
are longer. They are also brownish to beavers do. In summer they construct
grayish in colour. Their habits are similar separate feeding platforms of mud and
to lemmings but they are much more plant material and, in winter, "push-ups" are
widely spread, take advantage of many vital to their survival. The muskrat will
habitats, and can cause extensive damage chew a hole through the ice and pile
in orchards and crops. These animals are underwater vegetation on top of the hole.
all listed in Schedule "B", part (c), as This little "push-up" den is large enough for
members of the subfamily Arvicolinae. one animal to rest and warm up. A few of
these will be constructed about 100 ft. (33
m) from the main den to increase a
muskrat’s foraging distance as they do not
store food for the winter like beavers do.
Voles Their main diet is aquatic reeds and
pondweeds (they target the underwater
parts in winter), although frogs, fish,
carrion, and aquatic insects are also eaten.
In the summer muskrats tend to be solitary,
but in winter a few may den together for
heat efficiency. If you come across tracks in
the mud, it is possible to distinguish
between beaver and muskrat by the size of
the prints and the tail marks. Beaver tracks
Muskrats (Ondatra zybethica) are much are much larger and the marks from the flat
larger than lemmings or voles (10 to 14 in., tail may rub out part or all of the footprints.
25 to 35 cm, not including tail) but are A muskrat’s tracks are much smaller and its
much smaller (2.2 lb., 1 kg) than beavers. tail mark will show as a line, from the
Even though they are mainly aquatic, they bottom "keel" of the tail. You can also see
are not related to beavers but are actually the web of the larger back feet for both
voles that have adapted to water life. The animals. Muskrats occur throughout B.C.
muskrat has the same general shape as a There is no hunting season for
lemming or vole, with dark brown, dense, muskrats but they are a very important
silky fur. Its distinctive tail is long (up to 10 fur-bearing species.
in., 25 cm), naked, and roundish but is
m flattened side-to-side (like a Popsicle stick
a on edge) to act as a swimming "oar". The
m
m hind feet are partially webbed and have stiff
a hairs to help paddle along. Like beavers,
l
s
muskrats are able to close their lips behind
their front teeth so that they can chew
image credits: arttoday.com
under water. Muskrats do not build dams, as

beavers do, but they do build a variety of
shelters. The main shelter is the lodge
Muscrat
which, unlike a beaver lodge, is constructed
of tough aquatic vegetation such as cattails
and bulrushes. It is smaller than a beaver
lodge but can be large enough that geese
332
v) The Pocket Gopher Family i) The Skunk Family (Mephitidae)

(Geomyidae) Skunks are brightly marked, perhaps warning
The northern pocket gopher (Thomomys of the danger of annoying or frightening
talpoides) is a medium-sized (5 to 6-1/2 in.; them. When alarmed, skunks can spray an
13 to 17 cm) burrowing rodent which is overwhelming, strong-smelling musk from
generally the colour of soil, varying from their anal glands; this musk is extremely
black to light gray. There are numerous difficult to remove and is very irritating to
other members of this family but this mucus membranes (throat, nose) and the
species is the only one in B.C. The northern eyes. Be warned: they do not have to have
pocket gopher might be mistaken for either their backs to you to spray but are able to do
a vole or a mole. To tell the vole and pocket a "handstand" and spray over their heads or
gopher apart, the pocket gopher has fur- twist into a "U" shape with both their head
lined cheek pouches which open to the and tail facing you. A skunk will generally try
outside, not the mouth; its tale is thick and to warn you first, though, to back off by
naked; it has strong claws for digging its stamping its feet and raising its tail. Both
extensive tunnels, and its orange incisors striped (Mephitis mephitis) and spotted
are always visible. Pocket gophers are quite (Spilogale putorius) skunks are glossy black
different from moles but they may be with bright white markings. The striped
confused because of the evidence of skunk is about twice the size (13 to 18 in., 33
extensive tunneling (dirt shoved out on the to 45 cm, not including tail) of the spotted
surface). A mole has a very pointed face and is about the same size as a domestic cat (6
with a naked snout, huge front paws that lb., 2-1/2 kg). The
are tilted out for digging, a very short tail, striped skunk has a
and the body is nearly black. The northern thin white stripe
pocket gopher is found in almost any which runs from its
habitat except dense forest, waterlogged or nose to its forehead,
shallow soils, and it occurs in the southern and a wide white
interior from the Cascades to the stripe on its neck
Kootenays. Although their burrow systems that splits in two,
can be very large, pocket gophers are runs down its back
solitary except when breeding. These and converges again
animals can be very destructive in farmland at the tail. The tail
as they eat underground plant parts and, is bushy and
therefore, they are listed in Schedule "B". often carries a
continuation of the
white stripe to its Skunk
tip. Each spotted
skunk has unique
markings but the basics are the same: glossy m

black body with white forehead patch, and a
m
several stripes along the back that are broken m
Pocket gopher into dashes. The bushy tail is white above a
l
and black below. The spotted skunk is s
confined to the Lower Mainland/Sunshine
c) Carnivore Order (Carnivora) Coast areas while the striped skunk overlaps
The carnivore order includes cats, dogs, in this area and is widespread in the rest of
skunks, weasels , bears, and raccoons. B.C., east of the Coast Range. Both species are
Cats, dogs, and bears were covered in the omnivorous, solitary, nocturnal, and inhabit
main section of this chapter. In this semi-open forests and farmland. There are
section we will deal with the skunk, weasel open seasons on skunks and both are listed in
and raccoon families. Schedule "B".
333
ii) The Weasel Family (Mustelidae) Badgers (Taxidea taxus) are one of the two
The weasel family consists of the badger, largest members of the weasel family in
wolverine, otter, fisher, marten, mink, and Canada, reaching weights of 24 lb.
weasel. Most of these animals are trapped (11 kg) and 22 in. (55 cm) in body length.
for their valuable fur. All mustelids have They have a typical mustelid snout
anal musk glands. (although somewhat flattened), are squat,
muscular, with long, strong claws for
Fisher (Martes pennanti), marten (Martes digging, a short tail, and are covered in
americana), mink (Mustela vison), and the long, grizzled, grayish-yellow hair. The
three species of weasels (Mustela spp., hair on the flanks is longer than
["spp." means a number of species all in elsewhere, which makes them look even
the genus Mustela]) have the typical shorter legged than they already are. The
"weasel" shape, that is, long slender body, badger’s facial markings are distinctive:
short legs, small round ears and short, the face is blackish with a thin white stripe
pointed muzzle, and they all live primarily running from the nose to the shoulders, a
on land. The difference between them is whitish horseshoe-shaped stripe runs from
in size, habitat, colour, and tail length. the temple, down across the eye, under
They range from the largest, the fisher, the chin and up to the other temple, and
which reaches 12 lb. the rounded ears are white and heavily
(5-1/2 kg) and 17 in. furred. The badger’s legs and feet are dark
(43 cm), to the brown or black. Badgers live in burrows in
smallest, the least open grasslands and feed mainly on
weasel, which is only rodents, such as ground squirrels and
1-1/2 oz. (42 gm) and marmots. Their dens are large, they live
6 in. (15 cm). They alone, and they are usually nocturnal.
are very efficient Badgers are not as bad-tempered as their
predators and will reputations would lead you to believe but
often tackle prey can be formidable if cornered. They are
larger than they are. also quite vocal with a variety of hisses,
In fact, fishers chirring sounds, snarls, screams, barks,
commonly hunt and loud snuffles. The badger lives in the
porcupines even dry interior areas of the Okanagan,
generalized though the "porky" Kootenays, and Thompson-Nicola
weasel “shape”
can outweigh them 2 but they are endangered and
to 1. Some may there is no season on them.
occasionally eat
berries. The river
(Lutra canadensis) and
m sea (Enhydra lutris) otters are a similar
a build but have a thick tail and blunter
m
m snout. They live in and around water. The
a river otter is smaller, up to 30 in. (76 cm,
l
s
not including tail) and 25 lb. (11 kg),
while the sea otter can get up to 36 in. (90
cm) and 100 lb. (45 kg). Their food

generally consists of species that live in
water, either freshwater or marine.
There is no season on any of these
animals but they are important fur-
bearing species, except the sea otter, Badger
which is endangered and protected.
334
Of all the weasel family, there is a season iii) The Raccoon Family (Procyonidae)
only on wolverines. Wolverines (Gulo With its distinctive "bandit" mask, gray
gulo) are the largest member of the weasel body, short, round, furry ears, and bushy,
family in Canada. They are similar to black-striped tail, raccoons (Procyon lotor)
badgers in that they have a short, stout are one of the most common wildlife
muscular body, short bushy tail, large species that an urban dweller may
bear-like paws with heavy claws, broad encounter, although their range is far
head with a typical mustelid snout, and greater than just the cities of the Lower
shorted rounded, furred ears. However, the Mainland and
wolverine is larger (up to 35 lb. [16 kg], 32 Vancouver
in. [80 cm] long, and 16 in. [40 cm] tall at Island. Raccoons
the shoulder) and is not as short-legged as are mid-sized
a badger. In fact, except for their bushy animals (11 to 35
tail, wolverines might be mistaken for a lb.; 5 to 16 kg)
small bear. The wolverine’s colour is also and, like bears,
quite different from a badger’s since the have an
body is dark brown to nearly black. Light- omnivorous diet.
coloured stripes run in a downward arc They eat just
from the shoulder to the flank then join at about anything,
the base of the tail and run out onto the from eggs to fruit,
tail. There is a wide, light-coloured arc meat, insects,
above each eye, on the forehead, which amphibians,
runs down onto the cheeks. Wolverines vegetation, pet Raccoon
eat any meat they can get as well as eggs, food and garbage.
berries, larvae, carrion and trappers’ The raccoon’s
supplies, if they manage to break into a name reflects the belief that raccoons
cache or cabin. They are determined washed everything before they ate it
predators who are not afraid to tackle large ("raccoon" comes from an Indian word
ungulates or stand up to a bear or wolf. meaning "scratches with his hands",
Their claws allow them to climb trees and "lotor" means "washer" in Latin, and its
their oversized paws act like snowshoes, French name, raton laveur, means "washer
just like a lynx’s. When seeing them on rat"), but it is now believed that water
the run, another way to tell wolverines enhances the sense of touch for these
and badgers apart is that wolverines lope animals. Raccoons live in diverse habitats
and badgers trot. Wolverines are solitary near water and are very comfortable living
and inhabit large areas of wilderness near humans. They both climb and swim
throughout British Columbia except for well and are often found in wooded areas.
the Lower Mainland and the Queen Like bears, they get fat in the fall but they
Charlotte Islands. do not den up and need food throughout m
the winter. Like bears and humans, they a
m
walk flat on their feet. They are usually m
nocturnal and solitary or found in smaller a
l
family groups. Raccoons are limited in s
their distribution by winter cold but occur
west of the Coast Mountains up to about

Rivers Inlet on the mainland, and on
Vancouver Island and the Queen Charlotte
Islands, and they are starting to appear in
Wolverine the southern Rockies. There is an open
season on raccoons and they are listed in
Schedule "B".
335
d) Lagomorph Order (Lagomorpha) which is the main predator of these hares.

Lagomorphs include rabbits, hares and In winter, the snowshoe hare moults its
pikas. With their large front incisors you coppery brownish summer coat for a winter
might mistake a lagomorph for a rodent coat of white, although the ear tips remain
(and they used to be included in the Order black. In the Lower Mainland, snowshoe
Rodentia), but, if you look closely, there is hares do not change colour in winter. It is a
a second pair of incisors right behind the medium-sized hare, weighing up to 3 lb. (1-
first pair. Only lagomorphs have this. Like 1/2 kg). This hare is found throughout
rodents, lagomorph incisors grow mainland B.C. and lives almost anywhere
continuously so the animals must keep there is brush or woods. There is an open
gnawing, both to wear their teeth down as season on snowshoe hares.
they grow and to keep them sharp.
i) The Hare Family (Leporidae)

Both rabbits and hares have short, cottony Hare
tails, but to tell them apart, hares are

larger, have very long, upright ears, long
hind legs for jumping, can run long
distances, make their nests above ground,
and give birth to fully furred young which
are able to hop away from danger very
soon after birth. Rabbits have shorter ears,
shorter hind legs, cannot run far, make
underground burrows and give birth to
naked, blind, totally dependent babies. The white-tailed jackrabbit (Lepus
Both hares and rabbits are mostly townsendii) and mountain cottontail
nocturnal and timid. British Columbia has (Sylvilagus nuttallii; also known as Nuttall's
the snowshoe hare, white-tailed jackrabbit cottontail) are native to B.C. Both species
(which is a hare), European rabbit, eastern are found in the southern Okanagan and
cottontail (which is a rabbit), and Similkameen, although the white-tailed
mountain cottontail (also a rabbit). jackrabbit may no longer exist there as
this was the northernmost part of its range
and it has not been recorded there
recently. The mountain cottontail is
Rabbit grizzled gray above, has a rusty patch at
the nape of the neck, the edges of the ears
are white, and its tail is black above and
white below. The white-tailed jackrabbit is
m much larger than the mountain cottontail
a (6-1/2 to 11 lb. [3 to 5 kg], compared to 1
m
m to 2 lb. [1/2 to 1 kg]). It has much longer
a ears and hind legs, an all-white tail, and
l
s
has similar colouring to the mountain
cottontail in the summer, but in winter it
The snowshoe hare (Lepus americanus), as is all white except for a grey forehead and
its name implies, is well suited to winter black ear tips. The mountain cottontail
weather. Its hind feet are very large and are prefers brushy edge areas while the white-
used as snowshoes to keep it from breaking tailed jackrabbit inhabits open areas.
through the snow. This is an advantage There is no season on either of these
with most predators, except the lynx, species and the white-tailed jackrabbit
which also has snowshoe-like feet and is listed as endangered.
336
The eastern cottontail and European ii) The Pika Family (Ochotonidae)
rabbit are not native to B.C. They are not Pikas are the most rodent-like of the
easy to tell apart but the European rabbit lagomorphs. There are two species in B.C.
(Oryctolagus cuniculus) has a wide variety and the difference is mostly in where they
of colorations, including all those live. They look a lot like a small guinea pig
normally associated with domestic rabbits and inhabit scree slopes close to lush
(spotted, gray, brown, black, white), with a meadows in the high alpine. Unlike hares
tail that is dark above and white below, and rabbits, their hind legs are about the
and it is a bit larger than the eastern same length as their front legs, they do
cottontail. It also can be found in large not have a tail, and their ears are rounded.
colonies of extensive burrows. The eastern Both species are gray but the collared pika
cottontail (Sylvilagus floridanus) is buffy has a faint pale-coloured stripe on each
gray above with a rusty nape of the neck side of its neck, a "collar". The
and legs and it has a white tail. The collared pika (Ochotona collaris) lives in
eastern cottontail can be found on the the extreme northwest corner of B.C. and
eastern portion of southern Vancouver the common pika (Ochotona princeps)
Island and the Greater Vancouver and lives in the southern half of the province.
Fraser Valley areas and they prefer brushy There is no season on pikas.
streamside habitats. The European rabbit
is also found in these areas but prefers
open habitats, such as fields. Both species
are listed in schedule "C".
Pika
m
a
m
m
a
l
s
337
e) Marsupial Order (Marsupialia) to the rest of the foot. A strange survival

Marsupials are a curious order and among technique the opossum uses is to play
the most primitive still living on Earth dead. It will first try to frighten off the
since nearly identical animals have been threat with hisses and screeches but, if this
found in fossils. In contrast to other doesn’t work, it will flop on its side, loll its
mammals, marsupials do not have a tongue out and drool. Opossums are
placenta to nourish the fetus inside the generally nocturnal, solitary or in family
body and the young are born at a very groups, and their diet is extremely varied
early stage of development, usually when including eggs, fruit, insects, carrion,
they are about the size of a peanut. The small mammals and birds, and seeds. They
baby then crawls, blind and with only live in woods and farmland, in the Lower
partly formed limbs, to the fur-lined Mainland, Denman, Hornby and Tree
pouch (marsupium) where it latches onto Islands, and they may be spreading onto
a nipple and continues to develop until it Vancouver Island. Opossum are listed in
can survive in the great outdoors. The Schedule "B" and there is a hunting season
great majority of marsupials live in for them in Region 1.
Australia and the only species in North
America is the Virginia opossum.
i) The Opossum Family (Didelphidae)

The Virginia opossum (Didelphis

marsupialis), the only species of this
family, has worked its way up the west
coast of the United States and into the
Greater Vancouver Regional District and,
although it appears to be expanding its
range, B.C.’s winters are too cold for it to Opossum
spread much further inland or north. The
opossum is about the size of a house cat
but heavier bodied and with shorter legs.
It looks somewhat like a large, fat, whitish
rat with its pointed face, naked feet and
tail. The ears, unlike rat’s ears, are naked,
paper-thin and they are black. (A rat has
fur on its ears.) The tail is strong and
prehensile (able to wrap around things
and hold on, like a monkey’s tail). When
the young emerge from the pouch, the
m mother often carries them on her back
a and they wrap their tails around hers to
m
m hold on. The opossum’s feet are very
a unusual and their footprint is different
l
s
from any other animal in Canada. The
front foot has five widely spread toes with
thin bases and a bulbous tip. All toes look
similar. The hind foot is quite different as
it has the appearance of a hand, complete
with an opposable (grasping) thumb for
climbing and walking along branches.
Again the toe tips are bulbous and the
thumbprint will be nearly at right angles
338
f) Conclusion There are an increasing number of

As you have read, British Columbia has a excellent guidebooks on the market. If you
great diversity of small mammals. This plan to hunt or trap these species, wildlife
section has tried to give you the basic identification is a legal requirement.
information about small mammals, Obtain a copy of the Hunting and Trapping
especially ones you may run across or Regulations Synopsis or check out the
those that are listed in Schedules "B" and Website: www.bchuntingregs.com.
"C" of the Hunting and Trapping Regulations
Synopsis. We have not covered any Visit your local library and obtain wildlife
material about bats, shrews, moles, or any identification books and videos for more
of the saltwater mammals (seals, sea lions, details. Contact your local Ministry of
whales, porpoises, sea otter) of B.C. Water, Land and Air Protection office and
obtain some of their information
You are encouraged to take the time and brochures or check out their Website
obtain additional information about small www. elp.gov.bc.ca/wld/. We would also
mammals so that you can fully identify recommend "Hinterland Who's Who" on
them by understanding their the Canadian Wildlife Service Website
characteristics, habitats, and distribution. www. cws-scf.ec.gc.ca.
m
a
m
m
a
l
s
339
QUIZ ON SMALL MAMMALS
This quiz is a self-test to help you learn this section of the chapter.
1. Give an example of a Schedule "B" animal. ______________________________________
2. Can anyone trap animals in B.C.? ______________________________________________
3. Why is it important to know the difference between:
a) the 3 marmot species ________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________
b) the squirrels ________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________
4. Why is it a good idea to know the scientific name of an animal,

not just its common name? ____________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
5. What’s an easy way to tell the difference between chipmunks and the 2 species of
golden-mantled ground squirrels? ______________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
m
a
m
m
a 6. What is a distinctive feature of porcupines? ____________________________________
l ______________________________________________________________________________
s
7. What is another common name for the bushy-tailed woodrat? How would you know
that one had been in your cabin? ______________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
340
8. What are 2 big differences between a muskrat and a beaver?______________________

______________________________________________________________________________
9. Why are pocket gophers on Schedule "B"? ______________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________
10. Describe one of the 2 skunk species in B.C? ____________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________
11. What is the typical "weasel" shape? __________________________________________

Give an example of the weasel family. ________________________________________
12. Why can’t you hunt or trap badgers? __________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________
13. Give 2 or 3 ways that you can tell a badger from a wolverine. __________________
____________________________________________________________________________
14. What are 2 differences between rabbits and hares? ______________________________

____________________________________________________________________________
m
15. Briefly describe an opossum. __________________________________________________ a
____________________________________________________________________________ m
m
a
l
s
341
ANIMALS
CHAPTER REVIEW TEST
The questions listed below are similar to those found in the CORE written exam. Take approxi-
mately 15 minutes to answer these questions without referring back to the material found in
this chapter. Use the answer sheet provided at the bottom of the page to record your answers.
check your answers.
challenge test.
1. Horns are shed each year.

True or False
2. Both Dall’s and Stone’s sheep are:

a. California bighorn sheep
b. all-white wild sheep
c. Rocky Mountain bighorn sheep
d. thinhorn sheep
3. You can tell the age of a wild ram by:

a. the annuli on the horns
b. the size of the animal
c. the length of the horns
d. the points on the antlers
4. You may be able to tell a nanny from a billy mountain goat by:
a. the space between the horns at the base
b. the group of other goats it is found with
c. the shape of the horns
d. all of the above
5. Which Bovid was introduced to British Columbia?

a. big horn sheep
m
a b. thinhorn sheep
m c. mountain goat
m
a d. bison
l
s
6. In feeding, most of the year deer are:
a. omnivorous
b. carnivorous
c. browsers
d. grazers
342
7. In coastal B.C. the most common deer is the:

a. white-tailed deer
b. black-tailed deer
c. fallow deer
d. mule deer
8. The __________ deer was introduced to British Columbia?

a. White-tailed
b. Mule
c. Fallow
d. Black-tailed
9. You can tell a mule deer from a white-tailed by:

a. the manner of running
b. A, C, and D are all correct
c. the tail
d. the ears
10. Tines on a round main beam that sweeps up and back from the head are antlers of:
a. moose
b. elk
c. mule deer
d. caribou
11. Compared to lynx, bobcat are generally:

a. found in northern B.C.
b. longer haired
c. smaller
d. larger
12. Wolves are generally found:

a. in settled areas
b. in the Queen Charlotte Islands
c. A, B, and D are all correct
d. in northern wilderness areas
13. Long, slender legs, narrow muzzle and chest, light belly and a dark back describe:
a. wolf m
a
b. cougar m
c. coyote m
a
d. fox l
s
14. In their eating habits, black bears are:

a. omnivorous
b. ruminants
c. herbivorous
d. browsers
343
15. You can tell a grizzly from a black bear by:

a. it teeth, claws, and eyes
b. its colour, size, and shoulder hump
c. its claws, shoulder hump, ears, and face profile
d. its colour, face profile, size and teeth
16. Which two animals are on schedule "B" of the hunting synospsis?
a. Hoary & Vancouver Island Marmot
b. Woodchuck and Yellow-bellied marmot
c. Hoary & Yellow-bellied marmot
d. Woodchuck & Vancouver Island Marmot
17. This animal has quills and is the second largest rodent found in British Columbia.
a. Porcupine
b. Chipmunks
c. Ground squirrel
d. Woodchuck
18. This member of the Hare Family (Leporidae) changes colour in the winter.
a. Snowshoe hare
b. White-tailed jackrabbit
c. Nuttall's cottontail
d. Mountain cottontail
m
a ANSWER SHEET
m
m
a 1. _____2. _____3. _____4. _____5. _____6. _____7. _____8._____ 9._____
l
s
10. _____11.____12._____13.____14._____15._____16.____17.____18._____
344
NOTES
m
a
m
m
a
l
s
345
NOTES
m
a
m
m
a
l
s
346
Chapter
Bird
Identification
8
GOAL
The student will identify game birds of BC and protected/endangered species

through knowledge of their characteristics, habitat, and distribution.
OBJECTIVES
The student will:
1. Identify wetland birds of B.C. 3. Identify raptors and other

protected/endangered birds of B.C.
2. Identify upland game birds
of B.C. 4. Define common terms related to birds. b
i
r
d
s
347
Chapter 8 — Bird Identification Conservation & Outdoor Recreation Education
This chapter is divided into 7 parts: III Migratory game birds

a) Wetland (swans, geese, ducks,
I. Introduction coot, snipe)
a) Techniques for game b) Upland (band-tailed pigeon,
bird identification mourning dove)
b) Terminology
IV Raptors (hawks, falcons, harriers,
II. Resident upland game birds eagles, osprey, vultures, owls)
a) Ptarmigan
b) Grouse V. Schedule "C" birds
c) Introduced species (pheasant,
gray partridge, chukar, quail, VI. Other protected birds
wild turkey)
VII. Review Test
PART I. INTRODUCTION
British Columbia has a rich abundance of a) Techniques for game

bird life. Usually, birds are grouped or clas- bird identification
sified by their habitat requirements (e.g. There are nine groups or types of common
waterfowl), their food habits (e.g. birds of game birds in British Columbia that you
prey) or their legal status (e.g. game birds). need to know about: geese, diving ducks,
There is also legislation based on whether puddle ducks, wetland birds (snipe and
birds are migratory or not (federal laws coots), ptarmigan, grouse, mourning dove,
governing the hunting of migratory water- band-tailed pigeon, and introduced species,
fowl and provincial laws governing hunt- which include quail, pheasant, partridge,
ing of non-migratory upland game birds). chukar, and wild turkey. These species will
However, such groupings often overlap, be discussed in detail with respect to their
particularly where exceptions occur. For specific identification characteristics. As with
example, the trumpeter swan is a migratory the mammals, we will briefly deal with sci-
waterfowl that may not be hunted (i.e., entific classification. We also discuss briefly
"non-game"), and the band-tailed pigeon is swans, raptors, and a few other important
an upland game bird that migrates. specie, you need to be able to recognize
since they are not game species. And finally,
Also, some species of birds have had a there is a brief coverage of "designated"
change in status as a result of new knowl- Schedule "C" birds.
edge about their habits and ranges. For
example, raptors, which were once con- All hunters have a responsibility to correctly
sidered vermin, are now protected by identify their targets before they shoot. You
laws. Some birds, such as the white peli- must know which species and sex are legal
can, are endangered in B.C. (although not game and must be able to identify them
in other provinces), and are completely accurately. There are a number of character-
protected in this province. istics that you can use to distinguish one
species or sex from another.
b The Wildlife Act protects all birds found
i
r
in British Columbia, but allows some to Habitat Identification
d be hunted at certain times. The federal The identification of a species can be directly
s
Migratory Birds Convention Act estab- related to its habitat. Each type of bird
lished between Canada and the United requires a special "habitat", or a particular
States also protects most migratory birds. kind of place in which to live. The habitat
348
Conservation & Outdoor Recreation Education Bird Identification — Chapter 8
must include breeding territories, nesting another. Depending on light conditions, a

areas, brood cover, and feeding grounds. bird’s true colour may be difficult to see,
Migratory species need separate winter and but you can often use overall patterns as
summer habitats. Birds usually choose their a key to their identity, such as where on
habitats on the basis of vegetation that they the body light or dark patches occur.
use either for cover or food. Hunters must
learn which species of birds they can expect Sound
to find in different habitats. You can identify birds by the sound of
their voices or calls, which might be
Waterfowl require various types of water chirps, quacks, whistles, squeals, or soft
bodies for brood rearing and feeding. This clucking. You can sometimes identify
often depends on whether they are a div- some birds by the noise made by their
ing duck or a puddle duck, as the habitat wings when in flight (e.g. the whistling
you will find them in is chosen by what wings of goldeneyes).
they eat. Upland game birds occupy most
habitats in British Columbia, from alpine
elevations to valley bottom farmlands. Identification Techniques – Silhouettes
The area in which they live depends again
on food availability and rearing their
young. You should understand and recog-
nize the habitat for each species of bird.
Mallard
Action
Wing beats while birds are flying and dif-
ferent flocking behaviours are also useful
identification characteristics. For exam-
ple, flying mallards form long lines, and
have a slow wing beat characteristic of
dabbling ducks. Canvasbacks fly in shift- Green-winged Teal
ing, waving lines and have a fast wing
beat common to diving ducks. Snipe are
usually solitary, while many other shore-
birds are found in large flocks. Different
upland game birds will flush in a differ- Pintail
ent manner, for example, by running or
flying. These clues can help you identify
what species is coming in to land on a
body of water or what species is present
in the area of upland you are walking in.
Protected and Schedule "C" species
Colour and Shape Protected species, or non-game birds,
Bird silhouettes vary considerably. Large include all raptors (hunting/meat-eating
or small heads, broad or narrow bills or birds, such as vultures, hawks, falcons,
beaks, fat or slender bodies, and long or eagles, and owls), as well as most smaller
short tails are just some of the variations. birds found in British Columbia. There are
As lighting can often be poor for seeing a few others, such as the pelican, which b
i
colour, silhouettes can confirm a final are endangered and protected. Raptors are r
identification for you. an important part of the food chain, as d
they, along with other predators, control s
Colours are important for identifying rodents and other bird populations from
individual species that may look like one overpopulating. Raptors are protected by
349
law and must not be hunted. All other tuaries, review guide books, and ask for
native birds in British Columbia, except help from someone with good field expe-
crows, house sparrows, European starlings, rience since some bird species moult and
rock doves (domestic pigeons), brown- change colour significantly up to four
headed cowbirds, and magpies are protect- times per year. Juvenile birds, which can
ed by law year round. These exceptions be as large as adults, sometimes look
are listed in the Hunting and Trapping considerably different from their mature
Regulations Synopsis under Schedule "C" relatives. Good binoculars (or a spotting
as "designated wildlife" which are not pro- scope) are a must, as is a good field iden-
tected and will be discussed at the end of tification book. Sometimes it may not be
this chapter. possible to make a complete identifica-
tion of the bird until it is in your hand
Useful Tools but if you are hunting, it is your responsi-
As with mammal identification, it is a bility under the law to correctly identify
good idea to watch videos, visit bird sanc- what you are hunting before you shoot it.
Scientific Classification
The scientific classification of the birds in this chapter are listed briefly below. It can
be useful, as has been shown in the chapter on mammal identification, to know the
general categories of animals to help narrow down your search when you come across
an unknown bird.
Order Galliforma (gallinaceous birds)

Family Phasianidae (grouse, ptarmigan, partridges, chukars, pheasants, quails, and turkeys)
Order Columbiforma (pigeons and doves)
Family Columbidae (rock dove [domestic pigeon], band-tailed pigeon, mourning dove)
Order Anseriforma (swans, geese, and ducks)
Family Anatidae (swans, geese, and ducks)
Order Gruiforma (rails, coots, and cranes)
Family Rallidae (rails and coots)
Order Charadriiforma (shorebirds, gulls, and terns)
Family Scolopacidae (sandpipers, phalaropes, and allies, which include snipe)
Order Falconiforma (vultures, hawks, eagles, harriers, ospreys, and falcons)
Family Cathartidae (vultures)
Family Accipitradae (hawks, eagles, ospreys, harriers)
Family Falconidae (falcons)
Order Strigiforma (owls)
Family Tytonidae (barn owls)
Family Strigidae (typical owls)
b
i
r
d
s
350
b) Terminology Eclipse plumage: Most ducks shed their

There are several specialized terms used body feathers twice each year. Nearly all
when discussing birds. Some of the more adult drakes lose their bright plumage after
important terms for hunters to under- mating, and for several weeks resemble adult
stand include: females. This hen-like appearance is called
the "eclipse plumage" and it may last for a
Crop: A muscular pouch part way down few weeks to a number of months, depend-
the esophagus – primarily of grain-eating ing on the species. As some species may still
birds – which is used to temporarily store be in their eclipse plumage in hunting sea-
rapidly eaten food; sometimes an enzyme son, it is important to be familiar with what
is released in the crop to start digestion. these birds look like.
Studying the crop is useful as it can tell you
what the birds are eating and, therefore, Eclipse Plummage Sequence
where to look for more birds (e.g. grain =
cultivated fields; conifer needles = forest)
even if you have found them elsewhere.
Drake Full Eclipse
For instance, if you harvest a mallard on a
marsh but its crop is full of peas, locate the
closest pea field and that’s where the ducks
are likely feeding at dawn and dusk.
Dabbling duck: see puddle duck
Diving duck: Diving ducks are named for

their habit of feeding in water deep enough
that they need to dive for their food.
Common divers in British Columbia
include canvasback, redhead, bufflehead,
greater and lesser scaup, ring-necked duck,
ruddy duck, Barrow’s and common gold-
eneyes, plus the fish-eating ducks, the mer-
gansers, which are seldom hunted. Diving Emerging from Eclipse
ducks are typically smaller and stouter than
dabbling ducks, have shorter wings, have
their feet farther back on their bodies, and
are commonly found in large flocks on
large, deep bodies of water. When launch-
ing into flight, they usually run along the
surface of the water and, when landing,
they skate over the water surface. In flight
they have a rapid wingbeat and you may
see their feet, which they use as rudders.
When swimming, you may only see their Fall Plumage
head emerge before they dive to feed again.
They are rarely seen away from water as
the position of their feet far back on their b
i
bodies makes it awkward for them to walk r
about on land. Divers usually fly in large, d
loose flocks. When seen up close, diving s
ducks do not have the iridescent speculum

of the dabblers.
351
Gallinaceous: Most upland game birds are seeds, as well as aquatic species, so can be
"gallinaceous", or chicken-like, such as the found in farmers’ fields. When launching
grouse, quail, partridge, ptarmigan, pheas- into flight they jump straight up off the
ant, and wild turkey. They are terrestrial and surface of the water and they land more
have a crop similar to a chicken. directly onto the water. Puddle ducks gen-
erally fly in random bunches but will
Game bird: A bird that can be hunted sometimes fly in formation like geese.
according to hunting laws. They have a slower wing beat than divers
but the smaller dabblers, such as the teals,
Introduced species: These are species of will have a faster wing beat than larger
birds that were brought to North America dabblers, such as mallards. An iridescent
from another continent and introduced speculum (wing patch) is common and can
here. Examples include pheasants, gray par- often be seen from a distance. Common
tridge, and chukar partridge. They also puddle ducks in B.C. are the mallard, pin-
include birds that are native to North tail, wigeon (or baldpate), shoveller, gad-
America but not to this part of the conti- wall, wood duck, green-winged teal, blue-
nent, such as turkeys and quail. winged teal, and cinnamon teal.
Native species: include birds that originated Raptors: Raptors are commonly called "birds
in North America or came here without of prey.” Most are predatory (except the vul-
human intervention. ture which feeds on carrion), and all are
flesh-eating. They are characterized by large,
Migratory birds: Migratory species generally hooked beaks for tearing flesh and strong
live in the north in summer and move south talons (muscular feet with grasping claws) for
in the winter. The size and habitat character- holding prey. The vulture does not have as
istics of a migratory bird’s range depend on strong feet as the others since it does not kill
the species. its prey. This group includes hawks, falcons,
harriers, eagles, owls, ospreys, and vultures.
Plumage: A bird’s plumage refers to its cov-
ering of feathers. From its plumage, you can Sea ducks: Sea ducks are diving ducks that
identify a species and usually determine its spend most of their time outside of the nest-
sex and age. ing period on the sea coast. Sea ducks
include the harlequin duck, old squaw, and
Protected: Protected birds are species that the common, white-winged, and surf scoters.
are looked after by laws that at all times
prohibit shooting, destruction of nests or Shoreline and marsh birds: These birds are
eggs, and other measures to allow the birds generally waders that spend their time
to live and reproduce. between upland areas and open waters, on
muddy shorelines and in marshes. Most
Puddle duck: Also called "dabblers", pud- have long legs for their size and wide spread
dle ducks are named for the shallow water toes to support their weight in soft mud.
they frequent (puddles) and how they This group includes sandpipers, plovers,
feed. These ducks "dabble" with their beaks curlews, cranes, snipes, and coots. Coots,
on the water surface or "tip up" where the unlike the others of this group, are good
bird submerges its head and breast and its swimmers and are often found with puddle
b tail sticks up in the air. They are larger and ducks on shallow open water, but they are
i
r
more graceful looking than divers, have not ducks. Snipes are classified as shorebirds
d longer wings and neck, and their feet are but are grouped with migratory game birds,
s
located under the centre of their body, as are coots, in the hunting laws. Of the
allowing for easier walking on land. shoreline and marsh birds, only coots and
Puddle ducks eat land vegetation and snipes may be hunted in B.C.
352
Speculum: The coloured patch on the wing Waterfowl: This large group of birds
of ducks which can help in identification of includes swans, geese, and ducks.
the species. Waterfowl range in size from very small
ducks (such as the green-winged teal) to
Upland game birds: These birds include the 45 lb. (20 kg) trumpeter
gallinaceous birds, doves, and pigeons. The swans. Waterfowl are found
term "upland" simply refers to where the birds all over British Columbia
are often found and pursued as game. These and are migratory. They
birds usually have short, rounded wings; nest in British Columbia or
short, heavy bills; and heavy bodies. They further north each spring
seek cover in brush or woodlands. They stay and raise their young over
on dry ground but may live close to water. the summer, migrating
Typically these birds do not migrate but adapt south in the fall.
to seasonal changes, exceptions being the
mourning dove and band-tailed pigeon. Wetland birds: This is a grouping of migra-
Generally, males and females are easy to dif- tory game birds that includes the waterfowl
ferentiate. Males have more colourful plumage (geese, ducks, and swans) plus coots and
to attract a mate, while the female’s plumage snipe. They are under the jurisdiction of the
blends in with the background as camouflage. federal government for hunting regulations.
PART II.
RESIDENT UPLAND GAME BIRDS
Resident upland game birds include the wing feathers through their first winter while
gallinaceous, or chicken-like birds (i.e., adults have round tipped outer wing
grouse, quail, partridge, ptarmigan, feathers. In general, gallinaceous birds have
pheasant, and turkey). They are covered by short, rounded wings adapted for short
provincial hunting regulations. Two other flights and strong legs well suited to running.
upland species, which are not considered They are very adept at hiding in cover.
gallinaceous, are the band-tailed pigeon and Grouse are subject to a poorly understood
the mourning dove. They are migratory and population cycle, which can be very
have been grouped with the other pronounced and occur over a period of years.
migratory birds (waterfowl and other Successful breeding of the ground-nesting
wetland species) in this book since they are species is dependent on adequate, but not
covered by federal hunting regulations. The too much precipitation, and temperature. If
term "upland" simply refers to where these there is too little moisture, eggs will rot, too
birds are often found and pursued as game. much and the chicks can drown or be chilled
and die, and if it is too cold when the eggs
Gallinaceous birds of several species and are incubated or the young are still in the
forms occur throughout British Columbia. nest, survival rates can drop. Both ptarmigan
The young of all these, except the ring- and grouse will burrow into snowdrifts for
necked pheasant, retain the pointed outer protection from extreme cold.
Resident upland game birds

b
i
Order Galliforma (gallinaceous birds) r
Family Phasianidae (grouse, ptarmigan, partridges, chukars, pheasants, quails, and turkeys) d
Family traits: ground-dwellers; feathered nostrils; short, strong bills; short, rounded s
wings; brief but strong flight. Males often perform elaborate mating displays.
353
UPLAND
GAME BIRDS
Legs and feet, includ-

Tail feathers pointed,
ing toes, completely Legs feathered
not blunt.
feathered.
Feet and toes not Tail evenly fan-shaped,

Legs scaly, not
feathered, or toes feathers blunt,
feathered
lightly feathered. square tipped.
Introduced
Upland Bird
Ptarmigan
Native Grouse
b
i
r
d
s
354
Ptarmigan
Middle two tail feath-

ers noticeably longer Sharp-tailed
and darker than the Grouse
rest of the tail.
Ruffed Grouse
Tail, when spread, shows Tail feathers dark,

a continuous wide dark tipped with rusty
band edged front and
brown. Red wattle
Spruce Grouse
back with gray; promi-
nent dark neck ruffs. over the eye.
Tail feathers dark, either

entirely or with gray
Not as above.
terminal band. Yellow
Blue Grouse
wattle over the eye.
Centre tail feathers

long, barred and
Ring-necked
pointed.
Pheasant
Smaller grayish bird,

short tail, brown Gray Partridge
feathers on breast.
Grayish bird with b

i
black ‘v’-shaped bib,
white belly with black
Chukar r
d
s
barred sides.
355
Winter plumage
White-tailed ptarmigan
camouflage. The summer plumage for all

WILLOW, ROCK,
three species is a mixture of blacks,
WHITE-TAILED PTARMIGAN
browns, and a small amount of white,
Scientific name: Lagopus spp.
generally on the belly and the wings, and
Size: length: 12-1/2 to 15 in. (32 to 38 cm)
the tail is either spotted or solid white.
weight: to about 2 lb. (1 kg)
Fall plumage is similar but muted. All
three species have a red "comb" above the
a) Ptarmigan eye, which can be concealed or inflated
There are three species of ptarmigan during courtship and aggressive
(willow, rock, and white-tailed) in British behaviour. The female of each species is
Columbia and the following text generally very similar. In winter both sexes of all
applies to all three. species are solid white. To tell the species
apart in winter, the willow ptarmigan
Description: Ptarmigan are stout, short- (Lagopus lagopus) has black tail feathers
b tailed birds that have white patches on with white tips, the rock ptarmigan
i
r
the wings and characteristic heavy, (Lagopus mutus) has black tail feathers and
d feathered feet. They moult three times a a black line that extends from the bill to
s
year and their winter plumage is very behind the eye, and the white-tailed
different from the summer or fall ptarmigan (Lagopus leucurus) has white
plumage, but all are remarkably effective tail feathers but the bill and eye are black.
356
General comments: Ptarmigan inhabit high All species of ptarmigan are monogamous,
alpine habitat and tundra areas. In summer that is, the male will stay with one female
they eat plants, insects, snails, berries, and during the breeding season until the young
seeds, and in winter they switch to moss, can manage on their own. This is in
lichen, willow and alder buds, and conifer contrast to grouse, which are polygamous.
needles. Ptarmigan are remarkably tame. They During the breeding season, ptarmigan
do not flush with a flurry when frightened, stay in family groups but in late summer
like grouse do, but, if pushed, will try to run they will start to congregate in larger
from the danger. They all have similar calls of groups to move to more favourable winter
"ca-out-ca-out", "kow-kow-kow", "do-ack", habitat (although these birds are not
"kerr-ky-kerr" or a series of soft clucks and considered migratory). In winter, the
squeals. Nests are built on the ground from a willow ptarmigan seeks the shelter of
scraped out hollow lined with leaves and grass. willow groves south of its summer range.
Willow ptarmigan are the largest, followed by The rock ptarmigan also moves somewhat
rock, and with white-tailed the smallest. south and will drop down in altitude to
Willow and rock ptarmigan live in the north more sheltered areas. The white-tailed
of the province and white-tailed in alpine ptarmigan migrates less and tends to stay
tundra areas further south. in the alpine.
b) Grouse
Grouse are small, chicken-like birds, with a lower elevations in mixed forests or open
round body and small head. They are land, blue grouse occupy conifer forests at
generally a dull brown or gray colour. Seeds, many elevations although they nest low
grasses, and conifer needles make up the and move to high elevations in winter.
main diet and they may roost in trees. They Spruce grouse are found in heavy conifer
tend to have feathered legs and lightly forests dominated by spruce generally at
feathered feet, unlike the ptarmigan, which higher elevations, while ptarmigan occupy
have heavily feathered feet. The sexes appear the alpine tundra. Grouse are polygamous,
similar but there may be slight differences. that is, the male will mate with a number
There are four species in B.C.: the spruce of females during the breeding season and
grouse, blue grouse, ruffed grouse, and the hen raises the chicks alone. All grouse
sharp-tailed grouse. Grouse are generally and ptarmigan are ground-nesters and the
found in or near coniferous forests. As nest is usually a shallow depression scraped
shown in the generalized habitat map, out of the soil and lined with grasses and
sharp-tailed grouse live in open parklands leaves. Sometimes it will be under some
at low elevations, ruffed grouse occur at type of protection.
Ptarmigan
Grouse and their habitat Spruce

(general) Blue
Ruffed Grouse Pheasants b

Gray Partridge
Quail Sharptail Blue i
Ruffed r
Chukar Barrens d
s
High forest
Farm land Conifer Forest mountain regions.
Bad lands
Park land Mixed forest Dense conifer forest
357
SPRUCE GROUSE ("FOOL HEN")

Scientific name: Dendragapus canadensis
Size: length: 16 in. (40 cm)
weight: 3/4 to 1-1/2 lb. (1/3 to 3/4 kg)
Description: The spruce grouse is a General comments: The voice of a spruce

medium-sized bird with two "types" in grouse is commonly a series of peeping
B.C. – the Hudsonian and the Franklin’s. clucks, but during courtship the males
Males have a gray back, head, neck, and produce a low, guttural whining series of
shoulders with black bars; the throat, notes. The male also performs a distinctive
chest, and belly are black with white bars; "flutter flight" either from a tree or by
and the flanks are streaked with white and jumping into the air from the ground. While
brown. The male also has a reddish fleshy in the air they make a drumming sound
"comb" over the eye (most obvious during with their wings. They feed on a variety of
breeding season), which is missing in the plants and insects when available but prefer
female. The female is blackish above, a diet of buds and needles of conifers during
brownish below with a lot of black, white, all seasons. Spruce grouse nest and spend
and reddy brown mottling. Females can be the winter in open coniferous forests with
difficult to distinguish from a female blue dense undergrowth at high elevation
grouse; however, spruce grouse generally throughout B.C., with the exception of the
b have a more rusty-tipped tail than do blue coast and the Coast Mountains. These
i
r
grouse. You can tell the two types of grouse often show little or no fear of man,
d spruce grouse apart because, although which has led to the name "fool hen.”
s
both have a very dark to black tail, the When flushed, the bird may fly to a nearby
Hudsonian has a rusty tail band and the tree and roost in spite of considerable
Franklin’s does not. disturbance on the ground below it.
358
BLUE GROUSE ("BLUES")

Scientific name: Dendragapus obscurus
Size: length: 21 to 22 in. (53 to 56 cm)
Description: These birds, the largest of the weight: to 4 lb. (1-3/4 kg)
grouse, have two "types" – the "sooty" of
the coast and the "dusky" of the interior.
Males are mottled grayish-blue birds with series of clucks except during the spring
mottled brown wings, two yellow air sacs mating season when males make a loud
on the side of the neck (seen when "hooting" sound, which is amplified by
inflated during breeding season) and a the air sac. The summer diet is insects,
fleshy, yellow "comb" over the eye (most berries, tender plants, and seeds. Blue
obvious also during breeding season). Legs grouse nest in open woodlands at lower
and feet are covered in gray feathers. elevations but migrate to higher
Females are mottled brown above, gray elevations for winter where they feed on
below, and lack the yellow comb and air needles and buds of conifers. Males move
sac. Both male and female have a dark tail. earlier, when the females are beginning to
Males of the two types of blues commonly nest. As adults they show little fear of
identified in B.C. may be distinguished man while roosting in a tree, or while on
from each other by the presence of a gray the ground during the nesting period. If b
i
tail band in the "sooty" and its absence in they are flushed, they take off with rapid r
the "dusky.” wing beats then glide down to a nearby d
tree. When in the higher forests, they will s
General comments: The voice of the blue generally be found close to water and
grouse is typically a soft chicken-like there may be many in the area.
359
female
male
Dot configuration
on rump feathers
RUFFED GROUSE pump" noise by rapidly vibrating its open

Scientific name: Bonasa umbellus wings, usually from on top of a log or rock
Size: length: 17 in. (43 cm) that gives it a good view of the
weight: 1 to 2 lb. (1/2 to 1 kg) surroundings. He also raises his crest and
ruff. The genus name, Bonasa, means bison,
Description: Both males and females can be perhaps for its drumming, which can sound
either reddish or grayish mottled brown like stampeding bison. The species name,
colour, but they always have a fan-shaped umbellus, means umbrella from the way the
tail with a number of parallel, narrow, black male raises its neck ruff. If discovered on the
bands across a lighter background, and a nest, the female will use the "broken wing"
single wide black band near the tip. Both trick to try to lure the danger away from her
sexes have a crest on their head that they young. During the summer, ruffed grouse
can raise or lower. A line of light brown runs stay in family groups but in winter fairly
from the bill to beyond the back edge of the large flocks will gather together.
eye. The male has a prominent black "ruff" Ruffed grouse occupy mixed decidu-
on each side of the neck. In the female the ous/coniferous forest and shrub areas
centre two tail feathers lack the broad, black throughout the province but they are
band near the tip. most abundant in mixed, mainly decidu-
ous growth. During spring and summer
b General comments: Ruffed grouse are the they eat green shoots and leaves, insects,
i
r
most abundant and wide spread grouse in and berries. In winter the diet switches to
d British Columbia. Their call is a series of seeds and buds of deciduous trees.
s
"squawks", "peeps", and "clucks" in both Generally, ruffed grouse are wary birds
sexes. During courtship the male makes a and they usually flush with an explosive
"whump-whump-whump-pump-pump- burst of speed.
360
Crown
feathers
Tail feathers
cross barred
(female)
Crown
feathers
Description: Three sub-species have
Longitudinal Striping (male)
been described in British Columbia but they
do not differ by features which are easily
recognizable in the field. Sharptails are SHARP-TAILED GROUSE
heavily barred with dark brown, cinnamon Scientific name: Tympanuchus phasianellus
and buff and have prominent white tips on Size: length: 17 to 20 in. (43 to 51 cm)
their body feathers; underparts have weight: up to 2 lb. (1 kg)
distinctive V-shaped dark brown markings on
a buff or white background. They have collect in large flocks where there is brush for
pointed, white-edged tails with dark bands on cover and food and good grass, and
the brown centre feathers. The tail is often sometimes near harvested fields where
held erect, a very distinctive trait. Both sexes spilled grain is easily available. In spring the
have a small head crest which can be erected. flocks break up for breeding season.
The male has a small yellow "comb" over the The voice is often a low, mellow "koot"
eye and purplish sacs on either side of the or pigeon-like "coo-oo" but it may also be a
neck, which are inflated during courtship series of low chicken-like "clucks" and
squeals. On the "dancing" ground, an
General comments: Sharp-tailed grouse are open, grassy area used every year, males
not abundant in B.C., except in the parklands will perform to attract females. The males
of the Peace River region and the grasslands display by bending forward with their
of the central and southern interior. They are wings stiffly held half open, rapidly stamp-
not a forest or mountain bird. Isolated ing their feet to make a drumming sound,
populations occur in the Kootenays and expanding their air sacs and "booming",
Prince George area and a few have been fanning their tails vertically, and rapidly
recorded near Atlin on the British Columbia- shaking their wings to create a rattling
Yukon border. Sharptails occupy grasslands noise. There can be up to 25 males on the b
i
with brush cover, or open woodland; they same dancing ground and the activity nor- r
cannot survive in cultivated fields. They eat a mally happens at sunrise and late after- d
variety of plants and insects and, in winter, noon. When startled, sharptails burst from s
they concentrate on seeds, berries, and buds cover with a loud whir of wings, flying
of deciduous trees or shrubs. In fall they straight away and periodically "sailing.”
361
c) Introduced species of turkeys, they migrated across the

There have been many attempts to border into the Kootenays, and gray
establish non-native game birds in B.C. partridge into the southern Okanagan,
Most have been unsuccessful but a few from successful human-introduced flocks
have been very successful. In the case of south of the border. All the species
wild turkeys and gray partridge, in certain covered in this section are gallinaceous
areas the species actually successfully birds (pheasant, gray partridge, chukar,
introduced themselves to B.C. In the case quail, and wild turkey).
Source: NWTF
b
i
r
d
s
362
Description: The male is a spectacularly

colourful bird with characteristic dark,
iridescent green head, white neck ring, RING-NECKED PHEASANT
and red eye and red fleshy areas on the Scientific name: Phasianus colchicus
face. The sides are goldy buff spotted with Size: length: male 33 in. (84 cm);
black, rump patch is bluish, the back is female 21 in. (53 cm)
rusty and spotted with black and beige, weight: 2 to 3 lb. (1 to 1-1/3 kg)
the breast is bronze and the belly is black.
They have a very long, brown tail with brood per female is raised although another is
many irregular cross bars. Hens are smaller laid if the first brood fails). In fall the females
and are mottled brown, darker above and collect in large flocks for the winter. Cocks
lighter below. Hens have a shorter tail tend to be relatively solitary in winter and
than the male (cock) but much longer stay close to their harems in summer.
than a sharp-tailed grouse and they don’t Pheasants do not migrate, but they will move
hold it up like this grouse. They are also to areas of better cover for the winter.
larger than sharp-tailed grouse. Cocks Preferred habitat is cultivated land (par-
have a noticeable sharp spur on the lower ticularly grain fields), rich soil, and suitable
rear inside of their legs which they use for shrubby, hedgerow cover. They eat a wide
fighting. Hens have smaller spurs. variety of green plants, insects, weed and
grain seeds, and larvae. During the winter
General comments: Although other species their diet is mostly waste grain and other
of pheasants are becoming established, seeds and fruit. When flushed, they burst
especially on Vancouver Island and the Gulf into the air with a flurry of whirring wings
Islands, the ring-necked is still the most often accompanied by loud "cock-cock-cock-
common species to be seen or hunted. The cock" call. They may also run from an
ring-necked pheasant originally came from approaching human. Unlike grouse, pheas-
mainland Asia. Its voice is a loud "screech", ants will not burrow into snowdrifts for pro-
"squawk", "cock-cock-cock", or a screechy tection and they can be susceptible to very
crow sound. They also produce a wide cold weather if they don’t have adequate
variety of "clucks" and "peeps" similar to cover and food. They are found on southern
chickens. Pheasants are polygamous with Vancouver Island, most of the Gulf Islands, b
i
the male setting up a "crowing territory" to the Fraser Valley, the Fraser Canyon south of r
attract females into a small harem. Crowing Dog Creek, the Kamloops area, the d
generally occurs around dawn and dusk. In Okanagan, and the West Kootenays. They s
summer they live in family groups but the are also widely farmed.
females raise the chicks alone (only one
363
Detail of Scapular Feathers
Female Male
GRAY PARTRIDGE
Scientific name: Perdix perdix metallic sounding. "Huns" normally are
Size: length: 12 to 14 in. (30 to 35 cm) found in groups of 6 to 15 birds except
weight: 14 oz. (400 gm) during the breeding season. The male is
monogamous and, although it does not
help with incubating, it does help raise the
Description: Gray partridges are grayish- young. The nest is generally concealed in
brown with a rusty face and throat. The grass. When a flock is alarmed, the group
flanks are barred with cinnamon and the may explode from cover and fly in all
short, brown tail feathers are obvious and directions but they generally don’t go far.
distinctive in flight. Cocks have a solid Occasionally they may escape by running
brown horseshoe marking on their belly. through the stubble rather than taking
Hens and juveniles have a similar mark flight. Their colouring is excellent
but it is less distinct. camouflage for their chosen habitat.
Gray partridge are found in cultivated
General comments: Gray partridges (also areas and grasslands where they feed on
known as Hungarian partridge or "huns") insects, waste grain, weed and grass seeds,
are an introduced species from central and green vegetation. They are very
b Europe, although they arrived in B.C. by hardy and in winter they burrow into
i
r
migrating across the border into the snowdrifts for protection and to find
d southern Okanagan Valley from successful food. In difficult years huns can live on
s
introductions in the early 1900s in buds of shrubs and trees above the snow.
Washington. Their voice is a hoarse "kee- They are found only in the dry grasslands
ah" and the alarm note is loud and of British Columbia’s southern interior.
364

CHUKAR
Description: Both sexes are coloured alike Scientific name: Alectoris chukar
and are easy to recognize. The chukar is Size: length: 12 to 14 in. (30 to 35 cm)
gray-brown above with bold black bars on weight: 1-1/4 lb. (1/2 kg)
its white flanks. A black bar runs from
above the bill, across the cheeks, over the incubate or raise the young. If a brood is
eyes, then swings down to form a bib on unsuccessful, the female will lay another
the chest. The chin and lower cheeks clutch. Once the young are hatched, a
(below the black bar) are white to buff. number of family groups will band
Bill, legs, and feet are red. together into small flocks centred around a
water source.
General comments: Chukar (sometimes Chukars occupy dry grasslands or
called chukar partridge) are an introduced desert areas with shrub cover and favour
species native to southern Eurasia. They steep, broken slopes for escape terrain and
were introduced into the Okanagan and sunning. They do not need cultivated
Thompson valleys in the 1850s and have farmland to thrive but, since they are
done very well. Their call is a loud "chukar" ground-feeders and do not eat shrub or
or a repetitive "chuk-chuk-chukar-chukar.” tree buds, in times of heavy snow they
They are very vocal, particularly when may starve. In winter they concentrate
disturbed and when separated from their around river breaks, railways, and farm-
flock. When flushed they fly extremely fast lands near easily available food sources. In
but they often run away rather than flying. summer they eat green plants and insects, b
i
When running, it is always uphill; they but concentrate on grass and weed seeds r
can flush in every direction but will turn and berries in winter. Chukar are found in d
and always fly downhill. In early spring the Fraser Canyon, the Kamloops-Savona s
the flocks split up as mating begins. The area of the Thompson Valley, the Gulf
male is monogamous but they do not help Islands, and the south Okanagan.
365
Mountain Quail
Scaled Quail

Valley Quail
QUAIL Gambel’s Quail Mearn’s Quail

Scientific name:Callipepla californica (California quail)
Oreortyx pictus (mountain quail) the flock starts to break up for breeding.
Size: length: 10 to 11 in. (25 to 28 cm) Males are monogamous and, although
weight: 7 to 9 oz. (200 to 255 gm) they do not help with incubation, they do
help raise the young. Mountain quail will
Description: There are two species of quail move to higher elevations during breeding
in B.C. – the mountain and the California season and return to lower levels in fall
quail. The mountain quail is slightly larger where they may overlap with California
than the California quail but they are easy quail. Quail do not like to flush and will
to tell apart. Both species are short-necked run for some distance. If forced to flush,
and short-tailed brown and gray-blue birds they will fly in a flurry in all directions
with a distinctive head plume (in both and will run again when they land.
sexes), forward-curving in the California Quail eat insects, berries, weed and
quail and straight and upright or tilted back grass seeds, and green plants. In winter
in the mountain quail. Males have distinct they eat shoots, buds, fruit, and seeds. As
facial patterns while females do not. The both species are ground-feeders, heavy
male California has a black throat outlined snow can severely impact populations
in white, a white stripe across its forehead, and dense, protective cover is necessary
the chest appears to have large, black-edged, for their survival. They occupy dryland
white "scales", and the belly has a chestnut scrub and farmland hedgerows. The
patch. The male mountain quail has a mountain quail chooses higher elevations
chestnut throat outlined in white, no than the California quail, which is some-
forehead stripe, the chest is times called the valley quail. Another way
solid gray, and the sides are chestnut with to tell the California quail apart is that it
bold, white bars. Distribution can also help roosts in trees while other quail do not.
with identification. California quail are found on southeast-
b ern Vancouver Island, the Gulf Islands,
i
r
General comments: Quail have a three- and in the Okanagan while mountain
d noted call "qua-quer-yo", a soft peep, a low quail are only found on southeastern
s
whistle, various clucks, and a loud Vancouver Island.
"querk.” In winter, flocks gather and can Note: there is no open hunting season
number up to 100 birds or more. In spring on mountain quail.
366
Gobbler
Hen
WILD TURKEY
Scientific name: Meleagris gallopavo
weight: 17 to 28 lb. (7-3/4 to 12-3/4 kg)
Description: The wild turkey is the largest from introductions in the northern
game bird in North America and looks very states. Turkeys have a distinctive gobble
similar to the domestic species, but a bit and they also chirp. They inhabit open
smaller. Both sexes are dark with naked forests that provide them with big trees
heads. The tom (male) is iridescent to roost in, shelter, good water, and open
brownish black, the wings have brown and feeding areas. For nesting and brood
black bars and the long tail has a wide black raising, they move to the forest edge into
bar near the end. The naked head of the high grass cover since they are a ground-
male is blue and red, it has folds of red skin nesting bird. In winter they choose
(wattles) under the chin, wart-like denser cover. In the mountains they are
"caruncles" on the neck and a finger-shaped at higher elevations in the spring and
"snood" hanging over one side of the beak. summer then move downhill for the fall
They also have a tuft (beard) of hair-like and winter. In winter birds will form
feathers on their chest. The older a tom is, flocks, and the makup of the flocks can
the longer its beard. There is a spur on the vary from all young, just one sex, or a
lower leg that is used for fighting. The hen mixture of all ages and sexes. These flocks
is smaller and browner than the tom and start to break up in spring for the
does not have the distinctive head breeding season. The male is polygamous
decorations that the tom has. and is not involved in raising the young.
It has been said that a turkey "will eat b
i
General comments: Turkeys have been anything that hasn’t eaten him first.” r
introduced to southern Vancouver Island, Although this is an exaggeration, it d
the southern Gulf Islands, the north points out the turkey’s varied s
Okanagan Valley, and the population in omnivorous diet of seeds, fruit, green
the Kootenays migrated north into B.C. plants, frogs, lizards, insects, and snails.
367
PART I & II
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Define the word "game bird". __________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
2. List the nine groups or types of common game birds found in British Columbia.
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
3. What is the difference in wing beat comparing a diving to a dabbling duck?

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
4. List three types of Ptarmigan found in British Columbia. ________________________

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
5. List the four types of grouse found in British Columbia.

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
6. Which is the largest grouse found in British Columbia. __________________________

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
b
i
r
d
s
368
7. Which is the most abundant grouse found in British Columbia. __________________

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
8. Which sex of the ring-necked pheasant is the most colourful? ____________________

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
9. Is there a open season on mountain quail? ______________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
10. What is the name given to a male Turkey? ____________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
b
i
r
d
s
369
PART III.
MIGRATORY GAME BIRDS
Migratory game birds in B.C. are covered swans are all waterfowl and have
by federal hunting regulations. They characteristics in common even though
include the "wetland" migratory birds they can vary considerably in size and
which takes in waterfowl (ducks and geese) habits. Waterfowl have webbed feet,
and two species of marsh and shorebirds similar feathering, and bills of similar
(coots and snipe), and the "upland" shape. The bill is long, generally
migratory birds, which are two species of flattened, and often has ridges for
native doves and pigeons (band-tailed filtering food from water.
pigeon and mourning dove). The
following gives a brief overview of the There are two species among the many
scientific classifications of birds in the that make up the marsh and shorebird
migratory game bird group although it is families that can be hunted in B.C.: the
important to note that not all of the birds snipe and the coot. The coot is a good
in these groups may be hunted. swimmer and is often found amongst
ducks but is not a duck. The snipe is not
a) Wetland migratory game birds a true upland or water bird as it lives in
Waterfowl live a significant time of their marshy areas beside water and it may be
lives on the water. Ducks, geese, and found wading but not swimming.
Wetland migratory game birds
Order Anseriforma (swans, geese, and ducks)

Family Anatidae (swans, geese, and ducks)
Family traits: aquatic; web-footed; form flocks; feed mostly on the water although
some dabblers, swans, and geese eat on land also.

Family traits: Marsh birds with short tails and short, rounded wings; wide spread toes
for walking on soft mud or vegetation.

Family Scolopacidae (sandpipers, phalaropes, and allies, which includes snipe)
Family traits: Shorebirds; flocks rise in unison, wheel, and settle back on shore; many
species look alike; long bills for probing mud and pools for food; toes wide spread for
walking on soft surfaces. Snipe are different because they are solitary.
Upland migratory game birds

b Order Columbiforma (pigeons and doves)
i
r
Family Columbidae (mourning dove, band-tailed pigeon, and rock dove
d [domestic pigeon])
s
Family traits: plump body; small, bobbing head; strong, fast fliers. Larger species
called pigeons, smaller called doves.
370
SWANS
Swans might be mistaken for geese except apart. Swans also have a distinctive call,
for their coloration and size. They are the either a "trumpet" sound or a "whistling"
largest waterfowl to visit or live in B.C., call, which can distinguish them from
reaching up to 5 ft. (1-1/2 m) in length geese. Trumpeter swans (Cygnus
and 45 lb. (20 kg). They are much larger buccinator) nest in northeastern British
than geese and can be distinguished from Columbia and winter of southeastern
geese in both flight and on the ground by Vancouver Island, while tundra swans
their large bodies and very long necks. (Cygnus columbianus) nest further north.
Although their snowy white colouring is The mute swan (Cygnus olor) is an
similar to snow geese, the size of body introduced species and is rare. There is
and length of neck will easily set them no season on swans in B.C.
GEESE
Geese are generally larger and plumper the young. If one of a pair of geese dies, the
than most ducks. They have drab survivor will usually find a new mate.
coloration, they have no eclipse plumage, Geese are normally found on or near the
and both sexes are identical. Geese have water, although they may fly some
long necks in relation to their size but not distance to a good feeding area (for
as long as swans. In flight geese tend to example, a harvested pea field where there
form a recognizable "V" or "string" pattern, are many peas still on the ground) but they
and they have a slower wing beat than will not stay there. There are five types of b
i
ducks. Most species of ducks mature by geese in B.C.: the Canada goose, snow r
their first spring, while geese take two years goose, Ross’ goose, white-fronted goose, d
or more before reaching maturity. Geese and black brant. Canada geese can be s
usually mate for life, and both the gander found along the coast and in the interior;
(male) and the goose (female) help to rear other geese tend to stay on the coast.
371
CANADA GOOSE
Scientific name: Branta canadensis
weight: 4 to 18 lb. (2 to 8 kg)
Description: Canada geese have black geese in British Columbia, Washington,

heads and necks, white cheek patches, Idaho, and Oregon.
brown bodies, and white bellies. They are
easy to tell from any other species but it is General comments: Also known as
hard to distinguish between the different "Canadas", these geese are among the
races of Canada geese. There are at least best known and most appreciated
seven "types" or races of Canada geese that waterfowl in North America. Canada
occur in B.C. The smallest race is about 4 geese occur in all parts of B.C., nesting on
lb. (2 kg), nests in Alaska, Yukon, and the lakes, rivers, bogs, and marshes, and
Northwest Territories and migrates sometimes on muskrat or beaver lodges.
through the interior and along the coast. Migrating flocks are particularly
Unlike the larger Canada geese, these birds noticeable as they fly in a "V" and
b do not "honk" but rather "bark" or "cackle.” constantly vocalize with a distinctive
i
r
The largest race is up to 18 lb. (8 kg), nests honk. Canada geese occur from the most
d mainly on the coast and throughout the remote alpine lakes to the most accessible
s
southern half of the interior. Larger urban parks. Many spend the winter on
Canada geese migrate the shortest distance our coast and in interior valleys where
and they spend the winter with northern food and water remain available.
372
SNOW GOOSE
Scientific name: Chen caerulescens
weight: 6-1/2 to 7-1/2 lb. (3 to 3-1/2 kg)
Description: Snow geese are all white California, and up to 20,000 birds spend
with distinctive black wing tips. They have the winter on the Fraser River Delta. Other
pink feet and pink bills tipped with white flocks of up to several thousand birds
and a distinctive black "grinning patch" on migrate from Arctic Canada through the
the bottom bill. There is also a rusty interior of British Columbia enroute to
coloured tint to the head and face. wintering grounds on the coast of Oregon
and California. In flight, they form the b
i
General comments: Snow geese (often typical "V" pattern of geese and their black r
called "snowies") breed on the Arctic coast wing tips can be easily distinguished from d
of North America and Russia. Large flocks their bright white bodies. They also s
commonly migrate down the outside constantly vocalize with a distinctive

coast of Vancouver Island enroute to shrill "honk" or falsetto call as they fly.
373

ROSS’ GOOSE
Scientific name: Chen rossii
weight: 2-1/2 to 5 lb. (1 to 2 kg)
Description: The Ross’ goose is the The easiest way to tell them apart from a
smallest of the geese (often no larger than distance is the size.
a duck) and is similar to the snow goose,
b which it is often found with. Although General comments: Ross’ geese breed
i
r
very similar in colour, it has a shorter neck alongside snow geese in the Arctic and
d and rounder head without the rusty hue occasionally hybridize with them. Both
s
typical of the snow goose. Its stubby, species commonly migrate together. In
triangular bill does not have a grinning flight it is more agile and has a faster wing
patch and has a warty, dark-coloured base. beat than snowies.
374
WHITE-FRONTED GOOSE
Scientific name: Anser albifrons
Description: This medium-sized goose weight: 6-1/4 lb. (2.8 kg)
(also called "specklebelly" or "white-front")
has distinctive white markings around the
bill. The body of the bird is brownish on General comments: This Arctic-nesting
the head and back, and darkly mottled on bird regularly migrates in large numbers
the chest and belly. Their feet are orange. along the coast of British Columbia, but
The entire back edge of the wing is very few stop or stay long. In western North
dark, in contrast with the snow goose America most "white-fronts" winter in
which has only a black tip. Although the Washington, Oregon, and California, and
"blue" phase of the snow goose does not only a few remain in the Fraser Valley or
generally occur in B.C., an immature on the coast of Vancouver Island. In some b
i
white-fronted goose can look similar to it. years, due to bad weather or tired young, r
(If you are visiting the prairies this is a these geese are forced to stop in large d
good thing to remember). The bill on a numbers in major waterfowl areas such as s
mature bird is pinkish while on an Cape Scott and Tofino, on Vancouver

immature bird it is yellowish. Island, and in the Fraser Valley.
375

Atlantic Brant Black Brant
BLACK BRANT
Scientific name: Branta bernicla
weight: 3-1/4 to 3-3/4 lb. (1-1/2 to 1-3/4 kg)
General comments: The black brant is
sometimes called the "sea goose" as it is
Description: The black brant has a black almost always seen in saltwater areas. A few
head and neck, similar to a Canada goose, black brant winter on the coast of B.C.,
but it has a white collar, in contrast to the from the Queen Charlotte Islands to the
Canada’s white cheek patches. It is also southern end of Vancouver Island. The total
smaller, although similar in size to the Pacific population of about 150,000
smallest of the Canada goose races. In regularly moves along our coast between
general, it will not be difficult to tell the the preferred wintering grounds of
b difference between the two geese. The northwestern Mexico and their northern
i
r
body is dark with a white belly and white nesting grounds. Beginning in late March
d outer tail. Another distinctive feature is large numbers of black brant are easily seen
s
their flight which is close to the water and along the south coast, notably in Boundary
fast, with rapid wing beats. The Canada Bay and along southeast Vancouver Island
goose does not fly like this. from Sooke to Campbell River.
376
DUCKS
Diving Duck Dabbling or Puddle Duck

Characteristics Characteristics
Generally have metallic speculum
Usually swim with tail Usually swim with tail

close to water. held clear of water.
Legs set near rear of body. Legs near centre of body.
Typical Flock Formation
b
i
r
d
s
Diving Ducks — Most Puddle Ducks —
Loose Formation Lines of Loose “V”
377
Key Points – Diving Ducks
• Patter along surface to get airborne

• Skate along surface to land
• Dive completely underwater to feed
• Hind toe lobed
• Duller colour, no bright speculum
• Fast wing beat due to short wings
• Stouter body, shorter neck
• Rarely away from water
• Bill usually short and broad
• Foot larger, legs set near rear of body
• Live on deeper, larger water
• Usually swim with tail close to water
• Flock formation loose
Patter along surface for some

distance to takeoff.
Dive completely underwater to feed.
Hind toe lobed.
b
i
r
d
s
378
Key Points – Dabbling Ducks
• Spring into the air on takeoff

• Land more directly on water
• Tip up to feed
• Hind toe not lobed
• Drake usually brightly coloured
• Brightly coloured speculum
• Slower wing beat due to longer wings
• Slimmer body, longer neck
• Often found on land
• Bill longer and narrower
• Foot smaller, legs near centre of body
• Live in shallower water
• Usually swim with tail held clear of water
• Flocks often in loose V
Spring into air on takeoff.
Tip up to feed, rarely dive. Smaller foot than in b

diving ducks. Hind i
r
toe not lobed.
d
s
379
PUDDLE OR DABBLING DUCKS longish and narrower for their length than
Puddle, or dabbling, ducks usually divers’ bills and a dabbler’s hind toe is not
frequent shallow freshwater marshes, lobed, while the diver has a lobed hind toe.
ponds ("puddles") and river edges rather The coloured wing patch, called the
than large lakes and bays. They usually "speculum", is generally iridescent and
feed by "dabbling" with their bills on the bright, unlike on the divers where it is a
surface, or by "tipping up" and ducking much duller colour. The speculum is often
their heads to grasp food in shallow water. a distinctive mark for field identification.
They may fly in formation like geese or in Many waterbirds such as loons, grebes,
looser, smaller groups. These birds cormorants, and alcids (auks and puffins)
generally have a more graceful shape, resemble ducks while on the water or in
longer wings and neck, and fly with a flight. Be certain of your identification.
slower wing beat than most of the divers.
They take off and land more directly from Common puddle ducks in British
the water than do divers because, since Columbia include the mallard, pintail,
they live on shallow water closely wigeon (or baldpate), shoveller, gadwall,
surrounded by vegetation and upland wood duck, green-winged teal, blue-
areas, there is more chance of being caught winged teal and cinnamon teal.
by a predator so it is an advantage to be
able to leap straight into the air. Dabblers’
legs are set closer to the centre of their
bodies than are the legs of divers and,
therefore, they can walk and run on land
easily. Because of this, dabblers are
sometimes found feeding on croplands.
They are often considered to have a much
milder flavour than the diving ducks due
to their vegetarian diet and are therefore
popular game birds.
It is easier to tell the difference between

the male and female dabbler than the male
and female diver because the male is often
brightly coloured and the female is much
more muted or generally brownish.
However, during the fall, drakes (males)
may be in eclipse plumage and look more
like the females, so it is important not to
ignore this colour phase when you are
learning to identify the different species.
Dabblers also ride high on the water and
their tails are held clear of the water, unlike
the divers, which point their short tails
down into the water. Dabblers’ bills are
b
i
r
d
s
380
MALLARD
Scientific name: Anas platyrhynchos
weight: about 3 lb. (1-1/4 kg)
Male – this duck is distinctively coloured with yellow bill,

orange-red feet, green head, chestnut chest, grayish back and
belly, and dark green tail with several short upcurled centre
feathers. The speculum is metallic purple-blue bordered above
and below by white bars. Their call is a low, reedy squeak or a
guttural chatter.
Female – brown, dark streaked bird with buffy coloured chin and
throat, dull orange bill with black blotches and orange feet. Their
call is a loud a quack.
The mallard nests in grass, under shrubs, in marshes, in abandoned

hawk nests near water and in tree cavities or stumps throughout
B.C. It is a particularly common nesting bird in the southern interior
and during migration it is one of the most common and abundant
ducks, concentrating in large numbers along coastal marshes and
valley marshes of the southern interior. Many mallards winter on the coast and in the
interior of B.C. where food and water are available but some migrate to wintering
grounds throughout the western United States and to southern Mexico.
NORTHERN PINTAIL
Scientific name: Anas acuta
weight: about 2-1/2 lb. (1 kg)
Male – the thin white (front) and brown (back) neck

and long, pointed tail are distinctive. The wing patch
(speculum) is metallic bronze-green with a buff
coloured bar above and white below. Their call is a
short, mellow whistle, mewing notes (courtship) or
loud "quaw quaw" (alarm).
Female – the female is smaller than the male. The body is
typically buff-brown and spotted and streaked with darker
markings. Like the male, the body is generally slim but the
speculum is dull brown with little or no green.
Their call is a hoarse, muffled quack.
This bird nests throughout grassland areas of B.C. on dry

land often some distance from water. A few birds have
been recorded nesting on the coast in the Fraser Valley. b
i
Very few pintail winter in B.C. but large numbers of birds r
from Alaska, the Yukon and Northwest Territories d
concentrate on interior potholes and on coastal marshes s
while enroute to main wintering areas along the coast of

the United States, Mexico, and northern South America.
381
AMERICAN WIGEON (BALDPATE)

Scientific name: Anas Americana
weight: about 2 lb. (1 kg)
Male – generally grayish with brown sides but with a

distinctive yellow-white crown; dark green mask
through the eyes; bluish bill; bold white shoulder
patches on the upper wing; metallic green and black
speculum. Their call is a distinctive three-note flute
whistle with the middle note much higher than the
first or last notes.
Female – a brownish-gray bird with wing colours
much more subdued than the male’s. Their call is a
harsh, squawking quack repeated often.
Wigeon nest in grassy vegetation throughout grassland

and parkland areas of B.C. but a few have been found
on the coast and in northern forest areas. Many nest in
Alaska, the Yukon and the Northwest Territories. Flocks of wigeon migrate
through interior valleys and along coastal marshes. Large numbers of wigeon
winter along the coastal marshes of B.C. particularly where agricultural lands
are nearby. Many birds winter as far south as California.
SHOVELLER
Scientific name: Anas clypeata
Male – a colourful, medium-sized dabbler which at first

glance looks like the mallard with green head; white breast
and shoulders; brown sides and belly; black-green rump;
and orange feet. It has a distinctive bluish, broad-tipped
bill and wings like a blue-winged or cinnamon teal with
green speculum and chalk-blue upper wing patch. Its call is
a low, guttural "woa-woa-woa" or "toc-toc-toc", although it
often remains silent.
Female – its body is brown with a buff chin and white tail.
It has a brown bill and wings coloured much like
the males. Its voice is a faint, low quack.
The shoveller nests on the ground in thick cover near

shallow water and marsh throughout B.C., except on the
coast and in the Coastal Mountains. A few birds do nest
b in the Fraser Valley. They also nest in Alaska and western
i
r
Canada and the west central United States, west of the
d Great Lakes. During migration this bird is commonly seen
s
in the interior, the Fraser Valley and southern Vancouver
Island in B.C. Most birds winter from Oregon south to
southern Mexico.
382
GADWALL
Scientific name: Anas strepera
Male – a generally gray duck with a distinctive black rump and

white belly. It is the only puddle duck with a major part of its
speculum coloured white, gray and black and with a
prominent patch of rusty-brown on the upper wing. Its call is
of three distinct types: a reed-like "waak", a short whistle, and a
loud, short quack.
Female – like the male except with more brown than gray and
with less prominent coloration on the wings.
Nests in tall grass or under shrubs near water on the coast and
in the southern interior of B.C. This bird also nests in the
southwest prairies and in the northwest United States. It is not
a common duck in B.C. except on the outer portion of the
Fraser Delta. Migrants occur on coastal and south interior
marshes. A few gadwall remain to winter in the lower Fraser
Valley but most migrate to California and southern Mexico.
WOOD DUCK
Scientific name: Aix sponsa
Size: length: 18-1/2 in. (47 cm)
weight 1 to 2 lb. (1/2 to 1 kg)
Male – this is the most intricately and multi-coloured of

our ducks with a green with white crest; body colours of
metallic green, blue, and bronze; white chin and belly; and
reddish bronze chest with white spots. Wings are dark
metallic blue with white lower edges. Their call is generally
a long series of squeaky whistles with periodic cheep-cheep
notes and clucks.
Female – a brown-greenish duck with a white belly, chin
and distinctive eyestrip. Wings are like that of the male
except somewhat more subdued. Their call is a sharp,
scraping quack (alarm) or a mellow, plaintive peep, peep.
This bird is confined to south coastal and south interior

marshlands, oxbows and river channels of B.C. and
marshlands of Washington, Oregon and California where
suitable nesting cavities exist. It is not an abundant or b
i
common bird in B.C. except where artificial nesting boxes r
have been provided along southeastern Vancouver Island d
and in the lower Fraser Valley. A few birds winter in south s
coast marshes of B.C. but most winter in the Unites States

south to California.
383
GREEN-WINGED TEAL
Scientific name: Anas crecca
weight: about 1 lb. (1/2 kg)
Male – this is the smallest dark brown duck in North

America and it has a distinctive vertical white bar
separating the spotted buff breast from the gray sides.
The head is dark reddish-brown with a dark green
patch extending from the eye to the nape of the neck.
The speculum is a bright metallic green bordered by
black on the sides and buff brown above. Their call is
a short mellow whistle.
Female – mottled dark brown with wing coloration
like the male but more subdued. Their call is a high-
pitched "quack.”
Nests on dry land in grass and under shrubs throughout

B.C. but they are most common in the central interior.
In fall large numbers of this species congregate for
several weeks in southern interior marshes and in still larger numbers
along coastal marshes. A few birds winter in B.C. along the coast and
in the southern interior; most migrate to their main wintering areas
in the southern United States to central Mexico.
BLUE-WINGED TEAL
Scientific name: Anas discors
Male – small dark-coloured duck with a noticeable

white crescent in front of its eye and a large chalk-blue
patch on its upper wing. The green speculum is
separated from the blue patch by a white bar. Their call
is a series of chirping, cricket-like whistles.
Female – mottled dark brown with a more buff
coloured breast. Their wings are like the male’s except
they tend to be less vividly coloured. Their voice is a
faint quack.
They nest on dry land in grassy cover near marshes and

b willow borders throughout B.C. but they are most
i
r
common in parkland and grassland areas. Large
d concentrations are not common in B.C. and most birds
s
migrate in the early fall to wintering areas in the
southern United States, Mexico and South America to
central Chile and Brazil.
384
CINNAMON TEAL
Scientific name: Anas cyanoptera
Male – much like blue-winged teal except the

head and body is rusty brown. Their call is a low,
reedy rattle.
Female – almost identical to the blue-winged teal
except for a slightly wider and longer bill. Their
call is a soft quack.
Nests in grassy or shrubby areas on southern

Vancouver Island, the Fraser Valley and through
southern interior grasslands and parklands. These
birds occur in small numbers and migrate from
B.C. by late fall to their wintering grounds in the
extreme southwest United States, Central America
and South America to Colombia and Venezuela.
b
i
r
d
s
385
DIVING DUCKS sides and backs of the drakes. In

"Divers" usually frequent large, deeper comparison to dabblers, their bills are
marshes, lakes and rivers but they also shorter and broader, except for the
include the sea ducks which, outside of canvasback, which has a long, sloping bill,
breeding season, spend most of their time the buffleheads and goldeneyes, whose
away from land. They feed by diving, bills are relatively narrow, the scoters and
often to considerable depths, for fish, eider which have unusual features to their
shellfish, mollusks, and aquatic plants. beaks, and the mergansers, which have
Because of their diet, they are considered narrow, hooked, serrated beaks for
by some to have a very strong flavour and catching fish. The hind toe of a diver is
not be as desirable a game species as the lobed, while the hind toe of a dabbler is
dabblers or geese. They can swim a not. The foot of a diver is larger than the
considerable distance under water to foot of a dabbler.
escape danger and may emerge only far
enough to expose their head or bill before Sex Identification: Drakes "croak",
submerging again. Diving ducks are "peep", and "growl"; hens have a mallard-
commonly seen in large flocks of no like "quack.” Drakes are more brightly
distinct formation and fly with a faster coloured than hens, but eclipse drakes
wing beat than other waterfowl due to resemble hens.
their stout bodies and short wings. They
use their large, paddle-shaped feet, which Common divers in British Columbia
are often visible when they are flying, as include canvasback, redhead, bufflehead,
rudders in flight. When launching into greater and lesser scaup, ring-necked duck,
flight, most of this group run or patter ruddy duck, Barrow’s and common
along the water before becoming airborne goldeneye, and the mergansers. The sea
and, when landing, they skate along the ducks, which are included in this group, are
water’s surface. Diving ducks are rarely the harlequin, old squaw, surf and white-
seen away from water because, with their winged scoters, and the common eider.
legs set farther back on their bodies than
dabbling ducks, it is more difficult for
them to walk on land.
Remembering Diving Ducks
Unlike geese, it is possible to
tell the difference between
Did you know?
male and female ducks. The Most diving ducks have
coloured wing patches of a human body part in
diving ducks lack the brilliance their name.
of the speculums of puddle
ducks. Most diving ducks scalp (scaup) Canvasback
back
appear to be combinations of Redhead
black and white. Diving ducks Bufflehead
appear to float lower in the Ring necked Duck
water than the dabblers due to Barrow’s Goldeneye
their short tails, which point Common goldeneye
head neck Greater & Lesser scaup
down into the water. They have
eye (scalp)
b shorter necks and their heads
i Eider (“eye-dor”)
r
appear rounder and larger than
d the dabbling ducks. From a The others (ruddy duck, mergansers,
s
distance on the water, they can harlequin, old squaw, and scoters)
often be seen by the flashes of you will need to memorize.
white and light gray from the
386
CANVASBACK
Scientific name: Aythya valisineria
weight: about 3 lb. (1-1/3 kg)
Male – its large rust-red head with sloping forehead and bill is
distinctive and, as the name implies, it has a canvas-gray
coloured back which is accentuated by its black shoulder, chest,
and rump. Wings are generally gray with canvas-gray near the
upper edge. Its call is a harsh, guttural croak or a
peeping note.
Female – it is like the male except it is coloured brown with a
small wash of gray to the back and upper wings. Its call is a loud
quack or a wailing "currow.”
Canvasbacks nest over water on floating vegetation or on dry

land in the grassland and parkland areas of B.C. They nest
throughout the prairies, the southwest and Northwest
Territories and the northern United States. It is not a common
bird in British Columbia and flocks of more than ten birds are
seldom seen. Migrating birds are commonly seen on southern
interior and on coastal marshes. A few birds regularly winter
near Victoria and in the Fraser Valley but most winter in the
southern United States to Central Mexico.
REDHEAD
Scientific name: Aythya americana
Male – a large duck with a distinctive high forehead;

bluish bill; rusty-red head and neck; black upper back
and chest; dark gray back and white belly. Wings are a
dull brownish with a gray patch on the lower edge. Their
call is a mewing cat-like call or a guttural purr.
Female – a non-distinctive brown duck with whitish
belly. Wings are like those of the male but without much
gray on the upper edge. Their call is a loud, sharp squawk-
like quack or a distinctive growling "r-r-rha.”
The redhead nests over water or on dry land throughout

the prairies of Canada, mid and northwestern United
States and in the south and west of the grassland and b
i
parkland areas of B.C. This species is not abundant in B.C. r
but it occurs as a migrant throughout the valleys of the d
south interior and in the lower Fraser Valley. A few birds s
remain to winter near Vancouver but most migrate south

to lower California and the Valley of Mexico.
387
BUFFLEHEAD
Scientific name: Bucephala albeola
Male – a small white and black duck with a dark green

head having a white crown-cheek patch extending
upward from behind and below the eye. Their neck,
shoulders, chest and most of their back is white while
part of the back, the rump and tail are black. Wings are
black except for a white patch which extends from the
lower edge to the upper middle. Their call is a low,
guttural roll or a weak squeak.
Female – a dark brown duck with a white patch below
and behind the eye, a white-gray breast and a small
white patch on the lower edge of the wing. Their call is
a hoarse quack or a "cuk-cuk-cuk" often repeated.
The bufflehead nests in trees or other cavities near water throughout

B.C., except on the coast and in the Coast Mountains. They also nest
in Alaska, the Yukon and Northwest Territories and east to Hudson
Bay. Migrating birds are common in the interior and along the coast.
Birds winter along the coast of Alaska and B.C. and throughout the
coast and interior of the United States.
GREATER SCAUP
Scientific name: Aythya meri
Male – its dark metallic green head, black shoulders and

chest, and grayish back separate this bird from all North
American ducks except the lesser scaup. Wings are
brownish gray except for a white lower edge which
extends beyond the bend or "wrist" towards the tip.
Their call is a loud "scaup scaup" or, in courtship, a soft,
moaning "pahoo.”
Female – a brown duck with white belly and face and a
dull blue bill. Wings are coloured like those of the male.
Their call is a loud "cheep cheep" or "tuck-tuck-tur-a-tuck.”
b Greater scaup nest on the ground near water in Alaska, the

i
r
Yukon and Northwest Territories and in the extreme north
d of B.C. Migrants occur throughout B.C. and many remain
s
to winter in coastal and south interior marshes where food
and water are available. Most greater scaup winter on the
coast from Alaska to northern Mexico.
388
LESSER SCAUP
Scientific name: Aythya affinis
Male – it has a bluish bill; black-purplish head, chest,

shoulders and rump; and white back and belly. It is like the
greater scaup except the white on the lower edge of the wings
does not extend beyond the bend or "wrist" towards the tip.
Their call, particularly during flight, is a "purr purr" but they
emit a loud "scaup scaup" when startled or a low, mellow
whistle during courtship.
Female – like the grater scaup, a brown bird with a bluish bill,
white face and white belly. Its wings are like the male’s. Their
call is a rattling, guttural "quaw-w-w.”
The lesser scaup nests in grass and in shrubbery on land near

marshes or open water throughout B.C, except on the coast
and in the Coast Mountains. Large numbers of lesser scaup
from B.C., Alaska, the Yukon and the Northwest Territories
migrate through the south interior of B.C. and along coastal
marshes. Many winter along the coast of B.C., the U.S.A. and
south to Panama.
RING-NECKED DUCK
Scientific name: Aythya collaris
Size: length : 7 in. (43 cm)
weight: 1 to 2 lb. (1/2 to 1 kg)
Male – black-purplish head, chest and back (green near the

tail) and white belly distinguish this bird from other divers.
The bluish bill has two distinctive white rings; one near the
tip and the other at the base. Wings are brownish-green
with a gray patch on the lower edge. There is a faint ring
on the neck but it is not obvious in the field. Their call is
like that of the lesser scaup.
Female – a brown duck with whitish face, white belly and
bluish bill. Wings are like those of the male but without
much green. Their call is like that of the lesser scaup.
This bird nests on open ground near water throughout the

southern half of B.C., particularly on higher lakes. It also
nests from the Peace Athabasca hills to the eastern
seaboard, south to the Great Lakes. It occurs in small flocks b
i
on migration in south interior valleys of B.C. and along the r
south coastal marshes. A few birds winter on south coastal d
marshes and in isolated south interior areas where food s
and water are available. Most birds winter in the southern

United States and Central America.
389
RUDDY DUCK
Scientific name: Oxyura jamaicensis
Male – This small duck has a distinctive black crown;

blue bill; white face below the eye; and rust-red body.
Their wings and tail are drab brown. Their call is loud
"chuc-chuc-chuc-chucar" or "ick-ick-ick-ick-u-cluck" or
"quo-ack.”
Female – a medium brown bird with a light gray belly
and white lower face with a dark, horizontal stripe
below the eye. Their call is a fair "quack" but they are
most often silent.
They nest over water on a floating nest in the interior

grasslands and in the outer Fraser Valley of B.C. Migrant
birds are seen in the southern interior and in the Fraser
Valley. A few "ruddies" winter on the south coast of B.C.
but most migrate to wintering grounds along the coast of
the United States south to central and coastal Mexico.
BARROW’S GOLDENEYE
Scientific name: Bucephala islandica
Male – a stout diver with a purplish-black head; a white

crescent below and in front of its yellow or gold eye; white
shoulders, chest and belly; and black back, rump and tail.
Its wings are black except for a large white patch which
extends from the lower edge to the centre. Like the
common goldeneye, the Barrow’s goldeneye has wing
feathers that "whistle" during flight. Their voice is like that
of the common goldeneye.
Female – a brown-headed duck with a clearly defined
white neck and white shoulder, chest and belly. Its wings
are more subdued but like the males. Their call is like that
of the common goldeneye.
The Barrow’s goldeneye nests in trees or similar cavities

near water throughout B.C., particularly in the Cariboo
b parklands. It also nests from south central Alaska to
i
r
southwestern Colorado. Migrant birds commonly occur in
d B.C. in the southern interior and in coastal marshes.
s
Wintering birds are uncommon but do occur on the coast
from southern Alaska to central California and inland from
southern B.C. to Colorado.
390
COMMON GOLDENEYE
Scientific name: Bucephala clangula
Male – a stout diver with greenish-black head; white shoulders

and breast; and generally black back and tail. There is a
distinctive white spot in front of and below the yellow or gold-
coloured eye. Wings have pronounced white patches which
extend from the lower edge to the centre. The wings make a
distinctive whistling noise, particularly when the birds are just
taking off. Their voice is a sharp, loud "skur skur" but generally
they are silent.
Female – its brown head and distinctly bordered white neck
are useful in separating this bird from all but the female
Barrow’s goldeneye. It has a white belly and generally brown-
gray back and tail and the wings have much less white that
those of the male.
MERGANSERS
Mergansers, as a group, are fish-eating, diving ducks with
Common Merganser long, very narrow, hooked, and serrated beaks which are
specially designed for catching and holding fish. They all
have large, obvious crests (except the male common
merganser), which can be raised and are distinctive. It is
not uncommon to find them on rivers, although they also
inhabit ponds, lakes and, in winter, coastal areas. They are
Drake
not considered good eating and are not commonly hunted

winter
but they are fascinating birds and worth looking up as you
may see them swimming and diving and mistake them for
the more common species listed above. In flight they show
distinctive pointed wings and the head looks like a bump
between the long neck and the bill.
SEA DUCKS
Sea ducks are considered part of the diving duck group. b
i
What makes these ducks different is that they are stocky, r
short-necked ducks that breed in the far north and d
migrate in large, compact flocks to and from their coastal s
wintering grounds which are generally open ocean or

large saltwater bays.
391
HARLEQUIN
Scientific name: Histrionicus histrionicus
weight: about 1-1/2 lb. (3/4 kg)
Male – a very colourful, dark, stout duck which is

metallic blackish-blue covered with black-outlined
white patches on the head, neck, chest, back and sides.
Their sides are rust brown and their wings are metallic
blue and purple with a patch of white on the lower
edge nearest the body. Their call is a mouse-like squeak
or a hoarse "lead-lead" or "oi-oi-oi.”
Female – a dark brown duck with white patches on the
forehead, below the eye and behind the eye. Their
wings are dull brown with a faint purplish lower edge.
Their voice is a loud "eck-eck-eck" or "jeak-jeak.”
The harlequin nests on the ground under thick

shrubby cover in trees and on cliffs near mountain
streams throughout B.C. except the Peace River area.
They also nest along mountain streams in Alaska, the Yukon, Northwest Territories and
in the northwestern United States. Migrating birds are seldom seen inland except
during the early spring but by midsummer non-breeding birds are commonly seen near
kelp beds on the coastal wintering areas from Alaska to southern California.
OLD SQUAW
Scientific name: Clangula hyemalis
Male – in winter and spring it is mostly white with dark

brown breast and back, gray shoulders; the bill is short,
black, and has a pink band. The white head has a large tan
patch with a dark brown spot at the back. Eclipse plumage
is mostly dark with white patch around eye. Male has
Drake Winter
distinctive long tail, which is conspicuous in flight but
may be under water when swimming.
Female – smaller than male. Whiter in summer, darker in
winter, mottled with light and dark brown; black bill; lacks
long tail of male. Both sexes have gray legs and feet.
Old squaw can be identified by their fast careening flight.

They are also considered one of the most vocal of
waterfowl with their loud, yodelling, three-part call,
clucking and growling. They nest on tundra or rocky
b coastline close to water, either sea or freshwater, and they
i
r
often form nesting colonies. Their nesting range is from
d Hen northern Alaska, through the Arctic to Hudson Bay. Old
s
squaw usually migrate at night. They winter from western
Alaska to California on coastal bays or large inland lakes
often in large rafts of birds.
392
SURF SCOTER
Scientific name: Melanitta perspicillata
Male – an all-black duck with white patches on its forehead

and the back of its neck. The eye is white. The bill is humped
in the middle and is red, white, yellow, and black.
Female – a drab bird in comparison to the drake, the female is
grayish brown with a white belly, small white patch beneath

the eye, and a grayish black bill. Both sexes have orange legs
and feet. Both sexes are normally silent but they also may White-winged Scoter
make low croaks.
Surf-Scoter
This bird is called the surf scoter because it feeds along the
surf line. They breed in Alaska and in a broad band across Drake
northern Canada. Nests are constructed in marshes along
rivers, lakes and ponds in open woods or even under
vegetation fairly far from water. Wintering distribution is
along the coast from Alaska to Baja California. In winter Hen
they are often found in large rafts with other scoters.
WHITE-WINGED SCOTER
Scientific name: Melanitta fusca
Male – an all-black, large duck with a yellow bill, having a

black knob on the upper base; a small white loop extending
behind the eye; and a distinctive white patch on the lower
edge of the wing. Their call is a faint, hollow whistle, in a
series of short notes, but they are most often silent.
Female – an all-brown duck with white dots below and in
front of the eye and below and behind the eye. Their wings
are like the male’s except brownish instead of black. They
are generally silent but faint calls are like the male’s.
The white-winged scoter nests on the ground on rocks and

among shrubs around marshes or lakes from the Yukon
and western Northwest Territories to northern Montana b
i
and North Dakota. Nesting birds occur throughout interior r
parkland and grassland areas of B.C. Migrant birds are seen d
on the coast and in the south and central interior of B.C. s
but most are seen as winter visitors on the coast from

Alaska to northern Mexico.
393
Replacement page — 2002 CORE Manual
COMMON EIDER
Scientific name: Somateria mollissima
weight: 4 lb. (1-3/4 kg)
Male – white neck, breast and back; black flanks and

undersides; white neck with olive nape; black crown

with white streaks. The bill is long and sloping, giving
the head a distinctive wedge shape. The bill is
yellowish with a gray tip. In flight the male shows
white back and black tail, and black outer wing
feathers. The call is a three-note "ah-oo-ah.”

Female – tan and mottled black all over; grayish bill, Drake
which is also wedge shaped. Females quack. Both sexes
have grayish legs and feet.
Hen
This is the largest North American duck. Most nest on
the ground on tundra or rocky shorelines, typically in
loose nesting colonies. They breed along the coastlines
of Alaska, the Canadian Arctic and eastern Canada,
and winter in Alaska and eastern Canada, usually out Common Eider
of sight of land on the open ocean and often in large
rafts of birds.
MARSH AND SHORELINE BIRDS

These birds generally wade or run along beaches or in the mud looking for invertebrates
("bugs", snails, shellfish, etc.) or small fish. They spend their time between upland areas and
open waters, on muddy shorelines and in marshes. The first Order in this grouping
(Gruiforma) includes sandpipers, plovers, curlews, cranes, and coots. The second Order
(Charadriiforma) includes shorebirds, gulls and terns, and snipes are part of the shorebird
family in this group. Even though there are two Orders here, most of these birds have large
feet with wide spread toes for walking on soft mud, marsh vegetation, and muddy beaches.
Snipes and coots are grouped with migratory game birds, as are ducks and geese, in the
hunting regulations.
b
i
r
d
s
394
AMERICAN COOT
Scientific name: Fulica americana
Size: length – 13 to 16 in. (33 to 40 cm)
weight – 1 to 1-1/2 lb. (1/2 to 3/4 gm)
The majority of the birds in the marsh and

shoreline group have long legs and wide trailing feet give this migratory bird a
spread, unwebbed toes to walk on soft cumbersome appearance in flight. Some
mud and floating vegetation. Many of hunters find the flesh of this bird has a
them have long bills for probing into the very strong flavour. Coots eat a variety of
mud for bugs and other food. Coots are aquatic vegetation, as well as snails and
different because, although they have aquatic insects, sometimes making
wide spread toes, their legs are not shallow dives to collect their food. Large
especially long for their size and their rafts of coots congregate on large bodies of
beaks are short. They also are very good water (such as Okanagan Lake) in winter
swimmers and are often found with and in spring they split up into family
dabbler ducks in shallow water. units and move out to smaller bodies of
water. Lakes and ponds used for breeding
Description: Though not a duck, the areas are chosen for their marshy areas,
adult coot, commonly known as the which provide materials and cover for the
"mudhen", is a grayish-black, duck-like coot’s floating nest. The coot breeds in
bird. Adults have a black head and neck southern and central British Columbia,
and the rest of the body is slaty black. The north to Vanderhoof and the Peace River
toes have large scalloped webs on each district, and west to southern Vancouver
side. The white chicken-like bill, which Island. It can often be identified by its
has a bony extension running up the raucous voice, which sounds like it is
coot’s forehead, and the pumping motion squabbling with its neighbours. On land it
of its head and neck when swimming are can be quite aggressive at a food source,
distinctive features. Both male and female vocalizing loudly with harsh croaks, b
i
look alike. grunts, and cackles, and is able to chase off r
ducks much larger than itself. d
General comments: Coots are often s
reluctant to fly and will run along the Note: there is no open season on any
surface of the water for some distance. The other species of marsh bird.
395

COMMON SNIPE
"upland" game bird as the habitat it
Family Scolopacidae (sandpipers, phalaropes, and
chooses is a bit less "wet" than that
allies, which includes snipe)
chosen by marsh birds and its nest is a
Scientific name: Gallinago gallinago
shallow depression scraped out on dry
Size: length: 11 in. (28 cm) including
land and lined with grass. It is found in
the bill
bogs and wetlands with sparse vegetation,
weight: 2-1/2 to 5-1/2 oz.
grassy areas beside wetlands, flooded
(70 to 155 gm)
fields, wet pastures and even ditches. The
snipe has the long bill of a shorebird for
Description: It is important to be probing wet soil and mud for worms,
absolutely sure of your identification of insects, mollusks, other invertebrates and
snipe as they can be mistaken for other seeds, and long, wide spread toes to
members of their family, none of which support it on soft, wet surfaces.
can be hunted. The common snipe is
mottled brown and white with a white Found throughout British Columbia, its
belly, it has a long (2-1/2 in., 6-1/2 cm) summer range extends across the central
light coloured beak which gets very dark southern region of the United States up to
near the tip, the head and cheeks are the coast of Alaska. The snipe’s winter
striped dark brown and white, and it has a range runs from southern British
short, rust coloured tail which is edged Columbia as far south as Brazil. Snipe
b with white. On the head, one of the dark never form large groups for migration;
i
r
stripes runs through the eye. Both sexes generally the group will be 12 birds or less.
d look alike but females are slightly larger. In summer they tend to be solitary.
s
General comments: The common snipe Note: there is no open season for any
is sometimes considered a migratory other shorebird.
396
b) Upland migratory game birds

Order Columbiforma (pigeons and doves)
Family Columbidae (mourning dove, band-tailed pigeon, and rock dove
[domestic pigeon])
Doves and pigeons are all shaped much like the domestic pigeon, which is common in
parks and around railway sidings. They have small heads, a stout body, and walk with a
bobbing head movement. All are strong, fast fliers and they eat mostly grain, small seeds
and fruit. The smaller members of this family are generally called doves while the larger
ones are called pigeons. The rock dove, or domestic pigeon, is an introduced species and
will be described in the section on Schedule "C" birds. Both the mourning dove and band-
tailed pigeon are native species. Both band-tailed pigeons and mourning doves occur in the
southern parts of the province and tolerate close association with humans. They also are
migratory and are covered as migratory game birds in the hunting regulations.
MOURNING DOVE
Scientific name: Zenaida macroura

weight: 6 oz. (170 gm)
Description: The mourning dove is a

handsome, streamlined bird with a small
head and long pointed tail, which

distinguishes it from all other Canadian
doves and pigeons. Their plumage is slaty
blue above and reddish fawn below, with
large white spots on the tail and a few
black spots on the upper wing surface.
The mourning dove has a black spot on
the lower cheek behind the eye, a black
bill, and the legs and the feet are red.
Male and female are similar but the male’s
colour is brighter, particularly the black flight. Mourning doves roost in the
head spot. In flight it is almost impossible evening and it is common to see doves
to tell the two apart. flying in to roost in dense brush and trees,
particularly along streams. As late summer
General comments: The mourning dove’s approaches, flocks assemble and it is one of
voice is very distinctive with its mournful the first birds to leave for the south.
"oh-woo-woo-woo.” Both male and female
help build the nest and rear the young, The mourning dove breeds in the south of
and up to four clutches of two eggs each the province, north to Williams Lake.
can be raised in a year. Nests can be built Most populations in B.C. are migratory,
on the ground or in trees, even in orchard although where there are intensive b
i
trees. Other habitats used are woodland livestock operations using grain, some r
areas and farm fields where it feeds on birds will stay the winter although their d
small seeds and weeds. Their flight is direct survival rate is not high. In the fall, before s
and rapid and its wings produce a flying south, some flocks may wander
noticeable whistle when the bird is in north to the Yukon.
397
Replacement page — 2002 CORE Manual
Source: Basic Hunter’s Guide, NRA, 1982

BAND-TAILED PIGEON
Scientific name: Columba fasciata
Size: length : 14 in. (35 cm)
weight: 9 to 12 oz. (255 to 340 gm)
Description: Band-tailed pigeons are

somewhat larger than domestic pigeons The breeding cycle ranges from mid-May
and, unlike them, are of a consistent to late August. Like mourning doves,
colour and pattern. The name "band- band-tailed pigeons are monogamous and
tailed" is derived from the wide, pale gray both male and female raise the young. The
band across the tail. Both sexes are similar female lays one or two eggs per clutch, but
with a blue-gray body and purplish head may raise several clutches per year. This
and breast, white bar across the back of species is generally considered a southwest
the iridescent neck, yellow legs, black- coastal bird of low altitude coniferous
b tipped yellow bill, yellow eye with red ring forests but it has scattered across southern
i
r
around it, and a white belly. B.C. On the coast a few can be found as far
d north as Prince Rupert. Large flocks form
s
General comments: Bandtails make a low in late summer and early fall to head
mellow "coo-coo" sound, similar to south. This species feeds primarily on
domestic pigeons. small seeds and berries.
398
PART III
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. List the three types of birds that are referred to as "Waterfowl". __________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
2. What white waterfowl bird cannot be hunted? __________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
3. List the five species of geese found in British Columbia. __________________________

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
4. What is the other name given for the Black Brant? ______________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
5. List three characteristics of diving ducks. ________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
6. List three characteristics of dabbling ducks.______________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
b
i
r
d
s
399
7. List five types of dabbling ducks. ______________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
8. List five types of diving ducks. ________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
9. Which two wetland birds are not considered waterfowl? ________________________

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
10. List the two migratory upland game birds found in British Columbia. ____________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
b
i
r
d
s
400
PART IV.
RAPTORS
Raptorial birds – hawks, owls and eagles – loss and environmental contamination
have been both persecuted and used by from pesticides.
humans for thousands of years. To some,
they are among the most noble of birds The survival of raptors is dependent upon
while to others they are killers that should be the status of their prey species, the quality
destroyed on sight. Falcons and other birds of their habitat, and the use of pesticides.
or prey were not protected in British Current management is limited to breeding
Columbia until 1961, following extensive surveys of selected species and restrictions
lobbying by falconers. Since that time, the on the capture of birds. Some particularly
severe declines in certain species such as the important prey species habitat and raptor
peregrine falcon, have led to better nesting sites have also been protected.
management practices. All species are under
the sole jurisdiction of the province and all Characteristics
are protected by the Wildlife Act. Raptors In British Columbia there are eight species
may be captured only under special permit. of hawks, five falcons, one harrier, two
There is no hunting season on any raptor. eagles, one osprey, one vulture, and fifteen
species of owls. Raptors are characterized by
Several species may be used under permit large talons and strong feet for grabbing
for falconry, for example, goshawks, red- and holding prey, and large strong beaks
tailed hawks, merlins, and gyrfalcon. Some for tearing the prey apart. The turkey
species have declined because of habitat vulture has talons but its talons are not as
Raptors
Order Falconiforma (vultures, hawks, eagles, harriers, ospreys, and falcons)

Family Cathartidae (vultures)
Family characteristics: small, unfeathered head and hooked bill characteristic of
carrion eaters; talons weak as they do not have to handle live prey; do not make nests
but lay eggs in sheltered spot; flocks often roost together at night.
Family Accipitridae (hawks, eagles, ospreys, harriers)

Family characteristics: birds of prey active during the day; hooked beaks and strong
talons; males usually smaller than females. Includes accipiters (woodland birds with
long tails and short, rounded wings), and buteos (high-soaring birds with broad,
banded tails and rounded wings).
Family Falconidae (falcons)

Family characteristics: long wings, which are bent back at wrist and are narrow and
pointed. Females larger than males.
Order Strigiforma (owls)

Family Tytonidae (barn owls)
b
Family Strigidae (typical owls) i
Family characteristics: (these apply for both families) all have immobile eyes in large r
heads; feathers designed so that flight is nearly soundless; many hunt at night and d
s
roost during the day; since they swallow their prey whole, they regurgitate pellets of
indigestible matter (bones, fur)
401
strong as those of other raptors since it feeds The owls of British Columbia include two
on dead animals. All other species, except families: the common barn owl (Family
the osprey which captures fish and the bald Tytonidae); the western screech-owl,
eagle which kills and scavenges both fish flamulated owl, great horned owl, snowy
and terrestrial vertebrates, feed on terrestrial owl, northern hawk-owl, northern pygmy-
animal species captured alive and owl, burrowing owl, barrel owl, spotted
subsequently killed. owl, great gray owl, long-eared owl, short-
eared owl, northern saw-whet owl, and the
The raptors in British Columbia represent boreal owl (Family Strigidae).
five families. They include the turkey
vulture (a carrion eater; Family
Cathartidae); the osprey (a fish eater), bald
Photo credit: arttoday.com (all images)

eagle, northern harrier, northern goshawk, great gray owl
Cooper’s hawk, sharp-shinned hawk;
Swainson’s hawk, red-tailed hawk, rough-
legged hawk, broad-winged hawk,
ferruginous hawk, and the golden eagle
(Family Accipitridae); and the American
kestrel, merlin, prairie falcon, peregrine
falcon, and gyrfalcon (Family Falconidae).
bald eagle
The hawks, eagles and falcons are all

daytime hunters. All species in British
Columbia, except the turkey vulture, are
characterized by the female being larger
than the male. All are strong fliers. In most
species the young do not obtain adult
plumage until two years old or older.
Members of the owl family are generally

nocturnal hunters, although some species
are active by day. Owls are characterized by a
large facial disc with the eyes situated in the
front looking straight ahead. The external
merlin ear opening is very large while the feathers
are exceptionally soft for quiet flight. The
facial disc and the design of the ears help the
owl gather the sounds of its prey and then
process the information into a three-
dimensional "map" to be able to pinpoint
the prey even in the dark or under snow.
b Some species migrate while others are
i
r
resident in parts of the province all year.
d
s
Raptors nest in a variety of sites according
to the species: in cavities in trees, ledges
on cliffs, old abandoned nests of other
402
species, in barns, and on the ground. Most (great grey owl). Others, such as the
hawks do not breed until at least two years peregine falcon, have more general habitat
of age, while eagles do not breed until four requirements but must have a
or five years of age. concentration of prey species nearby with
plenty of airspace around to aid in
The raptors in British Columbia all lay more hunting. Such conditions are most often
than one egg, varying from two (turkey found along sea coasts and river valleys.
vulture) to as many as eleven (burrowing
owl). Incubation varies from 21 days
(burrowing owl) to 45 days (golden eagle),
with the larger species usually taking longer. osprey
In most species both sexes share in the
incubation and care of the young.
Incubation usually begins before all the
eggs are laid, and as a consequence, the
young hatch at different times.
Photo credit: arttoday.com
The difference in the size of young often

leads to only the largest ones surviving;
especially when food is scarce. The time
from hatching to flying varies from about
four weeks in the case of the smaller species
to up to about 80 days in the case of the
turkey vulture.
Generally, each species has requirements
In most species there is a high mortality of that vary slightly from those of other
young in the first year. This is most often a species. Nesting sites are a feature of
result of starvation, due to their inability to habitat that may limit some species. Barn
capture enough food. In some species, even owls, for example, normally nest in old
though they are protected and penalties wooden buildings; the gradual destruction
can be stiff, illegal shooting may be a of such structures on the Lower Mainland,
serious cause of mortality. and their replacement by bird-proof metal
buildings has adversely affected their
Many of the species of hawks occurring in reproduction.
British Columbia have been bred
successfully in captivity in recent years. Many of the smaller raptors require cavities
in trees for nesting. These cavities are most
Since the early 1960s, declines have been often created by woodpeckers. Logging and
observed in many parts of the world for clearing for agriculture are reducing both
raptor populations that feed primarily on existing trees with cavities and the
other birds or fish. The declines have been numbers of trees in which cavities are
attributed to pesticide contamination of normally made and thus adversely
the prey species, which becomes affecting some species. Some raptors nest
concentrated in the raptors and causes in mature or over-mature trees (bald eagle,
reproductive failures. osprey), while others prefer cliffs (peregrine
falcon, prairie falcon). Other raptors use b
i
Habitats the abandoned nests of crows and other r
Habitat for raptors varies with the species. larger birds (merlin, great horned owl). d
While some require wide open spaces like Some make nests that are very elaborate s
plains and deserts (ferruginous hawk), (bald eagle) and some (peregrine falcon)
others are at home only in the boreal forest lay their eggs directly on the ground.
403
Distribution reduced by human development. The

Both hawks and owls are widely distributed spotted owl depends on coastal old-growth
in British Columbia. No geographic area is forest so certain areas have been put aside
without at least one species. While some for them but it is not known whether this
species are very restricted in range (e.g. action will retain the species in B.C. as it
spotted owl, barn owl), others are has been found to interbreed with the
distributed over most of the province (e.g. barred owl.
goshawk, great horned owl). No systematic
surveys have been carried out to determine Raptors and Humans
the number of hawks and owls in British Historically, humans used raptors for several
Columbia, with the exception of peregrine purposes. The feathers and claws of certain
falcons nesting on the Queen Charlotte species were used for ceremonial purposes by
Islands and on some other coastal areas, native people, some species were captured
and bald eagles nesting on the coast. alive and used for hunting (falconry), and a
few people spent time observing and
studying the birds. In recent years, interest
in observing raptors has increased. Only
great horned owl certain species are of use in falconry, a legal
activity regulated by permit in British
Columbia. Raptors are useful to humans,
especially in agricultural areas, because of
the large number of rodents they destroy.
Photo credit: arttoday.com (all images)

turkey vulture
It can generally be stated that those species

with specialized habitats or foods are less
numerous than less specialized species. For
example, among the falcons, the insect-
eating kestrel is more common than the
more specialized merlin. Bald eagles, which
both capture prey and eat carrion, are more
common than the turkey vulture, which
eats carrion only. Some arctic-nesting
species (gyrfalcon, snowy owl) are more
common in British Columbia during winter
than at other times. Their numbers vary
but increase significantly in those years
when food is in short supply in the north.
Two species, the burrowing owl and the
b spotted owl, are endangered due to loss of
i
r
habitat. There is work being done to try to
d re-establish the burrowing owl in the south
s
Okanagan and captive breeding has been
successfully achieved but the owl’s habitat
(desert valley bottom) has been severely
404
PART V.
SCHEDULE "C" BIRDS
In the chapter on mammal identification, (excluding ravens, Corvus corax), the

we found that certain species were black-billed magpie, house sparrow,
considered a threat to property and native European starling, rock dove (domestic
wildlife; these species were mostly pigeon), and brown-headed cowbird.
introduced. There are also a number of Some of these species are extremely
bird species that fit this definition – not all destructive in agricultural areas (magpies
are introduced species – and they have and starlings in cherry orchards); others
been included in the Hunting and Trapping "parasitize" native species, that is, they
Regulations Synopsis under Schedule "C" as push the native bird’s eggs out of the
designated wildlife that "may be captured nest, lay their own and let the native bird
or killed anywhere and at any time in the raise their offspring (brown-headed
province" as long as you have a hunting cowbird); and others simply out-compete
licence and permission to hunt if on the native species for food and nesting
private land. The eggs and nests of these areas and drive them out of their habitat
species may also be destroyed. (house sparrows). There is a hunting
season in some management regions on
The species included on Schedule "C" are ravens but they are not part of the
all species of the crow genus Corvus Schedule "C" list.
PART VI.
OTHER PROTECTED BIRDS
The majority of endangered and The birds in this category in B.C. are
protected (red listed) species of birds in the western grebe, three species of
B.C. are small, perching birds. There cormorant (double-crested, Brandt’s,
are a few others that you should be and pelagic), white pelican, a number of
aware of as they overlap in habitat, shorebirds (American avocet, upland
range, or habits with waterfowl or sandpiper, Hudsonian godwit, Baird’s
marsh and shoreline birds and you sandpiper), Forster’s tern, common and
need to be able to tell them apart from thick-billed murres, marbled murrelet,
game species. Many of these birds are and horned puffin. It will be unusual for
not endangered in other areas but B.C. you to see one of these birds but it
may be their northern limit of their stresses the point that it is your
range so they are rare in this province. responsibility as an ethical hunter, and
In other cases, the species is the law, to know exactly what you are
endangered over most of its range. looking at before you pull the trigger.
b
i
r
d
s
405
PART IV
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Is there a hunting season on raptors in British Columbia? ________________________

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
2. Which family of raptors tends to be nocturnal hunters? __________________________

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
3. List four birds found on "schedule "C" in the hunting synopsis. __________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
b
i
r
d
s
406
RESIDENT UPLAND GAME BIRDS
PTARMIGAN
Willow ptarmigan Gallinaceous; alpine tundra habitat; mixed white, brown and
Rock ptarmigan black body in summer; white in winter; heavily feathered feet
White-tailed ptarmigan and legs; sexes similar.
Gallinaceous; generally dull brown or gray; often feathered legs

GROUSE
and lightly feathered feet; sexes similar.
High elevation conifer forests; gray upper body with black bars;
Spruce grouse black lower body with white bars; red eye comb in males.
Low elevation (nesting), high elevation (late season) conifer

forests; mottled gray-blue body; mottled brown wings; yellow
Blue grouse
comb in males.
Lower elevation mixed/open forests; mottled brown body; tail has

Ruffed grouse many narrow, parallel black bands with a single wide black band;
head crest; male has a black neck ruff.
Open parklands of Peace and Cariboo; brownish and heavily

Sharp-tailed grouse
barred; V-shaped marks on chest and belly; pointed tail that is
often held up; male has yellow comb and purplish neck sacs.
INTRODUCED SPECIES Non-native, non-migratory, gallinaceous upland game birds
Male – large (to 33 in.); bright colours – bright green neck, red
eye patches, white neck ring, bright body, very long tail. Female
Ring-necked pheasant smaller, browner than male; longer and larger body and longer
tail than sharp-tailed grouse. Wide spread near agricultural lands
in south of province.
Gray partridge (Hun)
Box sexes gray-brown; rusty face and throat; barred flanks; short
brown tail; occur in grasslands of southern interior B.C.
Chukar Both sexes gray-brown above; heavy black bars on white flanks;
black bar from forehead, over cheeks and eyes to form bib on
chest; occur in dry grassland and desert in interior and Gulf Islands.
Brown and gray-blue with obvious head plumes: forward-curving

California quail on the California and straight up or straight and tilted back on the
Mountain quail mountain quail. Mountain quail only on SE Vancouver Island;
California quail on SE Vancouver Island, Gulf Islands and Okanagan.
b
i
Very large; both sexes iridescent very dark brown; naked head;
Wild turkey r
male has colourful, fleshy "decorations" on head and neck, and a d
s
tuft of hair-like feathers that stick out from chest; occur on
Vancouver Island, Gulf Islands, Okanagan, and Kootenays.
407
MIGRATORY GAME BIRDS

WETLAND MIGRATORY
GAME BIRDS
Swans
tundra, whistling, mute Very large body; very long necks; white; very slow wing beat;
webbed feet; can walk easily on land; protected.
Geese
Canada, snow, Ross’, white-fronted, Male and female alike; no eclipse plumage; larger than ducks; fly in
black brant V’s or lines; slow wing beat; webbed feet; can easily walk on land
Dabbling ducks
mallard, pintail, wigeon, shoveller, Male and female often easy to tell apart except in eclipse
gadwall, wood duck, green-winged plumage; more graceful, longer neck and wings than divers;
teal, blue-winged teal, cinnamon teal webbed feet; can walk on land easily; take off straight up; tip up
to feed; bright speculum; hind toe not lobed; slower wing beat
than divers; found on shallow water; vegetarians; excellent eating
Diving ducks Male and female similar; plump bodies; short wings; webbed
canvasback, redhead, bufflehead, feet; difficult to walk on land; patter along water to take off;
greater and lesser scaup, ring-necked dive to feed; dull-coloured speculum; hind toe lobed; faster
duck, ruddy duck, Barrow’s and com- wing beat than dabblers; found on deep water; sea ducks
mon goldeneye, mergansers winter at sea; eat vegetation, invertebrates and fish; not as
good eating due to strong-tasting flesh
Sea ducks
(part of diving duck group)
harlequin, common eider, old squaw,
white-winged and surf scoters
Marsh and shoreline birds Migratory but not waterfowl or upland birds
coot (marsh bird) Grayish-black; duck-like; lobed not webbed feet; good swimmer;
wide spread toes; small beak with extension which runs up fore-
head; head pumps when it swims; both sexes alike
snipe (shorebird) Mottled brown and white; long beak with dark tip; head and
Correct ID essential as other shorebirds cheeks striped; wide spread toes; both sexes alike; solitary (other
may not be hunted! shorebirds are not)
UPLAND MIGRATORY
GAME BIRDS
Mourning dove Streamlined; small head; long pointed tail; slaty-blue above, red-
b dish fawn below; white spots on tail; black spots on cheek; legs b
i i
r
and feet red; sexes similar; occur in south of province r
d d
s s
Band-tailed pigeon Like domestic pigeon; blue-gray body; purplish head and breast;
white bar on back of neck; pale gray band on tail; yellow legs; both
sexes similar; southwest coast and expanding in south of province
408
NOTES
b
i
r
d
s
409
BIRD CHAPTER
REVIEW TEST
The questions listed below are similar to those found in the CORE written exam. Take approxi-
mately 10 minutes to answer these questions without referring back to the material found in
this chapter. Use the answer sheet provided at the bottom of the page to record your answers.
check your answers.
challenge test.
1. A duck's speculum is the:

a. duck's droppings
b. feathers shed during the molt
c. coloured patch on the wing
d. moisture on a duck's tongue
2. Ducks with a slow wing beat, and a distinct flight formation are:
a. fish-eating ducks
b. sea ducks
c. diving ducks
d. dabbling ducks
3. Upland game birds which lack feathers on the feet and lower legs are:
a. any of the ptarmigan
b. introduced, non-native species
c. the grouse
d. migratory
4. The bird most commonly found year-round in southern BC farmland areas is the:
a. Ring-necked pheasant
b. Chukar partridge
c. Band-tailed pigeon
d. Ruffed grouse
5. Two birds which often run from danger rather than fly are the:
a. Band-tailed pigeon and Mourning Dove
b. Ring-necked pheasant and Chukar
b c. Ruffed and Spruce grouse b
i d. Mouring Dove and Common Snipe i
r r
d d
s 6. A large white waterfowl with black wing tips is the: s
a. Snow goose
b. White-fronted goose
410
c. Whistling swan
d. Black Brant
7. Adult swans can easily be distinguised from geese because swans are:
a. are rarely seen in groups
b. do very little flying
c. are larger and feathered all white
d. are only found in protected parks.
8. Which of the following is a dabbling duck.

a. Mallard
b. Canvasback
c. Bufflehead
d. Barrow's goldeneye
9. Which of the following is a diving duck.

a. Gadwall
b. Widgeon
c. Wood duck
d. Redhead
10. The greyish black wetland bird that has the distinctive feature of pumping its head and
neck up and down when swimming is the:
a. Merganser
b. Black Brant
c. Harequin Duck
d. Coot
Answer sheet
1. _____2. _____3. _____4. _____5. _____6. _____7. _____8._____ 9._____10._____

b b
i i
r r
d d
s s
411

Core Manual 02 PDF

Enviado por

Dados do documento

Título original

Direitos autorais

Formatos disponíveis

Compartilhar este documento

Compartilhar ou incorporar documento

Opções de compartilhamento

Você considera este documento útil?

Este conteúdo é inapropriado?

Direitos autorais:

Formatos disponíveis

Core Manual 02 PDF

Enviado por

Direitos autorais:

Formatos disponíveis

Conservation and Outdoor

Working together for hunter safety.

VANTAGE POINT — DALL’S SHEEP

You can see Joe Ferrante’s work by visiting

The B.C. Wildlife Federation acknowledges Joe Ferrante’s permission

B.C. WILDLIFE FEDERATION ART PRINTS

For more information on art prints call

PREFACE: NOTICE TO READERS

Change is inevitable. Be prepared to obtain and study other resources

National Library of Canada Cataloguing in Publication Data

Main entry under title:

Conservation and Outdoor Recreation Education:

SK152.B7C66 2002 799.29711 C2002-911347-4

Copyright: The CORE Program c/o Ministry of Water, Land

Credit is gratefully given to the following organizations for the use

Alberta Hunter Education Instructors Association (AHEIA)

Our apologies if we missed any organization or individual who provided

AN OPEN LETTER TO CORE STUDENTS

B.C. Wildlife Federation

"BECOMING AN OUTDOORS-WOMAN" (BOW)

The B.C. Wildlife Federation coordinates the

"BOW" workshops offer hands-on experience in a non-competitive atmosphere

These workshops are for you if you:

For more workshop information or registration,

B.C. Wildlife Federation

CHAPTER TWO — CONSERVATION

Predator Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .26

CHAPTER 4 — LAWS & REGULATIONS

CHAPTER FIVE — SURVIVAL

4. Dressing yourself . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .85

PART III: ORIENTEERING EQUIPMENT AND ITS USAGE . . . . . . . . . . .130

CHAPTER SIX — FIREARMS

CHAPTER SEVEN — MAMMALS

CHAPTER EIGHT — BIRDS

Diving Ducks . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .386

REVIEW TESTS & CHAPTER TESTS

Law & Regulations Chapter 4

The student will explain the hunter education requirements

2. The student will identify procedures To complete the CORE program a

coordinator has to determine what The practical firearms-handling

Example of a CORE Certificate

A B.C. resident may only have and use one

With your HNC you may purchase a hunting "Acknowledgement of Responsibility"

Examples of Hunting Licences

Hunting Licence Migratory Bird Licence

1. In what year did hunter education become mandatory in British Columbia?

2. Hunting is safe and getting safer due to hunter education.

3. The Hunter Safety Training Regulation prescribes that the cost

5. It is recommended that those individuals who wish to take the self-study

10. In order to hunt waterfowl you will need _______________ permit in

CONTACT LIST INFORMATION SHEET

There is No obligation for the examiners to provide a CORE course.

Contact the BCWF at 1-800-533-2293 for an current contact list

ExamCity Name Phone No ExamCity Name Phone No

i ExamCity Name Phone No ExamCity Name Phone No

The student will explain the relationship between hunter's heritage,

system of wildlife conservation ever, the Wildlife management is a success story, a

In this part you will read about: The Importance of Habitat

Water Most species need more than one kind of

Carrying Capacity of the Habitat It is the combination of available

(1) The lowlands, which are composed of

most productive soils in the province.

(4) The southern roadless mountainous In measuring habitat, we must consider

1. ___ 2. _ 3. _ 4. _ 5. _ 6. _ 7. _ 8.___