Earth Station Block Diagram Study: Section 5

Original Prepared by
Technical Introduction to Geostationary Satellite Communication Systems Telesat Canada
Vol 4: Earth Stations
Section 5
Earth Station
Block Diagram Study
Rev -, July 2001 Slide Number 1

4.5: Earth Station Block Diagram Study
Contents
4.5.1 Block & Level Diagram Introduction
4.5.2 Antenna Subsystem
4.5.3 Low Noise Amplifiers
4.5.4 High Power Amplifiers (HPA)
4.5.5 Up & Down Conversion
4.5.6 Modems
4.5.7 Exciters
4.5.8 Baseband Equipment
4.5.9 Redundancy Equipment
4.5.10 Passive Devices

Part 1
Block & Level Diagram Introduced

Part 1: Block and Level Diagram Introduced
4.5.1.1: How To Read a Block & Level Diagram
How to Read a Block & Level Diagram

A block diagram is a useful tool. It depicts a simplified, high-level
schematic of the interconnection of major equipment units in a
communication system. It can be used to:
• Troubleshoot problems
• Follow signal flow
• Check for proper signal levels
A block diagram is often annotated with signal level information
with respect to an impedance of 50, 75 or 600 ohms (these are
the most common impedance's, but any impedance level could be
referenced).
When a block diagram is so marked, it is known as a Block &
Level diagram.
Rev -, July 2001 Vol 4: Earth Stations, Sec 5: Earth Station Block Diagram Study Slide Number 4

Typically, Earth Station transmit levels are measured with a power
meter or a spectrum analyzer.
For single carriers, a power meter can be used with proper
measurement results. In a multi-carrier environment, the
preferred tool for measurement is a spectrum analyzer.
When measurements are made with a spectrum analyzer, the
measurement is not a composite level but rather a selective
frequency measurement.
If a composite level is to be measured, a power meter should
always be used. This applies to the measurement of both receive
and transmit levels.

Some block and level diagrams include footnotes for specific
measurements. These footnotes will give specific information
about that measurement.
It may be stated whether the measurement is a composite or not.
If not, it is common—and very useful—to include the spectrum
analyzer resolution bandwidth setting used to produce the given
measured value.
In reading and using block and level diagrams, care must always
be taken to determine whether the listed value represents a
composite or selective level. Incorrect level settings can cause
equipment malfunction or the inordinate generation of C/I product.
In addition, levels are always referenced to a specific impedance,
and care must be taken to ensure that measurement sets are
configured to use that impedance.

This is a basic block and level diagram of a very simple Earth
Station.
Baseband IF
RF
IF level
reference to
75 ohms Image Courtesy of Telesat Canada
Figure 4.5.1.1a Block and Level Diagram of a very simple Earth Station
4.5.1.2: Signal Flow
Signal Flow
The standard practice in depiction of signal flow is to go from the
baseband signal level (demarcation point) at the left side of the
page or drawing to the Earth Station antenna at the far right side
of the drawing.
Signal flow progresses from Baseband, to IF (Intermediate
Frequencies) to RF (Radio Frequencies) to the antenna for the
transmission and reception of satellite frequencies.
Part 2
Antenna Subsystems

Sec 5: Earth Stations Block Diagram Study
4.5.2: Antenna Subsystems
Contents
4.5.2.1 Types of Antennas

4.5.2.2 Feeds
4.5.2.3 Antenna Characteristics
4.5.2.4 Antenna Structures (Mount & Foundation)
4.5.2.5 Tracking Systems
4.5.2.6 Three axis stabilized systems
4.5.2.7 De-icing Equipment
Rev -, July 2001 Vol 4: Earth Stations Slide Number 10

Part 2: Antenna Subsystem
4.5.2.1: Types of Antennas
Types of Antennas
Types of antennas are:
• Prime Focus
• Cassegrain
• Gregorian
• Offset
• Dual Offset
• Receive Only
Types of Antennas
Prime Focus
• Parabolic design with a feedhorn located at the focal point
• Simple configuration, lower construction costs
• Low aperture efficiency because reflector shaping cannot be used
• Higher noise temperature due to large spillover power from main
reflector
• Poorer side lobe performance
• Has long waveguide run between
the feed and the electronics box
when antenna size >3m. This is
Diameter
undesirable as it causes extra
losses & increased noise and
makes mounting of equipment
more difficult. Photo Courtesy
of Telesat C e n te r F e e d
• Size limit typically 4.5m and smaller Canada P r im e F o c u s
Figure 4.5.2.1a Prime Focus Antenna
Types of Antennas
Cassegrain Feeds
Photo Used by Permission of Weston Antennas

• Parabolic main reflector
• Hyperbolic sub reflector
• Rear fed antenna, advantages for LNA and
HPA placement
• Main advantage is high efficiency factor and
low noise temperature. Efficiencies as high
Figure 4.5.2.1b Cassegrain Feeds

as 70% can be achieved due to reflector
shaping.
• Reflector shaping improves signal blockage
effects caused by sub reflectors and sub
reflector struts
• Sidelobe performance & antenna gain is
compromised by reflector shaping
C a s s e g r a in F e e d
• Typically used for 4.5m to 25m antennas
Types of Antennas
Gregorian Feeds
• Parabolic main reflector
• Ellipsoidal sub reflector Photo Courtesy
of Telesat
• Rear fed antenna, advantages for Canada
LNA and HPA placement
• Performance similar to the
cassegrain type, but antenna not
as popular
• Reflector shaping improves signal
blockage effects caused by sub G r e g o r ia n F e e d
reflectors and sub reflector struts
blocking the signal Figure 4.5.2.1c Gregorian Feeds
• Sidelobe performance & antenna
gain is comprimised by reflector
shaping
Types of Antennas
Offset Feeds
• Known as non-symmetrical
antennas Photo Courtesy
of Telesat
• Achieve better radiation Canada
patterns (sidelobes) because
of lower aperture blockage
• High efficiency and lower
noise temperature due to
reduced signal blockage
• Typical sizes <4.0m
• Not used for larger antennas
due to higher construction
Figure 4.5.2.1d Offset Feeds
problems and costs
Types of Antennas
Dual Offset Feeds
• Two types, cassegrain and gregorian offsets
• No obstructive hardware in boresight signal path results in very low
sidelobes and high performance
• Can be used for any size antenna, but expensive, therefore not
commonly used
Photos Used by Permission

Figure 4.5.2.1e Dual Offset Feeds
Types of Antennas
Multi-satellite Receive Only
• Multi-beam Earth Station Antenna that
simultaneously receives signals from multiple
satellites across a large degree of arc
• The antenna in Figure 4.5.2.1f sees 70 degrees of
arc, potentially covering 35 satellites
• Equivalent in cost to three C-Band parabolic
dishes
• Curbs real estate costs for those who are faced Photo Used By
with high land costs, limited space, and zoning Permission
restrictions, as one antenna replaces many
5.0 x 8.5m C-Band Receive Antenna

Figure 4.5.2.1f Multi-Satellite
Receive Only
4.5.2.2: Feeds
Feeds
Horn Main functions:
• To illuminate main reflector
• To separate transmit and receive bands
• To separate and combine polarizations
• To match impedance to that of free space
• To provide error signals for some types of tracking systems
Feeds are open, flared waveguide sections. They can be
rectangular or circular (conical).
Feedhorn design can drastically affect antenna performance.
Feed systems are composed primarily of a primary horn and a
orthomode transducer (OMT).
Antenna feeds are designed for linear or circular polarization and
must be adjusted to operate at the correct pole orientation.
4.5.2.2: Feeds
Feeds
Horns
Among
these horns,
the
corrugated
conical horn
is the most
widely used
in satellite
antenna
feeds.
Figure 4.5.2.2a Various Antenna Feedhorns*
4.5.2.2: Feeds
Feeds
Orthocouplers
The OMT separates the transmit & receive path and polarization's.
Many variations such as:
• 2 port receive only • 2 port (1 transmit and 1 receive)
• 4 port (2 transmit and 2 receive) • Combo OMT (1 port for transmit
and receive and the other
receive only)
Photos Used By Permission Photo Courtesy
of Telesat
Canada
Figure 4.5.2.2b Varoius 2 port Figure 4.5.2.2c Ku-band feed Figure 4.5.2.2d C-band conical
OMT’s horn with 2 port OMT horn with 2 port linear OMT
4.5.2.2: Feeds
Feeds
Polarization, Linear and Circular
The polarization of an RF wave radiated or received by an
antenna is defined by the orientation of the electric vector E of the
wave (Figure 4.5.2.2e).
This vector, which is perpendicular to the direction of propagation,
can vary in direction & intensity during one RF period.
While travelling one wavelength during one period, the E vector
not only oscillates in intensity but can also rotate.
In the most general case, the projection of the tip of the E vector
on a plane P perpendicular to the direction of propagation
describes an ellipse during one period. This is called elliptical
polarization.
4.5.2.2: Feeds
Figure 4.5.2.2e Definition of RF Polarization*
4.5.2.2: Feeds
Feeds
Polarization, Linear and Circular
Elliptical polarization is characterized by 3 parameters:
• Rotation sense, as seen from the antenna and looking in the
direction of propagation: right hand (RH - clockwise) or left hand
(LH - counter-clockwise)
• Axial ratio (AR) of the ellipse (voltage axial ratio)
• Inclination angle (T) of the ellipse
Most practical antennas radiate either in linear polarization (LP) or
in circular polarization (CP) which are the most common particular
cases of elliptical polarization.
Linear polarization is obtained when the axial ratio is infinite, i.e.
the ellipse is completely flat.
Circular polarization is obtained when Axial Ratio, AR=1.
4.5.2.2: Feeds
Feeds
Orthogonal Polarization
Two waves are in orthogonal polarization if their electric fields
describe identical ellipses in opposite directions.
Examples
Two orthogonal circular polarizations described as right hand circular
and left hand circular.
Two orthogonal linear polarizations described as horizontal & vertical
(relative to a local reference).
4.5.2.2: Feeds
Feeds
Orthogonal Polarization
Examples
An antenna designed to transmit or receive a wave of a given
polarization can neither transmit nor receive in the orthogonal
polarization.
This property enables two simultaneous links to be established at the
same frequency between the same two locations. This is called
frequency reuse by orthogonal polarization.
Hence we have LHCP & RHCP or in linear polarization, vertical &
horizontal.
4.5.2.3: Antenna Characteristics
Antenna Characteristics
An antenna is characterized by its:
• Gain
• Efficiency
• Beamwidth
• Sidelobes
Typical Earth Station antennas vary in size from 0.5 meters to 30
meters in diameter.
The dish surface contour of an antenna is based on the equation
for a parabola:
y2 = 4fx EQ. 4.5.2.3a Antenna Characteristics
where f = the focal length

x= the coordinate along the axis of the paraboloid
Note that, for all energy radiated
from the focal point towards the
Image Courtesy of Telesat Canada
parabolic reflector, all path
lengths should be equal in order +Y
to form a phase coherent plane D E

Focal
wavefront across the dish B C P o in t
aperture.
V e rte x o f A P a r a b o lic
In Figure 4.5.2.3aa, note that P a r a b o la f A x is ( X )
path lengths ABC, ADE, and
Diameter
S u b te n d e d
AFG are all equal.

A n g le
F G
-Y
F o c a l L e n g th
Figure 4.5.2.3aa Geometry of a Paraboloid
Antenna Gain
When a radio wave arriving from a distant source reaches the
antenna, the antenna collects the power contained in its effective
aperture (Ae).
If the antenna were perfect and lossless, the effective aperture
area Ae would be equal to the actual projected area A. For a
circular aperture the projected aperture is:
A = πd2 / 4 EQ. 4.5.2.3b Antenna Gain
and the effective aperture area Ae = A (for an ideal antenna)

where d = antenna diameter.
Antenna Gain
Taking into account losses & the
Figure 4.5.2.3ab Geometry of a Paraboloid

non-uniformity of the illumination +Y
law of the aperture, the effective D E

Focal
P o in t
area in practice is: B C
Ae = ηA EQ. 4.5.2.3c V e rte x o f A P a r a b o lic

Antenna Gain P a r a b o la f A x is ( X )
Ae = ηπ(d/2)2
Diameter
S u b te n d e d
A n g le
where η = antenna efficiency and is F G
less than 1. -Y
F o c a l L e n g th
Efficiency
Efficiency is an important factor in antenna design. Special
techniques such as reflector shaping are used to optimize the
efficiency of an Earth Station antenna.
Antenna aperture efficiencies between 55 and 75 percent are
typically obtainable depending on type and design.
Efficiency is affected by:
• Subreflector and supporting hardware
• Main reflector RMS surface deviation
• Illumination efficiency, which accounts for the non uniformity of the
illumination, phase distribution across the antenna surface and
power radiated in the sidelobes
Gain / Efficiency
The on-axis antenna power gain (relative to an isotropic radiator)
is given by the formula:
G = 4πAe / λ2 EQ. 4.5.2.3d Gain/Efficiency
where λ = free space wavelength

π = 3.14159…..
Ae = effective aperture of the antenna
Isotropic - exhibiting properties (as velocity of light transmission) with the same values when measured along axes in all
directions
Gain / Efficiency
Substituting for Ae in G = 4πAe / λ2 yields G = η( πd / λ )2
or expressed in decibles
GdBi= 10 log η + 20log π +20log d - (20log λ) or
GdBi= 10 log η + 20log f +20log d + 20.4dB
where η = antenna efficiency
d = Antenna diameter in meters
f = operating frequency
20.4 dB = constant value resulting from 10 log (1*10 9 π/c)
Beamwidth
Beamwidth is a measure of the angle over which most of the gain
occurs. It is typically defined with respect to the half power
beamwidth (HPBW), or the 3dB down points on the main lobe in
the antenna radiation pattern.
λ
HPBW = • 57.29 EQ. 4.5.2.3e Beamwidth
d n
Where η = the antenna efficiency
d = the antenna diameter in meters
λ = the wavelength , λ=c/f (c=RF velocity =3*108m/sec
f= frequency in Hz)
Beamwidth
Example
An Intelsat Standard “A” Earth Station with an antenna size of 16
meters and an efficiency of 70 percent would thus have a
beamwidth of 0.214 degree at 6GHz.
η = .70
d = 16
λ = c/f = (3*108m/sec)/6,000,000,000 = .05
.05
HPBW = • 57.29
16 .70
HPBW = .21398 or 0.214
Sidelobes
Most of the power radiated by an antenna is contained in the main
lobe. However, a certain amount of residual power is radiated
into the sidelobes.
Sidelobes are an intrinsic property of antenna radiation and
cannot be completely eliminated. They can, however, be reduced
by careful design.
The side lobe characteristic of Earth Station antennas is one of
the main factors in determining the minimum spacing
requirements between satellites and therefore the orbit/spectrum
utilization efficiency.
Other factors effecting sidelobe characteristics are antenna
diameter, operating frequency, and aperture efficiency.
Sidelobes
Today’s antenna designs must meet the ITU 29-25logθ sidelobe
criteria in order to meet the minimum 2 degree satellite spacing
requirement. This specification applies to antennas installed after
1988. Older antenna specifications were 32-25logθ and some of
these antennas are still in service.
Figure G m ax Image
4.5.2.3c 3db down Courtesy of
Sidelobes Telesat
Canada
m a in
lo b e
s id e
lo b e s
Figure
4.5.2.3b d ia m e t e r
Sidelobes*
4.5.2.4: Antenna Structures
Antenna Structures
Mount and Foundation
Environmental Conditions for Design:
There are differences in design standards and Codes used in
various countries however the end result of the design process is
often very similar.
Wind, Ice, Other
Wind is the most significant design parameter and typically
governs the structural design for survival strength and also for
operational stiffness.
In areas where ice loading occurs, load combinations such as ice
with half wind load, must be considered.
Antenna Structures
Wind is expressed in various velocity and pressure units in design
codes around the world. For comparison purposes, here is a
table with units of miles per hour, kilometers per hour, meters per
second, pounds per square foot, and kilo Pascals or kilo Newtons
per square meter:
Reference Table for Equivalent WIND

mph km/h m/s psf kPa (kN/sq m)
125 201 56 42 1.8
110 177 49 33 1.6
100 161 45 27 1.4
85 137 38 20 1.2
70 113 31 13 1
Antenna Structures
Wind
Overview of Design Methods used in Canada and the United
States:
The hourly average pressure for a 10 year return period Wind is
used in Canada for antennas with area not more than 5 square
meters.
The hourly average pressure for a 30 year return period Wind is
used in Canada for larger antennas and typical building
construction.
The velocity of the “fastest mile” 50 year return period Wind is
used in US design.
Antenna Structures
Wind
Understanding the Various Design Approaches:
In Canada, Wind Design is derived from the maximum hourly
average pressure for an appropriate return period wind, which is
then modified with a gust factor and various other site-specific
factors to obtain the design loads.
In the United States, Wind Design is determined from the fastest
mile of wind which is the highest sustained average wind speed
based on the time required for mile-long sample of air to pass a
fixed point. This speed of wind is converted to pressure and a
gust factor and other factors are then applied to obtain design
loads.
Antenna Structures
Return Period for Design Wind:
The probability of wind occurring in any year can be derived
directly from the Return Period. A 30 year wind has a 1 in 30
chance of occurring in any year, which is a 3% probability. A 10
year wind has a 10% chance of occurring in any year.
10 year Wind - Used in Canada with gust factor of 2.5 on
pressure for antennas of < 5 square meter area.
30 year Wind - Used in Canada with gust factor of 2.0 on
pressure for antennas of > 5 square meter area.
Antenna Structures
Return Period for Design Wind:
50 year Wind - Used in U.S. These design codes use a smaller
effective gust factor since the measuring period of the “fastest
mile” is a much shorter time period. For high wind areas, the
fastest mile could be perhaps only 30 seconds duration.
Therefore the gust factor associated with a 30 second wind is
smaller compared to the gust factor for an hourly average
reference.
100 year Wind - Used in Canada and elsewhere for critical and
post disaster services. Gust factors same as above.
Antenna Structures
Gust Factor:
Since antennas are all relatively small structures, they respond to
gusts. Gusts are wind speeds that are normally defined as
having 5 second duration. Therefore, the gust wind must be used
in structural adequacy calculations.
If the type of service carried by the antenna is affected by even
momentary outages, then elastic deflections for the peak gust
wind must also be used for design purposes.
Antenna Structures
Gust Factor:
To determine the force acting on an object (antenna), the design
wind pressure is multiplied by the (frontal) full-face area of the
antenna and the shape factor.
The shape factor is different for all directions and in published
data this normally includes an adjustment for the effective
antenna area which is in the wind for each of the wind directions
considered.
The typical maximum shape factor for a parabolic antenna is
approximately 1.5.
Antenna Structures
Height Factor:
Wind velocity increases with height above ground (up to
approximately 500 meters).
Wind velocity near the ground surface is also influenced by the
roughness factor of the surface. Near the ground, wind speed is
higher over flat land or open water than it is in an urban or
forested location or where there are surface irregularities.
Antenna Structures
Height Factor:
Height factors (applied to wind pressure for design purposes) are:
0.9 for up to 6m height
1.0 for 10m height
1.15 for 20m height
1.25 for 30m height
Design winds are derived from observations of wind recorded at a
standard height of 10m in open areas (typically airport locations).
The height factors are applied to these values to determine wind
at the desired elevation.
Antenna Structures
Wind Effects
Wind Speed-Up Factor:
Image
Wind speed can increase as it Courtesy
of Telesat
passes over ridges and buildings. Canada
For buildings, the fastest wind is in
the zone of compressed streamline
flow above the roof where a 1.3
factor on increased wind pressure
is typical. This relatively thin zone
is immediately above the Vortex
Layer.
A wind speed-up factor of more Figure 4.5.2.4aa Wind Effects
than 1.3 can occur near corners

and edges of buildings.
Antenna Structures
Wind Effects
Wind Speed-Up Factor:
Antennas in the zones of the Vortex Layer Image
and Turbulent Wake are exposed to Courtesy
of Telesat
significantly lower peak winds. However, Canada
the wind direction and speed close to the
roof surface is continually changing.
An acceleration factor of 1.0 (no speed-up)
can be justified for antenna installations
entirely within the Turbulent Wake zone. Figure 4.5.2.4ab Wind Effects
Specialist advice may be required to make

specific design recommendations for roof
mounted antennas.
Antenna Structures
Ice:
The build-up of ice on structures is a function of the amount,
nature, and angle of rain occurring at just-freezing temperatures.
Ice can also accumulate from fog. At temperatures below -10º C,
is buildup is unlikely.
Freezing Rain (glaze ice):
In conditions of freezing rain and high winds, it is possible to have
significantly thicker ice build-up on vertical surfaces than the
actual depth of rain water. This ice is “clear” and has a density of
90% that of water.
Antenna Structures
In-Cloud Icing (rime ice):
In-cloud icing normally occurs at higher elevations in coastal
areas when moist clouds (fog) remain for a period of time with the
structures at a temperature below freezing. Several hundred
meters of elevation is often the difference between no icing and a
severe problem.
Rime ice is white and opaque with a density that varies between
30% and 70% that of water and a texture from soft to hard
depending on conditions during forming. The total thickness of
rime ice depends more on the time of exposure to conditions
which promote that growth.
Ice load can be multiples of the weight of the antenna structures
and are a serious consideration in affected areas.
Antenna Structures
Other Conditions: Seismic
Seismic design generally does not govern any of the structural
decisions made when selecting antennas and mounts.
For satellite communication antennas (parabolic shapes with
large surface area compared to weight) the design forces due to
wind are much more than the lateral, seismic loads due to
earthquake shaking.
For example, seismic loading of up to 20% of the weight of the
structure taken as a lateral force is much less than typical wind
loads.
The seismic performance of a communication facility is much
more dependent on supporting the indoor equipment to prevent
movement and the survivability of cabling and services (especially
with underground conduits).
Antenna Structures
Design Wind for “Survival”
The word “survival” is often used to describe the design
conditions, such as the maximum design wind speed.
However, design codes use these conditions to safely engineer
the structures to withstand the loads without damage, yielding or
deformation of parts. Therefore, each structure has a margin of
failure beyond the design loads.
For steel design in Canada and the U. S., there is a minimum
factor to theoretical failure of 1.67. This is applicable to tension
member failure. Other and more critical modes of failure which
can result in immediate collapse of a structure have higher
margins to failure. For example, compression buckling of slender
members is 1.92 and bolt connections have a factor of 2.5.
Antenna Structures
Design Wind for “Survival”
Other materials, such as aluminum, fiberglass, or concrete, are
intended to have an equivalent level of confidence and have “safety
factors” adjusted accordingly to suit the material and fabrication
methods.
A 100 year wind has a pressure that is typically no more than 25%
greater than a 30 year wind. When you consider that the structure
has a minimum 1.67 factor, there are few conditions which should
ever result in antenna collapse.
Antenna Structures
Design Wind for “Operational” Conditions
The Operational limit of an antenna is the wind speed which
creates a signal loss of defined level (dB) as a result of elastic
deflections.
(Motorized antennas may also specify a maximum wind to
operate the motors.)
Signal loss is due primarily to the off-axis movement of the
antenna rather than antenna distortion, feed movement or other
condition. All deflections can be considered as elastic and when
the wind force is removed, original signal strength is regained.
Antenna Structures
The antenna pattern will provide the angle of off-axis movement
which will result in the signal loss being considered. Understand-
ing the manufacturer’s definition of “operational” is essential to
confirm that the performance of the installed antenna system will
be as expected.
The operational wind limit is a wind velocity. However:
• It may represent an averaged effect for all directions
• It may represent an average for all possible elevation
angles of the antenna (up to 90 degrees in some cases)
• It may represent an average of the full adjustment range of
the antenna (full left, center, full right), and sometimes a
mount is not as stiff in all configurations
Antenna Structures
• It may be stated as a gust wind, but in reality include
averaging to minimize the effects of gusts.
• Normally there is no allowance for foundation movement in
operational deflection calculations. This is satisfactory for
ground mounts, but it is not realistic for roof installations
that must include deflections of foundation beams etc. If
15% of the allowable movement is allocated to the
foundation, the effective operational wind limit of the
antenna has been reduced by approximately 7%.
Antenna Structures
Example of Ground Foundations
Concrete Slab
A concrete slab foundation is of
poured concrete with antenna
footings and service conduit
mounted in the slab.
All manufactures specifications
with respect to the type of concrete
and the size and depth of the slab
must be followed.
This type of mount supports larger
antenna sizes.
Figure 4.5.2.4b Concrete Slab

Antenna Structures
Example of Ground
Foundations
Spread Footing
A small concrete slab foundation
or some other suitable structure
is required for the Spread
Footing mount.
This mount is simply a pole on a
base plate that must be bolted
down.
Depending on the height
required, only relatively small
antennas can make use of this Image Courtesy of Telesat Canada
design. Figure 4.5.2.4c Spread Footing
Antenna Structures
Steel Pipe and Concrete Image
Pile
Figure 4.5.2.4d Steel Pipe and Concrete
Pile Courtesy of
Telesat
Canada
This design is rather like the
Spread Footing design, but
employs a reinforced
concrete pile for part of the
vertical extent.
The antenna steel-pipe
antenna mast is bolted to
suitably embedded threaded
rod.
Antenna Structures
Example of Ground Foundations Figure 4.5.2.4e Steel Pipe and Concrete Pile
Steel Pipe and Concrete Pile
Image and Photo Courtesy of Telesat Canada
Figure 4.5.2.4f Steel Pipe and

Concrete Pile
Antenna Structures
Steel Pipe and Concrete Pile
Figure 4.5.2.4g Steel Pipe and Concrete Pile

Antenna Structures
Building Roof Mounted Foundations:
Penetrating
Image Courtesy of
Penetrating roof mounts are Telesat Canada
so named because they
require that a mast be
inserted through the roof of
the host building and
anchored within.
Because of the
understandable reluctance
on the part of building
owners, this type of roof
mount is not as common as
the non-penetrating type.
Figure 4.5.2.4h Penetrating
Antenna Structures
Building Roof Mounted Foundations:
Non-penetrating
Photos Courtesy of Telesat Canada
Figure
4.5.2.4i Non-
Penetrating
Antenna Structures
Building Wall Mounted Foundations:
Image Courtesy of Telesat Canada Figure 4.5.2.4j Building
Wall Mounted Foundations
4.5.2.5: Tracking Systems
Tracking Systems
Introduction
Although satellites are in geostationary orbits, they are constantly
subjected to forces such as the gravitational attraction of the sun
and moon, the radiation force of the sun’s light, and the sun’s own
gravitational field.
These forces affect the position of the satellite and cause the
satellite to drift from its nominal position in the East-West and
North-South directions.
The North South drift would increase 0.86 degree per year if it
were not corrected.
Tracking Systems
Introduction
Satellite operators can choose to extend the satellite’s life by
halting the North-South maneuvers. When North-South station
keeping is no longer performed, the satellite becomes inclined
and can be allowed to drift up to ±3 degrees.
To maintain adequate service, inclined-orbit satellites must be
tracked by ground station antennas.
The principle factors that determine the extent of the tracking
requirement are:
• The accuracy of the satellite’s station keeping
• The size of the antenna
• The geographical location of the Earth Station
Tracking Systems
Antenna Gain Roll-off
The need for antenna tracking can be decided by its size and
frequency.
For antenna sizes of 8 meters or less, there might be no need for
tracking if the satellite is kept in a tight station keeping box.
Inclined orbit operation will require tracking systems on much
smaller antennas
Antenna gain decreases as the mispointing angle increases. This
loss of signal is directly related to its size and half power
beamwidths (-3dB points).
Tracking Systems
Antenna Gain Roll-off
Antenna Antenna
Diameter Beamwidth
0.50 m 3.50 °
0.75 m 2.33 °
1.00 m 1.75 °
1.50 m 1.17 °
2.00 m 0.88 °
2.50 m 0.70 °
5.00 m 0.35 °
Note : Frequency = 12 GHz
Figure 4.5.2.5a Antenna Gain Roll Off
Tracking Systems
Three Types of Tracking Systems:
4.5.2.5.1 Monopulse
4.5.2.5.2 Step-Track
4.5.2.5.3 Program/Memory Tracking
4.5.2.5.1Monopulse
Monopulse derives its name from radar technology.
During the early stages of satellite communications, monopulse
tracking of one form or another was used almost exclusively.
From the mid 1970’s to present, there has been a shift towards
the use of step-track auto-tracking systems.
Monopulse tracking requires an antenna built with a special
antenna feed.
Antenna orientation command signals are generated by a
monopulse tracking receiver. The receiver performs a
comparison of a reference signal and the error angle
measurement signal caused by azimuth and elevation
misalignments.
Figure 4.5.2.5ba Tracking Systems*
4.5.2.5.1Monopulse
The first monopulse systems (multi horn) made use of four
primary horns symmetrically located around the focus. These
horns provide beams slightly offset from the antenna boresight
axis. Tracking signals are obtained by comparing the amplitude
of the received signals of each of these beams.
Figure 4.5.2.5bb Tracking Systems*
4.5.2.5.1Monopulse
Two primary horns denotes as A & B are symmetrically positioned
on both sides of the focus of the antenna (a). Their radiation
patterns are shown in (b).
Figure 4.5.2.5bc Tracking Systems*
4.5.2.5.1Monopulse
The angle difference between the antenna boresight axis & the
satellite direction is obtained by coherently detecting the error
signal (∆ signal) with reference to the summed signal (Σ signal),
both of which come out at the two output ports of the hybrid circuit
as shown in (c).
Figure 4.5.2.5bd Tracking Systems*
4.5.2.5.1Monopulse
The disadvantage of these systems is
that they require complicated and
cumbersome feeds, they do not provide
accurate radiation patterns, and they
are very expensive and more difficult to
maintain.
Modern Monopulse systems (multi-
mode) make use of a special microwave
coupler inserted in the antenna feed as
shown on figure 4.5.2.5.c.
This coupler picks up the higher mode
signals which are excited in the feed
horn when the antenna beam axis is
offset from the satellite direction. Figure 4.5.2.5c Monopulse*
4.5.2.5.1Monopulse
Such higher mode signals correspond to odd mode radiation
patterns with a null in the beam axis direction.
After coherent detection by a reference signal (which is the
normal fundamental mode signal), bipolar discrimination error
voltages are obtained and are directly fed to the servo system that
controls antenna motion.
When operating in circular mode, only one higher odd mode of
circular waveguide is required (TM01). This is because both the
phase and amplitude of the TM01 component, when compared
with the fundamental TE11 (used as reference), bears angular
error information.
4.5.2.5.1Monopulse
When operating in linear polarization mode, TM01 detection only
delivers one error signal (e.g. Azimuth) and a second higher odd
mode is required for elevation. This second mode can be the
TE01 mode.
Combination of other modes is possible (e.g. TE21 with proper
orientation or TM01 + TE21 etc.). In this case the tracking receiver
will need to accept two input error signals as opposed to one error
signal for circular.
4.5.2.5.2Step-Track
With the continuous improvement in station keeping accuracy of
GEO satellites, a much less complex and lower cost step-track
system was developed.
Monopulse tracking systems, although very accurate, have largely
been replaced by step-track systems because of their lower cost,
greater simplicity, and easier maintenance.
The step track method uses a so called “climbing the hill method”.
The antenna beam is steered step by step so as to obtain
stronger receive signal from the satellite than was obtained in the
last step.
If the step steering of the antenna beam has decreased the
receive signal level, the step track processor will command the
antenna to be steered in the opposite direction.
4.5.2.5.2Step-Track
The receive signal is usually derived from a satellite beacon
carrier.
In the step-track system, no special tracking feed is required.
Only a simple beacon receiver and step track processor is
necessary.
A disadvantage of the step-track system is that the tracking
accuracy is directly affected by rapid variations of the incoming
signal due to atmospheric disturbances such as wind, rain
absorption and beacon instability.
These limitations can be overcome by choosing a step size that is
sufficiently small, but not so small as to cause the antenna to
continuously hunt for the satellite as, for example, during
moderate wind loading conditions.
4.5.2.5.3Program/Memory Tracking
When considering inclined orbit satellites a programmed tracking
system becomes more attractive.
The antenna is controlled by a computer/software combination.
Calculation of satellite orbital position is derived from pointing
data (11 ephemeris parameters), thus eliminating the need for a
satellite beacon.
Another option is the so called “Smooth Step-Track” system that
memorizes the satellite’s track within the first 24 hours of
acquisition. Then it follows the memorized program from the
previous day. This feature would not be recommended for
inclined orbit satellites.
4.5.2.6: Three Axis Stabilized Systems
Three-Axis Stabilized Systems

Three-axis stabilized antenna systems are
used on ships where tracking during harsh
weather conditions can create constant
communication challenges.
Most stabilized antenna systems range in
the 0.5 to 5 meter size and are housed in a
radome type enclosure. Antennas are of
the prime focus or offset parabolic. Image
Courtesy
They incorporate the latest technology of
Telesat
enhancements in stabilization accuracy, Canada
stable enough to neutralize severe
conditions at sea. Stabilization accuracy's
now approaches 0.1 degrees maximum
error in the presence of +25 degrees roll Figure 4.5.2.6a Typical 3 Axis Stabilized
Antenna in a Radome
and + 15 degrees pitch.

First, a highly responsive and accurate
stable platform is created using a three-axis
pedestal driven by torque motors which are
prompted by signals from inertial angular Image Used By Permission of
Seatel
rate sensors.
The pedestal and electronics isolate the
antenna platform from the motion of the ship,
be it turning (train or azimuth), roll (side-to-
side motion) or pitch (bow to stern motion
over waves).
Second, extreme fine tuning of the antenna
pointing is achieved through conical Figure 4.5.2.6b 3 Axis Stabilized
scanning techniques, which have been System
implemented by using digital signal
processing.

Utilizing modern conical scan tracking, the antenna control unit
senses and compares the signal levels in all four of the antenna
quadrants (up, down, left and right).
It then quickly and smoothly adjusts the antenna in elevation and
azimuth to equalize the signal strength in each quadrant, which
translates to extremely accurate pointing to the source of the
signal, the satellite.
Conical scanning has been around since World War II radar and
is considered the superior method of signal tracking for satellite
communications three axis stabilized systems.
4.5.2.7: De-icing Equipment
De-icing Equipment
The purpose of a de-ice system is to melt away any snow or ice
accumulation building up on a parabolic reflector caused by snow
or freezing rain.
Ku-Band signals are more susceptible to snow build up than is C-
Band but in either case a large buildup will reduce the antenna
gain and may cause service degradation.
De-icing equipment can be purchased in 2 ways:
• Purchased with the antenna at time of ordering (factory
Installed)
• Purchased as a add-on if the original antenna installed was
not equipped with de-icing
De-icing Equipment
De-icing comes in various types based on the energy source
used to create the heat required for the de-ice elements:
• Electrical-elements
• Electrical-Hot air blowers
• Gas
• Propane
De-icing Equipment
Within these energy types, various options exist:
1) blanket or snow covers - 0.5m to 5.0m
2) rear electrical heating pads- any size antenna
3) rear heating enclosures - usually 4.5m and up
Photos
Courtesy
of
Telesat
Canada
Gas Rear heated

Field Installed Snowshield Factory Installed Half Factory Installed Full
enclosure
Reflector De-ice Reflector De-ice
Figure 4.5.2.7 Types of De-icing Equipment heating pads
De-icing Equipment
A de-icing system consists of a control unit, a thermostat and
some type of heating element. Some units add more complexity
by adding a moisture sensor.
Most units will automatically turn on if the temperature goes below
about 3°C. Or, if equipped with a moisture sensor, then the units
will require both a temperature below 3°C and the presence of
moisture before turning on.
Still others will deactivate the heating elements, even when
moisture is present, if the temperature goes below -9°C. This is
based on the principle that below -9°C the precipitation is sure to
be snow and conditions do not favor a buildup on the antenna.
De-icing draws a lot of power, so if power saving is critical, then a
moisture sensor is a must for a de-ice system. De-icing is highly
recommended for large antenna systems.
De-icing Equipment
De-icing requires a fair amount of heat, depending on antenna

size.
Typical Energy requirements for Deicing
Snowshield Snowshield Rear Heating Electrical Electrical
Antenna with electric with gas with gas Half Reflector Full Reflector
1.0m 1200 Watts -
1.2m 1200 Watts -
1.8m 1700 Watts -
2.4m 4000 Watts -
3.7m 6000 Watts 60000 BTUs 3000 Watts 6000 Watts
4.5m 12000 Watts 60000 BTUs 6000 Watts 12000 Watts
5.6m - - 100000 BTUs 8600 Watts 15000 Watts
7.3m - - 2*100000 22500 Watts
7.6m - - 2*100000 30000 Watts
9.3m - - 2*100000 45000 Watts
Part 3
Low Noise Amplifiers

4.5.3: Low Noise Amplifiers
Contents
4.5.3.1 LNA
4.5.3.2 LNB
4.5.3.3 LNC
4.5.3.4 LNB-F

Part 3: Low Noise Amplifiers
4.5.3.1: LNA - Low Noise Amplifiers
LNA - Low Noise Amplifier

Low Noise Amplifiers are specially designed
amplifiers for satellite Earth Station receiver
front ends and other telecommunication
applications.
They utilize state of the art HEMT and GaAs
FET technology offering simpler and cheaper
transistor amplifiers with very low noise
temperatures measured in degrees Kelvin. Image Courtesy of
Telesat Canada
Prior to these advances in technology, big
and costly parametric amplifiers were used Figure 4.5.3.1 C-Band LNA
with helium gas cryogenic devices to offer

low noise temperatures (1970 era).

The radio signal entering the Earth Station Antenna is a very low
level, weak signal. The LNA is a highly sensitive preamplifier with
very low thermal noise. LNA’s are wideband devices amplifying
500 MHz to 1 GHz of bandwidth.
For satellite system front ends, the lower the noise temperature
the better, as noise temperature greatly influences the very
important G/T parameter of the receiving Earth Station.
It is the antenna and LNA that characterize the G/T, the ratio of
the antenna gain to the total noise temperature of the LNA and
antenna system.
LNA’s should be placed as close as possible to the antenna feed,
to avoid additional contributions of noise caused by waveguide
losses.

LNAs may be powered via the center conductor of the coaxial
cable or via a separate connector.
LNAs typically have a 50 ohm impedance.
Typical LNA Noise Temperatures are 40°K for C-Band and 80°K
for Ku-Band.
Typical LNA Noise Temperatures using high electron mobility
transistors (HEMTs) are shown in the table below.
LNA Noise Temperatures
Frequency Band Noise Temperature
4 GHz 30 K
12 GHz 65 K
20 GHz 130 K
40 GHz 200 K
4.5.3.2: LNB - Low Noise Block Amplifier
LNB - Low Noise Block Amplifier

LNB’s are similar to LNA’s however they convert
the receiving frequency from the satellite to L-
Band.
LNB’s are low cost preamplifiers and are also
wideband devices.
Typical operation is from 950-1450MHz while
others will operate from 950-2050MHz
Image Courtesy of
Telesat Canada
Some LNB’s from Astra operate from 700-
1700MHz. Figure 4.5.3.2 C-Band LNA
Most LNB’s are powered through the center

coaxial cable and are 75 ohm impedance with
an F-type connector.
4.5.3.3: LNC - Low Noise Converter
LNC - Low Noise Converter

LNC’s have no distinguishable difference from an LNB other than
they may output a different frequency, from 2 GHz to 70 MHz.
Some LNC’s may have external LO inputs for greater accuracy in
the frequency downconversion process.
4.5.3.4: LNB-F
LNB-F
LNBF’s are LNB’s
integrated into the
antenna feed.
They are found mostly
on offset antennas and
small digital TV
antennas for DBS Photos Courtesy of www.kusat.com
satellites. Figure 4.5.3.3 LNB - F
Part 4
High Power Amplifiers (HPA)

4.5.4: High Power Amplifiers (HPA)
Contents
4.5.4.1 Klystron
4.5.4.2 Travelling Wave Tube
4.5.4.3 Solid State Power Amplifier (SSPA)
4.5.4.4 Comparison of all 3 types

Part 4: High Power Amplifiers (HPA)
4.5.4.1: Klystron
Klystron
Description
Klystrons are essentially narrow,
instantaneous passband tubes.
Photo Used by Permission
Typically, passbands are 40 MHz for C-
Band and 80 MHz for Ku-Band.
Bandwidth can be manipulated through
tuning to decrease or increase total
bandwidth, thus offering less or more
output power respectively.
Klystrons can be fitted with a mechanical Figure 4.5.4.1a Typical Klystron
remote tuning device whereby the center
frequency of the passband can be
changed.
4.5.4.1: Klystron
Klystron
A Klystron consists of:
• A series of cavities (usually five) which are microwave
resonant circuits traversed by a electron beam
• Electron Gun
• Collector
• Focusing Magnet
• Beam, Heater & Low Voltage Power Supplies
• Cooling Equipment
• Monitor and Control Logic
4.5.4.1: Klystron
Klystron
Each cavity is individually tuned, and electromagnets are placed
between cavities for focusing purposes.
In the first cavity (the input cavity), the traversing electron beam is
excited by the microwave signal that is to be amplified. This
generates an alternating signal across the gap of the cavity. The
velocity of the electrons passing through the beam will be
modulated with the RF input signal.
Each of the cavities are successively tuned in such a way as to
reproduce a linear amplified input signal. In the output cavity, the
RF output signal is coupled to the transmission line and antenna
(load).
4.5.4.1: Klystron
Klystron
The microwave signal leaving the final cavity can produce a high
power in the range several hundred watts to several kilowatts.
See table below for Typical Power Characteristics.
Klystron Power Characteristics

Frequency Power Efficiency Bandwidth Gain
6 GHz 1-5 kW 50% 60 MHz 40 dB
14 GHz 0.5-3 kW 35% 90 MHz 40 dB
18 GHz 1.5 kW 35% 120 MHz 40 dB
30 GHz 0.5 kW 30% 150 MHz 40 dB
4.5.4.1: Klystron
Klystron
Figure 4.5.4.1b Basic Features of a Multi-Cavity Klystron

4.5.4.1: Klystron
Klystron
Typical Power Supply
Figure 4.5.4.1c Typical Klystron Power Supply
4.5.4.1: Klystron
Klystron
Most Common Klystron Faults
Several faults can appear on a Klystron. Any fault should be
considered serious, as Klystrons are very expensive to repair.
• Air flow alarms - usually a wind vane or blower is faulty, or a
wind vane could be incorrectly set. A Klystron could have
multiple air return systems so all would need to be checked.
• High temp alarm - usually an air blower has failed, or the air
plenum return attachment has not been fitted properly or
has fallen loose from the Klystron collector, or AC phases
are incorrectly connected to the air blowers (need to be
reversed).
4.5.4.1: Klystron
Klystron
Most Common Klystron Faults
• High body current - tube has gotten gassy, been turned off
too long (more than 6 months), or the cavities are not tuned
properly, or a cavity is faulty. Beam power supply should
be operating at correct voltage.
• Arc detector - if an arc has been detected inside the
klystron output waveguide assembly, this would be caused
by a mismatch in the waveguide impedance due to high
VSWR.
4.5.4.1: Klystron
Klystron
Types of Distortion
Harmonics
As a Klystron is backed away from saturation, the carrier to
product ratio improves. However when the tube is driven near
saturation or beyond, harmonic components increase.
Because the electron bunches passing through the cavity occur in
quick “kicks”, it is evident that the output current may not be
purely sinusoidal and will, therefore, contain harmonic
components.
Harmonic suppression filters are often used to reduce this
intermodulation level to -50 to -60 dB.
4.5.4.1: Klystron
Klystron
T h ir d O r d e r In t e r m o d u la t io n D is t o r t io n
Harmonics are currents or voltages with
frequencies that are integer multiples of the T h ir d O r d e r
D is to r tio n
fundamental frequency. For example, if the
fundamental frequency is 60 Hz, then the 2nd
harmonic is 120 Hz, the 3rd is 180 Hz, etc. 2 f1 -f2 f1 f2 2 f2 -f1
Intermodulation Figure 4.5.4.1d Harmonics
If more than one carrier is transmitted by a single amplifier, mixing

or intermodulation (IM) processes take place. Assume two or more
input frequencies are applied. The output results in these two
fundamental frequencies, harmonics, and the sum and difference
products. The sum and difference products are the IM products.
Even order products such as the second order product of (f1+f2),
cannot appear in narrow band systems, unless the ratio of the
highest frequency (f2) to the lowest frequency (f1) is at least 2 to 1.
4.5.4.1: Klystron
Klystron
Odd order products such as the third order distortion products of
2f1-f2 or 2f2-f1 are the most significant IM products appearing in
the frequency band regardless of the frequency ratio.
AM/PM Conversion
AM/PM conversion is defined as the change in phase angle of the
output RF voltage produced by variations in input signal level.
AM/PM is expressed in degrees per decibel and must always be
defined at a specific power level. The slope of the curve relating
output phase (in degrees) to drive level (in decibels) is very small
for very small signals, but the slope begins to increase when the
input signal is increased as saturation is approached.
The principal reason that AM/PM occurs in a microwave Vacuum
Electron Device (VED) is because average beam velocity
decreases as the input is amplified.
4.5.4.1: Klystron
Klystron
This decrease in beam velocity is due to the energy exchange
between the beam and the growing RF wave, and this results in
increased electrical length of the VED.
Group delay
In an ideal transmission system, the phase shift of any signal
component is directly proportional to frequency, but in most
systems, phase distortions can occur due to mechanical
imperfections and resonant cavity filter effects.
In systems, a point of interest is the relative group delay in a
particular passband of frequencies around the radiated
microwave carrier. In the Klystron amplifier, group delay
characteristics as well as gain, gain slope, and passband ripple
are all dependent upon the tuning of the Klystron. With the use of
channel tuning, a particular characteristic, once attained, is
always recoverable at will.
4.5.4.1: Klystron
Klystron
The delay time for a Klystron over its T y p ic a l C -B a n d G r o u p
D e la y R e s p o n s e
amplitude passband is similar to a
Gain Response (dB)

50
microwave bandpass filter. For instance,

it demonstrates fast rates of phase G a in R e s p o n s e
45
change and correspondingly large relative
delay times at the band edges, and
Group Delay (ns)

Figure 4.5.4.1.1
smoothly changing phase and primarily 20 40
parabolic-shaped time delay in the center

two-thirds of the passband. Figure 10
G r o u p D e la y
4.5.4.1.e shows the amplitude response

and group delay response for typical C-
Band Klystron.
0
6.43
6.37
6.38
6.39
6.41
6.42
6.4
Tuning of the 5 cavities in a Klystron F re q u e n c y
affect the group delay characteristics.
Figure 4.5.4.1e Group Delay
4.5.4.1: Klystron
Klystron
Noise
A klystron, like any other electron tube, generates a certain
amount of “white noise”. White noise occurs because an electron
beam is never perfectly uniform. A typical Noise Figure for a
Klystron is 31 dB.
Additionally, noise power density is described in terms of
dBm/kHz and is affected by Klystron Gain, Noise Figure and the
transmission bandwidth.
4.5.4.1: Klystron
Klystron
Spurious Output Noise
System specifications often lump noise power output and
spurious outputs together.
Spurious outputs are defined as discrete frequency components
excluding AM and FM spectral lines and their harmonics.
Spurious modulation resulting from atomic oscillation of residual
ions are often included in the broad category of noise. In the
sense that these signals are undesired modulators, this is a valid
classification, but it is important that noise due to ion oscillation
appears as discretely placed tones in the frequency domain,
unlike white noise which appears across the whole spectrum.
These spurious components are typically at least 85 dB below the
rated carrier output.
4.5.4.2: Travelling Wave Tube Amplifier
Travelling Wave Tube Amplifier

General Characteristics
A TWTA is an amplifier with a wide bandwidth covering the
useable bandwidth of the satellite, typically 500 MHz or more.
Power gain is typically in the area of 25 to 50 dB. TWTA
efficiency can vary between 20 to 50% as efficiency is a function
of Bandwidth.
Klystrons and TWTAs are liner-beam tubes. Unlike the Klystron,
the TWTA is a device in which interaction between the beam and
the RF field is continuous.
TWTA Power Characteristics
Frequency Power Efficiency Bandwidth Gain
6 GHz 0.1-3 kW 40% 600 MHz 50 dB
14 GHz 0.1-2.5 kW 50% 700 MHz 50 dB
18 GHz 0.5 kW 50% 1000 MHz 50 dB
30 GHz 0.05-0.25 kW 50% 3000 MHz 50 dB

Description
A TWTA contains a electron gun, a cathode, a heater, a focus
electrode, an anode and a slow wave structure such as a helix.
Figure 4.5.4.2a Travelling Wave Tube Amplifier

Fundamentals
In order to prolong the interaction between the electron beam and
an RF field, it is necessary to ensure that both are moving in the
same direction at approximately the same velocity.
This is quite different from the multicavity Klystron, in which the
electron beam travels but the the RF field is stationary. The
problem that must be solved is that an RF field travels with the
velocity of light, while the electron beam’s velocity is unlikely to
exceed 10% of that, even with a very high Anode voltage. The
solution to this problem is to retard the RF field with a slow wave
structure such as a helix and waveguide coupled cavity. This
arrangement is the most common to TWTAs.

RF Signal Interaction Figure 4.5.4.2b Growth & Signal Bunching
Along a TWTA

Prevention of Oscillations
Figure 4.5.4.2b shows the exponential growth of oscillations along
a TWTA. This growth is not to scale, as the actual gain could
easily exceed 80 dB.
Oscillations are thus possible in a very high gain device,
especially if poor load matching is created which causes
significant reflections within the slow wave structure. The close
coupling of the slow wave circuits can aggravate the problem as
well.
To prevent these oscillations, all tubes use some form of
attenuation to prevent this feedback from occurring. Both forward
and reverse waves are attenuated but the forward wave is able to
continue and grow past the attenuator. Overall gain of the tube is
affected by adding this attenuation.

Focusing
The electron beam is confined to a diameter that is smaller than
the inside diameter of the slow wave structure. This is usually
accomplished by providing a magnetic field in parallel with the
direction of electron flow.
A large electromagnetic solenoid or a large permanent magnet
can produce a magnetic field to keep the beam focused.
However, to reduce bulk, periodic permanent magnet focusing is
often used in TWTAs.
Periodic permanent magnet focusing employs a series of small
magnets located along the length of the tube, with spaces
between adjoining magnets. The beam defocuses slightly past
each pole piece, but is refocused by the next magnet (note that
individual magnets are interconnected).

Proper OPBO & Distortions
In order to operate within the linear portion of the transfer curve, a
TWTA can be operated at 3 dB OPBO or greater in single carrier
mode. For multicarrier mode a TWTA must operate at 7 dB
OPBO. The 3rd order IM spec of -26dB is the maximum IM level
permitted in multicarrier mode. Typically, at this IM level, the
OPBO is 7 dB.
AM/PM conversion in a TWTA is caused by the reduction in beam
velocity that occurs as the input level signal is increased and
greater amounts of energy are taken from the beam and
transferred to the RF wave.
At 20 dB below the input required to saturate the TWT, AM/PM
conversion is negligible. As the input is increased beyond this
point, AM/PM conversion increases sharply.

Distortions that occur to Klystrons also apply to TWTAs. Please
refer to the Distortions area in the Klystron section.
Linearizers
A linearizer is used to improve the intermodulation distortion
(IMD) at its final output power caused by gain compression when
an amplifier is operated near its saturation level.
A linearizer allows an amplifier to produce more output power and
operate at a higher level of efficiency for a given level of
distortion.
With Linearization, a TWTA may now be operated at 3 dB OPBO
in multicarrier mode for FDMA, or with Digital Modulation only a 4
dB backoff may be required.

Linearizer Types
Feed-forward, Feedback and Predistortion are some common
forms of linearization.
Figure 4.5.4.2c Predistortion Linearizer Image Used By Permission

Pout
Pout Pout
+ =
P in P in
P in
P r e d is to r tio n
H PA O u tp u t
L in e a r iz e r

Linearizer Distortions
Figure 4.5.4.2d 3rd & 5th order
To summarize the distortions quickly IMD terms Images Used
linearizers can: By Permission
• Produce 5th order intermodulation

distortion (IMD) terms greater than
the 3rd order terms. Refer to Figure
4.5.4.2d
• Upper and lower odd order AM/PM
terms are 180 degrees out of phase
Figure 4.5.4.2e
• Upper and lower odd order AM/AM
terms are in phase
• When AM/AM and AM/PM terms
combine, the result is a nonlinear
Upper & Lower odd Upper & Lower odd
symmetrical IMD spectrum. Refer to order terms AM/PM order AM/AM terms
Figure 4.5.4.2e out of phase in phase

Linearizer Distortions
A two tone C/I improvement of 15 dB or greater is common at 4
dB OPBO providing a greater than 70% improvement over non-
linearized TWTA’s.
Spectral regrowth in QPSK signals can be reduced as much as
15 dB, depending on OPBO setting.
Figure 4.5.4.2g Spectral Regrowth
Figure 4.5.4.2f 2 Tone C/I Improvement
Images Used By Permission

4.5.4.3: Solid State Power Amplifier
Solid State Power Amplifier

General Characteristics
Advances in field effect transistor (FET) and GaAsFET technology
have significantly impacted satellite communications in spacecraft
and Earth Station applications.
SSPAs have replaced TWTs in many Earth Station applications
and some satellites are now all solid state as well.
SSPAs are a wideband device and will amplify the full spectrum of
the satellite.
They require less power to operate and do not have high voltage
power supplies like TWTs and Klystrons.

SSPA Advantages
SSPA advantages over TWTAs are as follows:
• Superior IMD performance
• High reliability
• Lower maintenance costs
• Lower spares costs
• Longer operating life compares to a TWTA (one SSPA can outlast
several tubes)
• Higher personal safety as no high voltage power supplies are
required
• Lower power consumption
• Lower cost of ownership
Solid State Power Amplifier Figure 4.5.4.3a Two Tone 3rd order IMD vs OPBO
Performance 0
SSPAs have a much better -5
intermodulation performance than -1 0
TWTs or Klystrons. See Figure -1 5
4.5.4.3a. -2 0
TWT
A
IM 3(dBc)
-2 5
Due to the SSPA improved -3 0
performance on IMD, an SSPA -3 5
can be run at 1 dB OPBO in -4 0

SSP
A
single carrier mode and at 3 dB -4 5
OPBO for multicarrier mode. -5 0

-1 0 -9 -8 -7 -6 -5
B A C K O F F (d B )
-4 -3 -2 -1 0
In fact, to operate an SSPA at an IMD below -26 dB, the graph

illustrates that the SSPA only requires an OPBO of 2.2 dB.
A TWTA at the same IMD level requires a 7 dB backoff. This
gives the SSPA a 4.8 dB performance advantage, or 3 times the
power output.

Performance
SSPA’s can replace a TWTA of 3 times the power rating without
degradation.
TWTA vs. SSPA - Multicarrier Operation

TWTA Power Rating SSPA Power Rating
2.2 kW 700 W
1 kW 350 W
600 W 200 W
300 W 100 W
125 W 50 W
75 W 25 W

To increase output power capability, GaAsFETs are either
paralleled or additional single stage amplifiers are incorporated. It
is important to note that there are tradeoffs between output
power, efficiency and gain. Referring to the table below, each
parameter shows how the GaAsFet device is affected by
optimizing a specific parameter.
SSPA Tradeoffs
Output
Power Gain Efficiency
(Watts)
1.26 6.5 25%
0.75 5.5 50%
0.7 9 15%

With parallel amplification, should a FET failure occur the SSPA
output power will drop down to lower power level.
Some new SSPA products offer modular combining such as
8 x 50 for 350 watts

Figure 4.5.4.3b SSPA Amplication Stages
4.5.4.4: Comparison of All Three Types
Comparison of all three types

When is a Klystron used over a TWTA?
A Klyston is used when high power is required, as they have
historically always provided higher power than TWTAs.
Disadvantages: high cost, narrow band, tuner may be required.
When is a TWTA used over a SSPA (assuming linearity & IMD
characteristics are similar)? Advantage: both are wideband devices.
• A rule of thumb: if 400 watts or higher is required (C-Band), A TWTA
would be chosen over a SSPA. Below 400 watts an SSPA would be
chosen as they are more cost effective.
• Below 300 watts a SSPA will consume less prime power (AC).
• Reliability of TWTAs has improved, and a study by Intelsat on their
satellites has shown that the failure rate of TWTAs is 15% better than
SSPAs.

Typical AC Power Consumption
Freq. Band SSPA TWTA Klystron
C-Band 150W SSPA=750W 400W TWT=1.5KW 3000W Klystron=9KW
400W SSPA=3KW 3000W TWT=13KW
Ku-Band 200W SSPA=2.4KW 700W TWT=2.5KW 2400W Klystron=8KW
Output Power Capability

Freq. Band SSPA TWTA Klystron
C-Band 5 to 400W 75 to 3000W 3350W
Ku-Band 4 to 200W 50 to 700W 2000-2500 W
Comparison of all Three Types

A combination of factors must be considered when choosing
between types of amplifiers such as
• Cost
• Specifications - gain, linearity, IMD
• Temperature capability
• Indoor or outdoor mounted
• Reliability
• Power consumption
• HVAC requirements
• Size limitations and redundancy requirement
Only when you have gathered a significant combination of the
above information can a informed decision be made.

Below is a table put together by Vertex/RSI.
They provided a quick study on costs comparing a 125 watt
TWTA versus a 50 watt SSPA.
TWTA SSPA Electricity HVAC Total
Comparison Power Power Savings Savings Savings
(kW) (kW) (kW-hr/yr)* (kW-hr/yr)** ($/yr)***
Single Thread
1 0.375 5500 2200 $1,150
125W TWTA vs 50W SSPA
1:1 System
2 0.425 14000 5600 $2,950
(SSPA with Power Savings ON)
Single Thread
2.8 1.1 15000 6000 $3,150
400W TWTA vs 150W SSPA
1:1 System
5.6 1.2 38500 15400 $8,100
(SSPA with Power Savings ON)
Notes:
* 24 hr per day continuous operation
** Assumes HVAC System EER of 8.5BTU/hr/W (2.5 W/W)
*** Assumes cost of electricity is $0.15 per kilowatt hour
Part 5
Up and Down Conversion

Sec 5: Earth Station Block Diagram Study
4.5.5: Up & Down Conversion
Up & Down Conversion

Single Downconversion Converters
Once the LNA has amplified the RF
signals from the satellite, the Figure 4.5.5a Single Downconversion
carriers are converted to a lower R F

frequency where the operations of R e fe c tio n
F ilt e r IF
IF A m p
filtering and signal processing are ( T u n e a b le ) M ix e r BPF
70 or 140
M H z
simpler.
Divider
F3
F1
Downconverters may use a single 4 G Hz 36 M H z
BW
36 M H z
BW
or dual downconversion process.
C ir c u la t o r
The D/C (downconverter) F2
translates the RF signal (4Ghz C- Drawing

Band or 14GHz Ku-Band) to an IF Courtesy of T u n e a b le
Telesat Canada L o c a l O s c illa t o r
signal (70 MHz or 140 MHz).


Double Downconversion
Converters Figure 4.5.5ba Dual Downconversion
This type of agile 1 s t IF
1 G H z
downconverter allows tuning 500 M H z
R F IF B P F
1G H z IF A m p
over the entire satellite R e je c t io n
F ilt e r
1st
M ix e r
&
r e je c t io n
IF A m p 2nd
M ix e r
70 or 140
bandwidth, such as 575 MHz R F 4

G H z
M H z
Divider
(extended C-Band). 36 M H z
36 M H z BW
BW
This converter uses 2 mixing
stages. The first mixer C ir c u la t o r
converters the incoming 4

GHZ signal to a first IF of 1 Drawing 1st Local 2nd Local
GHz. The second mixer Courtesy of O s c illa t o r
4 8 5 5 to 5 3 5 5
O s c illa t o r
Telesat Canada
takes this signal and M Hz
1295 M H z
converts it to a 70 or 140
MHz second IF frequency.

The IF bandwith for 70 MHz
is ±18Mhz while 140 MHz if Figure 4.5.5bb Dual Downconversion
is ±36MHz. 1 s t IF
1 G H z
500 M H z
IF B P F
By making the 1st IF higher R F
R e je c t io n 1st &
1G H z
IF A m p 2nd
IF A m p
70 or 140
in frequency than the RF R F 4
F ilt e r M ix e r r e je c t io n M ix e r M H z
bandwidth requirement G H z
Divider
36 M H z
(500MHz typical C-Band or 36 M H z BW
BW
Ku-Band BW), the
operating band frequency C ir c u la t o r
can be changed by the first

local oscillator without the Drawing 1st Local 2nd Local
need for filter returning. Courtesy of
Telesat Canada
O s c illa t o r
4 8 5 5 to 5 3 5 5
O s c illa t o r
1295 M H z
M Hz


Single Conversion
Upconverters Figure 4.5.5c Single Upconversion
R F
A upconverter takes a 70 IF A m p R e f e c tio n R F O u tp u t
MHz IF signal and translates 70 or 140 IF
M ix e r
F ilt e r
( T u n e a b le )
5 9 2 5 to
6425 M H z
M Hz BPF
it to the final RF frequency of
the satellite (6 GHz C-Band) F1 F3
36 M Hz
(14 GHZ Ku-Band) 36 M H z
BW BW
Single conversion O u tp u t
upconverters work identically F2
C ir c u la to r Power
M o n ito r
to the downconverters but in
reverse. Drawing
Courtesy of Local
Telesat Canada O s c illa t o r


Example:
F1 - 70 MHz IF
F2 - 5930 MHz mixing freq. (LO)
F3 - 6000 GHz wanted output freq.
By mixing F1 & F2 the mixer produces
5930 MHz+70 MHz = 6000 MHz
5930 MHz -70 MHz = 5860 MHz
The bandpass filter, filters out the unwanted sideband of 5860
MHz.


Double Conversion Upconverters
Double conversion upconverters work identically to the
downconverters but in reverse.
500 M Hz
IF A m p R F R F O u tp u t
70 or 140 IF R e je c t io n 5 9 2 5 to
M H z M ix e r BPF F ilte r 6425 M Hz
36 M Hz 36 M Hz
BW BW
O u tp u t
C ir c u la t o r C ir c u la t o r Power
M o n ito r
Drawing
Courtesy Figure 4.5.5d
of Local Local Double
Telesat O s c i l l a t o r O s c illa t o r Conversion
Canada Upconverters


Oscillators
The local oscillators inside frequency converters can be crystal
controlled devices or frequency synthesizers. These oscillators
are critical to the operation of the converter and must be stable
enough for the specific application.
Typical important specifications are frequency stability short term
and long term, rated in ppm (parts per million), temperature
stability in ppm over a specified temperature, and phase noise.


Different types of oscillators are:
• XO Non-compensated crystal oscillators
• TCXO Temperature compensated crystal oscillators
• OCXO Oven controlled crystal oscillators
• VCXO Voltage controlled crystal oscillators
• Microprocessor Compensated
• Disciplined Oscillators
• Multi-Crystal Oscillators


Frequency Offsets
Frequency offsets occur when the oscillator frequency is not set
exactly to the desired frequency. This can result from frequency
drift due to long term variations (aging) or short term random
frequency variations, such as might be caused by vibration or
temperature changes.
A 5 MHz oscillator having a stability of ±2 ppm would be expected
to produce a output frequency that is ±10Hz of the desired 5 MHz
output. Example : If the 5 MHz oscillator was 1 Hz high and a 6
GHz output frequency was required at the final output this would
translate to a 1200 Hz frequency offset.
Therefore it becomes very important to have an accurate and
properly specified up and downconverter for the desired service.


External Frequency Reference
External Frequency Reference allows the converter to be
frequency-locked to GPS. An external 5 MHz or 10 MHz clock
input phase locks the converter so output frequencies become
very accurate.
This provides the advantage of locking all uplink and downlink
sites so very little frequency offset occurs.
GPS receivers offer accuracies typically <1x10-12 when tracking
satellites.


Phase Noise
All electronic devices introduce noise Figure 4.5.5e Noise Spectrum
fluctuations. These are caused by the
thermal agitation of electrons.
Oscillators also become affected by
noise perturbations, affecting the purity
of the output signal, causing variations in
phase/frequency and amplitude. Noise
perturbations appear as sidebands
around the oscillator carrier output.
Refer to figure 4.5.5e.
Phase noise can also be distinguished from discrete signals.
Discrete signals are caused by the lack of filtering of the main AC
frequency in the power supply of the piece of equipment. Every
discrete signal will cause a deviation of the carrier.

Figure 4.5.5f IESS Phase Noise Specification
This IESS specification requires

that every Earth Station satisfy the
mask for carriers of less than 2.048
Mbits.


Phase Noise Problems
If phase noise specs were left unattended the largest problem
experienced would be the degradation of BER performance of
digital systems using any type of phase modulation (burst, trickle
and steady errors).

Part 6
Modems

4.5.6: Modems
Modems
A modem is a modulator/demodulator which converts input/output
information acquired via an interface to a intermediate frequency
of 70MHz, 140MHz or L-Band.
The modulator processes the information—such as speech,
music, pictures—and alters a carrier with the intelligence in one of
three possible ways: by varying its amplitude (AM), by varying its
frequency (FM), or by varying the phase of the carrier (PM).
The demodulator is used to extract the information from the
modulated waveform using the reverse process originally
performed in the modulator.
The modulator and demodulator can also be individual units, but
are typically combined into one unit.
The output of the modulator/input to the demodulator is normally
in the 70 MHz IF band (52 MHz to 88 MHz).
4.5.6: Modems
Modems
Most modems in satellite communications are data modems.
Dependant of the data speed and protocol, the data input
connector could be an RS232, V.35, RS422, X.21, or ethernet
type digital interface employing or RJ45, twisted pair terminal
block, DB9, or DB25 or other configuration. Today's digital
modems typically offer variable data rates from 2.4 to 2048 Kbps
in BPSK, QPSK and sometimes 0PSK (Offset QPSK) and 8PSK
modes. Specialty modems offer higher data rates and 16PSK.
Viterbi and sequential forward error correction are available, with
Reed Solomon Codec for additional coding gains.
Recent development in FEC techniques involve Turbo coding that
delivers significant performance improvement when compared to
Viterbi concatenated with Reed-Solomon. Turbo coding offers
increased coding gain, lower decoding delay, and bandwidth
savings of up to 40%.
Part 7
Exciters

4.5.7: Exciters
Exciters
A video exciter converts a baseband analog video and audio
signal to an RF output at 6 or 14 GHz.
A video exciter is typically composed of:
• Video baseband processor
• Audio subcarrier modulator
• Wideband modulator
• IF amplifier and filter
• Upconverter
Most exciters are modular, with removable plug-in modules for
fast easy repair. Some modules are equipped with LEDs for
status indication and controls for adjustment.

4.5.7: Exciters
Exciters
E x te rn a l S y n c In
V id e o I n Baseband W id e b a n d IF F ilte r &

P ro c e s s o r M o d u la to r A m p lif ie r
U p c o n v e r te r R F O ut
A u d io I n S u b c a r r ie r
M o d u la t o r
E x c ite r R e m o te
C o n tro l & C o n tro l
S ta tu s Bus
A u d io In S u b c a r r ie r
M o d u la t o r
A u d io In S u b c a r r ie r
M o d u la t o r
A u x illa r y S u b c a r r ie r I n p u t Figure 4.5.7 Video Exciter Block Diagram

4.5.7: Exciters
Exciters
Video exciters are not as popular today as they were 10 years
ago.
Analog video exciters are being replaced by modern DVC
equipment for most new occasional use broadcast.
Video exciters are primarily used for occasional use video feeds.

Part 8
Baseband Equipment

Contents
4.5.8.1 Multiplexers
4.5.8.2 Digital Video Devices
4.5.8.3 CSU/DSU’s
4.5.8.4 Channel Banks
4.5.8.5 Routers & Hubs
4.5.8.6 PBX Equipment

Part 8: Baseband Equipment
4.5.8.1: Multiplexers
Multiplexers
A Multiplexer is a device that combines several low speed
channels into one high speed channel.
A Mux can combine a variety of formats such as voice, data and
video.
Voice signals are first converted to digital, and some Muxes will
use compression to further reduce the bandwidth. A standard
voice circuit once converted to digital becomes a PCM 64 Kbps
circuit and can be compressed further to 32 Kbps (ADPCM), 16
Kbps (LD-CELP), 8 kbps (A-CELP) or less.
Voice interfaces can include, E&M, FXO, FXS, T1, E1.
Multiplexers
The combined output of a multiplexer is called the “Aggregate”.
Aggregate interfaces can include, T1, E1, Fractional, X.21, V.35,
ISDN.
Packet services such as Frame Relay, VOIP, VOFR, HDLC, ATM,
X.25 can also be offered.
Types of Multiplexing
1) Frequency Division Multiplexing
2) Time Division Multiplexing
3) Statistical Multiplexing
Multiplexers
Frequency Division Multiplexing
FDM is an analog method of combining several communication
channels over the same transmission facility at the same time.
In FDM, each channel uses a different band of frequencies so that
there is no interference between channels.
FDM was the most commonly used by multiplexers in the early
1960’s for early telephone trunk and radio systems.
FDM had a upper limit of 13,200 voice circuits.
Multiplexers
Figure 4.5.8.1a Frequency Division Multiplexing
Multiplexers
Time Division Multiplexing
TDM is a digital method of Figure 4.5.8.1b Time Division Multiplexing
combining several
communication channels
over the same transmission
facility by dividing a channel
into time increments and
assigning each channel to a
time slot.
TDM has replaced FDM as it
becomes easier to integrate
into large scale networks
and is less expensive to
manufacture.
Multiplexers
Statistical Multiplexing
A digital form of data Figure 4.5.8.1c Statistical Multiplexing
multiplexing in which time on
a communications channel
is assigned to terminals only
when they have data to
transport.
Stat Muxes improve circuit
utilization by minimizing idle
time between transmissions.
However, stat muxes must
be monitored to prevent
overloads.
4.5.8.2: CSU/DSU’s
CSU/DSU’s
CSU’s
The CSU (Channel Service Unit) originated at AT&T as an
interface to their non-switched digital data system (DDS). The
DSU (Digital Service Unit) provides an interface to the data
terminal equipment (DTE) using a standard (EIA/CCITT)
interface.
At the user’s end of every T1 and DDS line is a piece of
equipment called a CSU. The CSU can be a separate device or
be combined with a DSU as a dual function device.
The Telco or carrier requires a Image Courtesy of Telesat Canada
CSU/DSU unit in any situation U s e r In te r fa c e
R e c e iv e P a ir
where a user has purchased a DSU CSU T e lc o

V .3 5 , R S 4 4 9
high-speed service such as a T1,

o r R S -2 3 2 T r a n s m it P a ir
Fractional T1, or a DDS 56k/64k

line. Figure 4.5.8.3a Typical CSU/DSU
4.5.8.2: CSU/DSU’s
CSU/DSU’s
Multiplexer CSU/DSUs
If the T1 CSU/DSU has more than one user port, it can function
as a multiplexer allocating the DS-0 time slots between the ports
in multiples of 64 kbps or 56 kbps.
For voice applications, a DSX, DS1 or optional T1 tail circuit is
available.
The DSX Option: The DS1 Option:
• Provides a tail circuit in • Provides a tail circuit in Telco
Telco format for format for connection to a
connection to a PBX voice PBX voice system
system
• Allows for greater distance
• Must be within 655 feet of from the CSU/DSU to the
the CSU/DSU PBX—up to 6000 feet
4.5.8.2: CSU/DSU’s
CSU/DSU’s
The 3 Primary Functions of the CSU are:
• Protection for the T1 line and the user equipment from lightening
strikes and other types of electrical interference and a keep-alive
signal.
• Storage for keeping track of statistics.
• Capabilities for Telco initiated loopback as shown in Figure
4.5.8.3b.
Figure 4.5.8.3b CSU Loopback
R e c e iv e P a ir
U s e r In te rfa c e
DSU CSU T e lc o
V .3 5 , R S 4 4 9
o r R S -2 3 2 T r a n s m it P a ir
C S U I n T e lc o
I n itia t e d L o o p b a c k
4.5.8.2: CSU/DSU’s
CSU/DSU’s
The DSU's Function
The DSU supplies timing to
each user port. The DSU Figure 4.5.8.3c CSU/DSU Signal Formats
takes the incoming user data 1 0 1 0 1
signals (e.g., RS-449, RS- C u s t o m e r in p u t o r

o u tp u t s ig n a l to o r
232 or V.35) and converts fro m D S U
them into the form needed

for transmission over the
Telco-provided line. This T e lc o in p u t o r o u t p u t
s ig n a l t o o r f r o m C S U
conversion manipulates the

input signal into the specified 647 ns 647 ns

line code and framing format.
Refer to Figure 4.5.8.3c for
Signal Formats between the
DSU and CSU sides.
4.5.8.2: CSU/DSU’s
CSU/DSU’s
The DSU manages timing errors, signal regeneration, and
provides a modem-like interface between the computer
equipment as Data Terminal Equipment (DTE) and the CSU.
Figure 4.5.8.3d CSU/DSU & Channel Bank Block Diagram
4 w ir e T 1 L in e 4 w ir e
lo c a l lo c a l
lo o p lo o p
DSU CSU CSU DSU

D TE
DTE
C hannel Bank C hannel Bank
Figure 4.5.8.3d illustrates a typical use of a CSU/DSU connected to a

Dataport channel unit in a Channel Bank over a T1 line.
4.5.8.3: Channel Banks
Channel Banks
A channel bank is a device at a telephone company central office
(public exchange) that converts analog signals from home and
business users into digital signals to be carried over higher speed
lines between the central office and other exchanges.
The analog signal is converted into digital format as a 64 kbps
PCM format known as a DS0.
This DS0 signal is then time division multiplexed with other DS0
signals to a T1 data rate.
A basic digital channel bank consists of 24 DS0’s called a
digroup.
Many manufacturers package 2 digroups in a 48 channel
framework.
Channel Banks
The T1 data frame formats are usually D4 or ESF frame format
with AMI or B8ZS line coding.
Internal, looped or external timing options are also available.
Five Common modes of operation within the Industry
Mode1 A 48 channel mode operating over a T1-C line
Mode 2 A 48 channel mode operating over a T1-C line but with the
digroups separately timed for operation with an external
multiplexer
Mode 3 Independent 24 channel digroups operating over two T1
lines
Mode 4 Dual 48 channel banks combined to operate over a T2 line
Mode 5 Dual 48 channel banks combined to operate over a fiber
optic pair
Channel Banks
Channel Unit types within a Channel bank
2W & 4W E&M 2 or 4 wire E&M signaling trunk
SDPO Sleeve-control Dial Pulse Originating
DPO Dial Pulse Originating
DPT Dial Pulse Terminating
2W & 4W FXO 2 or 4 Wire Foreign Exchange Office
2W & 4 W FXS 2 or 4 Wire Foreign Exchange Subscriber
2W & 4W DX 2 or 2 Wire Duplex Signaling
2W & 4W ETO 2 or 4 Wire Equalized Transmission Only
Channel Banks
2W FXO/GT 2 Wire Foreign Exchange Office with
Gain Transfer
2W FXS/GT 2 Wire Foreign Exchange Subscriber with
Gain Transfer
4W SF 4 Wire Single Frequency Signaling
PLR Pulse Link Repeater
PG Program
RD Ringdown
PLAR Private Line Automatic Ringdown
OCU DP OCU Dataport channel unit
Channel Banks
Intelligent Channel Bank
Newer generation channel banks offer remote access and
configuration.
Through a controller channel unit, control settings and options
can be adjusted remotely or locally.
With remote interface capability, transmission levels may be
adjusted and other maintenance or corrective action can be made
without requiring a technician at a location, reducing maintenance
costs of the system.
4.5.8.4: Routers & Hubs
Routers & Hubs

Routers
On the Internet, a router is a device or, possibly just software in a
computer, that directs information packets to the next point toward
their destination.
The router is connected to at least two networks and decides
which way to send each information packet based on its current
understanding of the state of the networks to which it is
connected.
A router is located at any gateway (where one network meets
another), including each Internet point-of-presence.
A router is often included as part of a network switch.
A router creates or maintains a table of the available routes and
their conditions and uses this information, along with distance and
cost algorithms, to determine the best route for a given packet.
Routers & Hubs

Typically, a packet may travel through a number of routers before
arriving at its destination.
Very little filtering of data is done through routers. Routers do not
care about the type of data they handle.
The router reads the network layer address of all packets
transmitted by a network and forwards only those addressed to
another network in its domain.
A router is often packaged in devices that perform other functions,
such as aggregating data and selecting bandwidth requirements.
A router may perform routing of data on networks other than the
Internet, including private corporate networks.
Routers operate at the network layer (layer 3) of the ISO Open
Systems Interconnection--Reference Model.
Routers & Hubs

A layer-3 switch is a switch that can perform routing functions.
Types of Routers
An edge router is a router that interfaces with an asynchronous
transfer mode (ATM) network.
A brouter is a network bridge combined with a router.
What to Look for in a Router
• Type of router such as single protocol or multiprotocol, LAN or
WAN, bridging router etc.
• Type of networks connected
• Protocols supported
• Transmission speed 1200 bits to several megabits
• Number of ports
• Interfaces supported for LANs & WANs
• Network monitoring & management capabilities
Routers & Hubs

Hubs
A Hub is a device that serves as a common termination point for
multiple nodes and that can relay signals along the appropriate
paths.
Most hubs have a number of connectors to which the nodes attach
and have a common architecture such as Ethernet, Tokenring,
ARCnet or FDDI.
A concentrator can support multiple architectures while a Hub can
only support single architectures and are generally cheaper and
simpler. Figure 4.5.8.5 Ethernet Twisted Pair Hub
Connection
Hub-node connections for a
particular network must all use the
same type of cable such as twisted
pair, coaxial or fiber optic.
Routers & Hubs

Hub Features
• Hubs may be passive or active
• Passive Hubs do not change the signal in any way (non-repeating)
and generally only support distances of up to 30 meters
• Active hubs require power supplies to boost/clean signals and
support greater distances than passive hubs
• Some hubs offer network management capabilities
• Could include an onboard processor for monitoring Hub activity
and can store monitoring data in a MIB (Management Information
Base)
• Most Hubs have LEDs indicating the status of each port
• Many Hubs can do partitioning, which is a way to isolate or remove
a faulty port or non functioning node from the Hub
4.5.8.5: PBX Equipment
PBX Equipment
A PBX (private branch exchange) is a telephone system within a
customer’s location that switches calls between its internal users
on local lines while allowing all users to share a certain number of
external phone lines.
The main purpose of a PBX is to save the cost of requiring a line
for each user to the telephone company's central office.
PBX Equipment
Dialing Schemes
• A PBX allows four-digit dialing for local extension numbers
• Single digit access, e.g. “9” to access outgoing trunks, “8” to
access tie trunks. (Tie trunks are privately owned or leased lines
used to interconnect PBX’s together.)
• Single digit access for special trunks such as WATS, foreign
exchange and 800 numbers. To access these lines, many PBXs
offer least cost routing (LCR) features to enable the PBX to
determine the most economical route based on the class of trunks
terminated, their busy/idle status and the station line class.
PBX Equipment
The PBX is typically owned and operated by the customer rather
than the telephone company.
PBX’s can use analog or digital phones.
• With an analog phone, the analog-to-digital conversion is
made at the PBX
• With a digital phone, the analog-to-digital conversion is
made in the telephone itself
PBX Equipment
A PBX may include:
• Telephone trunk (multiple phone) lines that terminate at the PBX
or could be a T1 interface
• The network of lines within the PBX
• Usually a console or switchboard for a human operator
• A CPU and data storage devices
• Line Interface modules
• Terminal Interface modules
• LAN Interface modules
• Trunk Interface modules
• Modem Interface modules
PBX Equipment
Other Options
• X.25, ISDN offer digital data options
• VOIP offers a way to migrate voice traffic from circuit-switched
voice calls to packet switched voice-over IP using a company LAN
• Wireless options are available to provide internal cell phone
capability
• Wireless LANs/WANs are available using ATM technology
• Voicemail
• PBX features such as paging, call pickup, call hold, music on hold,
3 way calling, call display, call forward, call pickup, distinctive
ringing, speedcall, etc.
A few manufacturers of large PBXs include Lucent Technologies,
Northern Telecom (NORTEL), Rolm/Siemens, NEC, GTE,
Intecom, Fujitsu, Hitachi, and Mitel.
Part 9
Redundancy Equipment

Contents
4.5.9.1 The Redundancy Function

4.5.9.2 Monitor & Control Panels
4.5.9.3 Coax and Waveguide Switches
4.5.9.4 Network Control Systems (NCS)
4.5.9.5 Remote Terminal Units (RTU)
4.5.9.6 PBX Equipment

Part 9: Redundancy Equipment
4.5.9.1: The Redundancy Function
The Redundancy Function

Redundancy is provided to improve service reliability and offer a
non-interruptive maintenance lineup to the on/offline equipment.
Redundancy can be provided in several ways in an Earth Station:
• Baseband redundancy • RF equipment redundancy
• IF equipment (Modem) redundancy • Entire chain redundancy
Redundancy can be offered in hot standby (TWTA or Klystron
pushing RF power into a dummy load) or cold.
Redundancy can also be offered in 1 for 1 or 1 for N where N
could be any number of online chains that can be captured by the
standby.
Various equipment manufacturers offer many varieties of
equipment to provide automatic capture of the online chain.
4.5.9.2: Monitor & Control (MAC) Panels
Monitor & Control (MAC) Panels

MAC panels monitor and control Earth Station Equipment.
Many MAC Systems are custom designed to fit the specific needs
of the Earth Station hardware environment.
Each piece of equipment to be monitored must extend its status
and control points so that the MAC can supervise its health and
then make decisions to switch when the unit becomes faulty.
Typical Alarm Points include Typical Control points include
Power supply faults HPA Inhibit
Fan Fault Fault Reset on HPA
Low & Hi RF power HPA Auto/Manual
UC or DC faults Force Chain Switch
HPA Faults Force LNA Switch
Temperature Faults
Chain Fail Status
LNA Fault

There are various types of MAC Systems available:
• Hardware only with no software (older type MACS) See Figure 4.5.9.2a
• Hardware and software combination using DOS

• Hardware/software combination using TCP/IP (newest Type
MACS) See Figure 4.5.9.2b
Figure 4.5.9.2a Hardware Type MAC

This MAC
Systems
operates IF
switches & UC
switches in a 1
for 8 switch
scenario.
The HPA’s are
in a 1 for 1
redundancy
configuration for
vertical &
horizontal Figure 4.5.9.2b Software/Hardware Type MAC with GUI
access. Photo Used By Permission

The newest type of MAC offers Front
End Processors working in real time
with device polling and Graphical User Figure 4.5.9.2c Modem GUI for remote control
Interfaces as shown in Figure 4.5.9.2c.

They offer communications via SNMP,
IP, Serial ports, Parallel ports, Etc.
Carrier Monitoring Systems can be
incorporated as well as Uplink Power
Control Systems.
Test Equipment Software Suites are
Photos Used By Permission of Industrial Logic
available that mimic the equipment Corporation
front panel on the GUI, facilitating unit
control.

Alarms can be priority controlled and set to trigger events,
messages, or even send email.
Report generation is made easy and can be filtered to list just
specific events, sites or equipment.
With today’s software anything can be achieved making
monitoring the most sophisticated Earth Station a much less
complicated chore.
4.5.9.3: Coax and Waveguide Switches
Coax and Waveguide Switches

Coaxial and waveguide switches are used in conjunction with
automatic fail-over equipment such as a redundancy controllers
or MAC systems.
Photo Used By Permission
Figure
4.5.9.3
Coax & W/G
Switches

When ordering these types of switches the following parameters
need to be known:
• RF type of connection
• If Waveguide, what type of Flange, and what size
• If coax: SMA , BNC, TNC or N-type, and what impedance
• What operating voltage
• AC or DC and what voltage
• Other options such as
• SPDT
• Failsafe
• Weatherized
• Sealed
• Metric or standard holes

Coaxial and waveguide switches typically have a life from
200,000 to 500,000 cycles.
RF power capability is typically half the power of the guide rating.
Waveguide switches can be pressurized up to 30 psi.
Some switches have a manual path override and RF path
indication.
4.5.9.4: Network Control Systems (NCS)
Network Control Systems (NCS)

Most Network Control Systems are specialized software-based
computer systems with multiple Graphical User Interfaces designed
specifically to monitor and control specialized telecommunication
networks.
This windows based platform is a multitasking computer available to
run entire communication networks and is usually equipped with
redundancy in case of a failure.
Hierarchy screens are usually available depending on logon
privileges.
Security access is defined by granting various levels of access to
different users.
4.5.9.4: Network Control Systems (NCS)
Network Control Systems (NCS)

Hierarchy screens may include:
Configuration Management Equipment configuration details
Overview Management Overview of equipment
configuration details
Database Management Various new & old and backup
databases
Operation Management Statistics, control, debug, status
details, reports
Software Upgrades List of patches applied and
software revision levels
Administration Security, access lists , etc.
4.5.9.5: Remote Terminal Units (RTU)
Remote Terminal Units (RTU)

Remote Terminal Units could be standalone Monitor and Control
Systems.
RTU’s contain all the status and control points that a M&C system
does.
They report information to a Central Monitor and Control Panel
within the Earth Station, and also report it to a Master Network
Control Center for monitor and control.
Depending which site location wishes to control the site, the MAC
equipment must be placed in Local or Remote control.
RTU is a term used back in the 1970 to 1980 era. It is seldom
used today as it is replaced by a more modern M&C systems
connected by LAN’s and WAN’s.
Part 10
Passive Devices

Contents
4.5.10.1 Waveguide - Terminations

- Circulators
- Hybrid Coupler
- Crossguide Couplers
- Tuned Devices (Filters)
4.5.10.2 Coaxial - Splitters & Combiners

- RF Cables and their characteristics

Part 10: Passive Devices
4.5.10.1: Waveguide
Waveguide
Terminations (Dummy Loads) Figure 4.5.10.1a
Medium power, short terminations can be used in Medium Power
Terminations
various applications up to 200 watts for WR75 (Ku- Image Provided by
Band waveguide size) and WR137 (C-Band). The Mitec Telecom Inc.
absorbing element is made of silicone carbide and

is mechanically secured to the waveguide section.
These terminations are convection cooled and can
withstand elevated temperatures.
Figure 4.5.10.1b High
High Power Terminations are single element Power Terminations
terminations with a power dissipation ranging from
400 watts for WR75 to 1200 watts for WR137. They
use convection cooling. Use of forced air cooling
will increase the power dissipation capacity by
Image Provided by
roughly 50%. Higher ratings can be achieved by Mitec Telecom Inc.
making changes to the heat dissipation fins.
4.5.10.1: Waveguide
Waveguide
Circulators, Isolators
Waveguide Circulators are a 3 or 4 port ferrite 2
devices, as shown in Figure 4.5.10.1c.
Circulators have the property that each port is
connected only to the next clockwise port. Thus 1 3
port 1 is connected to port 2 but not to port 3 or 4,

port 2 is connected to 3 but not to 4 or 1, and so on.
4
Applications include isolation of transmitters and Image Provided by
receivers connected to the same antenna, or Mitec Telecom Inc.
isolation of input and output in two terminal

amplifying devices.
Waveguide circulators can typically offer
approximately 26 to 30 dB of port isolation with a Figure 4.5.10.1c Circulators
insertion loss of approximately 0.2 dB.

4.5.10.1: Waveguide
Waveguide Figure 4.5.10.1d Hybrid

Coupler
Hybrid Coupler Image Provided by
Hybrid couplers are designed to provide good Mitec Telecom Inc.
directivity and high power carrying capacity.

These devices can be used as power combiners or
power dividers. The standard coupling is 3 dB
symmetrical. Figure 4.5.10.1e
Asymmetrical
Asymmetrical coupling is also possible. Refer to Coupling
Figure 4.5.10.1e for the asymmetrical values. Ports (1-3)

or (4-2)
Ports (1-2)
or (4-3)
dB dB
Hybrid couplers can typically offer approximately 26 1
2
6.87
4.33
dB of port isolation. 3 3
4 2.2
5 1.65
6 1.26
7 0.97
8 0.75
9 0.58
10 0.46
4.5.10.1: Waveguide
Waveguide
Crossguide Coupler
Figure 4.5.10.1f
Crossguide couplers are designed to provide Crossguide Coupler
moderate directivity and flat coupling over a wide Image Provided by

Mitec Telecom Inc.
frequency range, typically 500 MHz or more.
Crossguide couplers are used in applications as
power monitoring, signal injection, isolation and
frequency measurements.
4.5.10.1: Waveguide
Waveguide
Tuned Devices (Filters)
Filters are designed to provide specific Figure 4.5.10.1g Filter
bandpass, band stop, high or low pass Image Provided by
Mitec Telecom Inc.
frequency responses or harmonic rejection for
TWTA’s and Klystrons.
These filters typically offer 50 to 70 dB rejection
at frequency, 20 to 26 dB return loss, and 0.04
to 2 dB insertion loss depending on design and
power handling capability.
4.5.10.2: Coaxial
Coaxial
Splitters & Combiners
Splitters/Combiners are reciprocal devices and as such can be
used to combine or split the signal.
Most splitters and combiners are passive devices that accept an
input signal and deliver multiple output signals.
The output signals would have specific phase and amplitude
characteristics. The ideal splitter will offer equal amplitude and
0° phase relationship between any two output signals. Splitters
with 180° phase are available.
Isolation between each output port is typically 20 to 35 dB
depending on frequency and manufacturing techniques.
It is important to terminate unused ports if high isolation is
required between ports. All Ports must be properly impedance
matched to reduce reflections.
4.5.10.2: Coaxial
Coaxial
Number of Theoretical P o rt 1
Output Ports Insertion Loss
2 3.0 P o rt S Power
3 4.8 S p litt e r
4 6.0
5 7.0 P o rt 2
6 7.8
8 9.0
10 10.0 P o rt 1
P o rt S
12 10.8 R IN T
16 12.0
24 13.8 P o rt 2
48 16.8
Figure 4.5.10.2a Splitter Losses for Number of Ports
4.5.10.2: Coaxial
Coaxial
RF Cables & their Characteristics
Coaxial cables consist of one or more center conductors
surrounded by a shield of flexible braid or semi rigid copper or
aluminum foil, with a outer jacket of PVC or Teflon.
Coaxial jacket can be made from various materials:
• PVC for general purpose indoor projects
• Armour plated - for heavy duty industrial applications
• Teflon - for extreme temperature or chemical environments, good
for plenums and riser environments
• Direct burial - may have flooding compounds or tougher jacket
• Aerial applications - usually has a stiff strong conductor attached
to the coax cable for hanging from poles, buildings etc.
4.5.10.2: Coaxial
Coaxial
Special precautions are required to avoid unwanted affects in
installing coaxial cables. Cables must be grounded only in one
place, so precautions are required to insulate connectors from
ground.
Double shielding is used in heavy EMI (electromagnetic
interference) areas.
Coaxial cable is used extensively in CATV (cable television), and
telecommunication networks as it is relatively inexpensive, can
be installed by moderately skilled workers, as has wide
bandwidth properties.
4.5.10.2: Coaxial
Coaxial
Coax supports video, data or both:
• Signal loss increases exponentially with frequency.
Frequencies above 4 GHz generally require the use of
waveguide from a transmission efficiency point of view
• Below 3 GHz coaxial cable is economically cheaper to use.
Above this elliptical or waveguide is used for longer
distances. Waveguide is better suited particularly at higher
frequencies and can handle higher power levels
• Power rating of cable should not be exceeded or the
dielectric properties of the cable breaks down and causes
further problems
• Coax attenuation varies with temperature
• See the following chart for correction factor vs. temperature
4.5.10.2: Coaxial
Coaxial
1 .1 5
1 .1 0
ATTENUATION CORRECTION FACTOR
1 .0 5
1 .0 0
.9 5
.9 0
.8 5
.8 0
-6 0 -2 0 -4 0 0 20 40 60 80 100
A M B IE N T T E M P E R A T U R E ( o C )
Figure 4.5.10.2b Variation of Attenuation with Ambient Temperature
4.5.10.2: Coaxial
Coaxial
Figure Figure
4.5.10.2c 4.5.10.2d
Attentuation
Attenuation
Versus Versus
Frequency for Frequency
Various for Various
Types of
Types of
Heliax Cables Elliptical
Cables
4.5.10.2: Coaxial
Coaxial
Common types of coaxial cables used are the RG series for 75
ohm applications: RG59, RG6, RG11, RG216.
For 50 ohm applications, common types of coaxial cables used in
the communications industry are RG58, RG8, RG11, RG214
series.
A jump into the next series cable typically increases the center
conductor outer diameter (OD), the jacket OD and decreases the
loss in dB per 100ft for the associated frequency.
4.5.10.2: Coaxial
Coaxial
The acceptable cable loss for a IFL (Interfacility Link) between the
indoor and outdoor equipment will dictate the type of cable
selected for the job.
FREQUENCY S E R IE S 6 S E R IE S 7 S E R IE S 1 1 S E R IE S 5 9
5 M H z 0 .8 1 0 .5 7 0 .3 8 1 .2 2
55 M H z 1 .6 0 1 .2 7 1 .0 3 2 .0 6
211 M H z 3 .0 8 2 .4 5 2 .0 1 3 .9 4
270 M H z 3 .5 0 2 .7 9 2 .3 0 4 .4 7
300 M H z 3 .7 0 2 .9 5 2 .4 3 4 .7 2
330 M H z 3 .8 9 3 .1 0 2 .5 5 4 .9 6
400 M H z 4 .3 0 3 .4 3 2 .8 3 5 .4 8
450 M H z 4 .5 8 3 .6 6 3 .0 2 5 .8 3
550 M H z 5 .0 9 4 .0 7 3 .3 6 6 .4 7
750 M H z 6 .0 0 4 .8 1 3 .9 9 7 .6 2
870 M H z 6 .5 0 5 .2 1 4 .3 3 8 .2 4
1 G H z 7 .0 0 5 .6 2 4 .6 7 8 .8 7
Figure 4.5.10.2e Typical 75 ohm cable Attenuation

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Original Prepared by

Technical Introduction to Geostationary Satellite Communication Systems Telesat Canada

Vol 4: Earth Stations

Rev -, July 2001 Slide Number 1

Vol 4: Earth Stations

4.5: Earth Station Block Diagram Study

Rev -, July 2001 Slide Number 2

Vol 4: Earth Stations

4.5: Earth Station Block Diagram Study

Rev -, July 2001 Slide Number 3

Part 1: Block and Level Diagram Introduced

4.5.1.1: How To Read a Block & Level Diagram

How to Read a Block & Level Diagram

Part 1: Block and Level Diagram Introduced

4.5.1.1: How To Read a Block & Level Diagram

How to Read a Block & Level Diagram

Part 1: Block and Level Diagram Introduced

4.5.1.1: How To Read a Block & Level Diagram

How to Read a Block & Level Diagram

Part 1: Block and Level Diagram Introduced

4.5.1.1: How To Read a Block & Level Diagram

How to Read a Block & Level Diagram

Part 1: Block and Level Diagram Introduced

4.5.1.2: Signal Flow

Vol 4: Earth Stations

4.5: Earth Station Block Diagram Study

Rev -, July 2001 Slide Number 9

Sec 5: Earth Stations Block Diagram Study

4.5.2: Antenna Subsystems

4.5.2.1 Types of Antennas

Rev -, July 2001 Vol 4: Earth Stations Slide Number 10

Part 2: Antenna Subsystem

4.5.2.1: Types of Antennas

Part 2: Antenna Subsystem

4.5.2.1: Types of Antennas

Figure 4.5.2.1a Prime Focus Antenna

Part 2: Antenna Subsystem

4.5.2.1: Types of Antennas

Photo Used by Permission of Weston Antennas

Figure 4.5.2.1b Cassegrain Feeds

Part 2: Antenna Subsystem

4.5.2.1: Types of Antennas

Part 2: Antenna Subsystem

4.5.2.1: Types of Antennas

Part 2: Antenna Subsystem

4.5.2.1: Types of Antennas

Photos Used by Permission

Part 2: Antenna Subsystem

4.5.2.1: Types of Antennas

5.0 x 8.5m C-Band Receive Antenna

Part 2: Antenna Subsystem

Part 2: Antenna Subsystem

Figure 4.5.2.2a Various Antenna Feedhorns*

Part 2: Antenna Subsystem

Part 2: Antenna Subsystem

Part 2: Antenna Subsystem

Figure 4.5.2.2e Definition of RF Polarization*

Part 2: Antenna Subsystem

Part 2: Antenna Subsystem

Part 2: Antenna Subsystem

Part 2: Antenna Subsystem

4.5.2.3: Antenna Characteristics