Lecture 8

Monitoring Techniques
in Wind Engineering

Yukio Tamura
Professor
Director, Wind Engineering Research Center
Director, 21st Century Center of Excellence Program
Tokyo Polytechnic University, Atsugi, JAPAN
yukio@arch.t-
yukio@arch.t-kougei.ac.jp

TOPICS

Monitoring of Winds
Laboratory-scale
Atmospheric Boundary Layer
Terrain Roughness Monitoring
Monitoring of Wind Pressures
Laboratory-scale
Full-scale
Monitoring of Wind-induced Responses
Full-scale

5-02

1
 MONITORING OF WINDS
Wind Speed Monitoring for Wind Tunnel Testing
- Particle Image Velocimetry (PIV)
- Particle Tracking Velocimetry (PTV)
- Laser Doppler Velocimetry (LDV)
Wind Speed Monitoring in Atmospheric
Boundary Layer
- Doppler Sodar
- Doppler Radar
- GPS Drop Sonde
Wide Area Wind Speed Measurement System
Terrain Roughness Monitoring
- Laser Profiler
5-03

Wind Speed Monitoring

for Wind Tunnel Testing
Pitot Static Tube, Hot Wire Anemometer, etc.
Optical Techniques Using Tracer Particles
- Particle Image Velocimetry (PIV)
Particle Tracking Velocimetry (PTV)
Loci of Particles
Laser Light Sheet, CCD Camera, Transparent Materials
Limited and Complicated Spaces
3D Flow Velocity Vectors : Multiple-
Multiple-CCD Cameras

- Laser Doppler Velocimetry (LDV)

Doppler Shift
Cummins et al. (1964)
Akins & Reinhold (1998), Havel et al. (2001), Becker et al. 2002)
5-04

2
 Particle Image Velocimetry (PIV)

Principle
- Pulse Laser
- Correlation of a group of particles between two times
Laser Light Sheet
Seeding

CCD Camera
K. Ito (2000)

Instantaneous Wind Velocity Fields in a Dome

Measured by PIV (Kondo et al. 2001)

Wind
Opening

Opening
Opening Openings
Dome

Ground Level

3
 Streamline Representation of Mean
Velocity Vectors for 2D Cylinders (LDV)
Havel et al. (2001)

Wind Speed Monitoring

in Atmospheric Boundary Layer

Doppler Sodar
Tamura et al. (1999, 2001), Amano et al. (1999)
Doppler Radar
Hayashida et al. (1996)

GPS Drop Sonde

Powell et al. (1999, 2002)

4
 Atmospheric Boundary Layer

Ug Friction Free Wind

Gradient Height Zg

A.B.L. Outer Layer

< Zg / 10 ≈200m
Surface Layer
(τ : constant)
Zero-
Zero-plane displacement
d Interfacial Layer

Mono-static Doppler Sodars

W 20º
20º
20º
20º B
A

5
 Principle of Mono-static Doppler Sodars

1) Transmitting a constant
frequency sound pulse
2) Receiving scatter sound
from a certain height
3) Detecting a frequency shift
of the PSD

20° 20°
Wind Speeds : U, V, W

Mono-static Doppler Sodars

C : The Speed of Sound
Height

Spatio-Temporal
Averaging Area
CτR

Transmission Pulse Receiving Period Time

Length τT τR = 0.146 s

6
Mean Wind Speed Profiles (Doppler Sodars)
Seaside Urban Area
500 α = 0.0 0.04 0.04 500 α = 0.08 0.21 0.21 0.22

Height (m)
Height (m)

100 100

50 50

20 20

10 10
2 5 10 20 2 5 10 20
Mean Wind Speed (m) Mean Wind Speed (m)

Effects of Fetch

Simultaneous measurement of wind speed profiles

at two sites for the same wind storm

Site A Site B
Fetch

7
 Doppler Sodars
W=20[m/s]

U=20[m/s]
300
N

地上高さ z [m]
200
Urban 2
100

0
300

8kｍ
8kｍ

地上高さ z [m]
200

100

Urban 1 0
300

4kｍ
4kｍ
地上高さ z [m]

200

Seaside 100

0
13:00 14:00 15:00 16:00 17:00 18:00

Tokyo Bay

Mean Wind Speed Profiles at Two Sites

Lying on the Direction of Wind
m
500
N

SeasideUrban
200
Urban
100

Urban 1
12kｍ
12kｍ
50
Seaside
Seaside
20

Urban Seaside
2 10
2 5 10 20
Tokyo Bay
U (z) [m/s]
Wind

8
 Doppler Radars

Doppler Shift of Transmitted Radio Waves

2,450
5,000
6,800 Courtesy of Takenaka Corp.

Profiles of Mean Wind Speed and Direction

(Typhoon 0115) obtained by Doppler Radars
3000 10min Mean

2500

2000
Height (m)

1500

1000

500

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 90 180 270
Wind Speed (m/s) Wind Direction (deg)

Courtesy of Takenaka Corp.

9
 Ten Eye-wall Profiles from Hurricane
Mitch 1998 (GPS Drop Sonde)

Powell et al., 1999

Wide Area Network System of Wind

Measurement
- Utilizing Power Transmission Line System

Kyushu Electric Power Company

Network for Wind Measurement of Kyushu
(NEWMEK) Maeda et al. (1995)

Damages of Transmission Line Systems by Typhoon

No.19 in 1991

- 121 anemometers

10
 Anemometer on a Transmission Tower
(NEWMEK)

Ultra-
Ultra-Sonic Anemometer

Aero-
Aero-Vane

Ultra-
Ultra-Sonic Anemometer
Courtesy of Maeda & Tomokiyo
(Kyushu Univ.)

Terrain Roughness Monitoring

Geological Information System

Digitized Height & Land Use Pattern of Ground
Surface
Airborne Laser Profiler
- Digital Terrain Model
Ground Roughness Including Buildings & Trees
Kraus & Pfeifer (1998),
Shadow Evaluation: Yoshida et al. (2001)
Aerodynamic Modelling: Maruyama (1999)

11
 TOPICS

Monitoring of Winds
Laboratory-scale
Atmospheric Boundary Layer
Terrain Roughness Monitoring
Monitoring of Wind Pressures
Laboratory-scale
Full-scale
Monitoring of Wind-induced Responses
Full-scale

WIND PRESSURE MONITORING

Wind Tunnel Tests

Simultaneous Multi-channel Pressure
Measuring System (SMPMS)
Fujii et al. (1986), Ueda et al. (1994)

Full-scale Measurements
Aylesbury Experimental House
Texas Tech Building
Silsoe Structures Building
Sjimizu Corp. Experimental Building
Setagaya Business Square (Internal Pressure)

12
 Simultaneous Multi-channel Pressure
Measuring System (SMPMS)

Pressure Model and Wind Force Components

13
 SMPMS

Mean and Standard Deviation

of Fluctuating Pressures
Wind Pressures on Surfaces of a Low-
Low-rise Building Model

Mean Pressure Cpmean Standard Deviation Cp’

14
 SMPMS

- 0.4
- 0.5 - 0.6 - 0.6 0.1 0.1 0.2
- 0.3
- 0.6- 0.7 - 0.1 0.1
- 0.4 - 0.4 - 0.5
- 0.8
0.1
- 0.9
- 0.5 - 1.0 0.2
0.2
- 0.4 0.1 0.1
- 0.5 - 1.4 0.2
- 0.6 0.4
- 0.6 0.3
- 0.6 - 0.7 0.3
- 0.8 - 0.9 - 1.0 - 1.4 0.4 0.9 0.5
0.3
- 0.3 0.1 0.2 0.4 0.5
- 0.1 0.1 0.2

(a) Mean pressure (b) Fluctuating pressure

coefficient Cp coefficient Cp’
Pressure distributions on a low-rise building
model (θ = 45°, D : B : H = 4 : 4 : 1)

15
 Mean and Standard Deviation
of Fluctuating Pressures
Wind Pressures on Surfaces of a High-
High-rise Building Model

Mean Pressure Standard Deviation

Combination of SMPMS and

Proper Orthogonal Decomposition

Karhunen-Loève Decomposition
- Probabilistic Expression of Factored Analysis
- Armit (1968)
- Lee (1975), Best & Holmes (1983),
Kareem & Cermak (1984)
- Beinkiewicz et al. (1995), Kikuchi et al. (1997),
Tamura et al. (1999)

16
Eigenvectors of the Lowest Three Modes

1st Mode 2nd Mode 3rd Mode

Eigenvectors of Lowest Two Modes

Fluctuating pressures acting on a high-

high-rise building model

1st Mode 2nd Mode

17
 Eigen Vectors of 3rd, 4th and 5th Modes

Fluctuating pressures acting on a high-

high-rise building model

3rd Mode 4th Mode 5th Mode

Instantaneous Pressure Distributions Causing

Extreme Wind Load Effects

Load Response Correlation Formula

- Kasperski & Niemann (1988), Kasperski (1992)
- Validity Proof:
Holmes (1992)
Tamura et al. (2000, 2001, 2002) by SMPMS

Extreme Wind Load Distributions

18
 Actual Ĉp&
Kasperski’s LRC & Quasi-Steady GCpmean
(Pin-Roller, α = 1/4, 154 Samples)
(Pin-
Actual

GCpmean

Mmax
G = ―――
Mmean
= 3.02
cf. GV 2 = 4.33

Causing Max. Beam Bending Moment M at Windward End

Internal Force and Response Analysis

Based on SMPMS Data
Electronic Aerodynamic Database
- Whalen et al. (1998)
- Zhou et al. (2001) : Interactive HFFB Data
Practical Design of Buildings
- Yasui et al. (1999)
- Taniguchi et al. (2001)

19
 Full-scale Measurement of Fluctuating
External Pressures
Aylesbury Experimental House
Eaton & Mayne (1975)
Texas Tech Building
Ng & Mehta (1990), Levitan et al. (1991)
Silsoe Structures Building
Richardson et al. (1990)
Flow Visualization
Banks et al. (2000)
Multi-channel Fluctuating Pressure Measurement
Hibi et al. (1994)

Texas Tech Building

20
 Texas Tech Building
N θ

Peak & Mean Pressure Coefficients

(symbols) Full-scale
CSU 1:100 model scale
Windtech 1:100 model scale

Approaching Wind Azimuth θ (°)

Comparison of TTU full-scale data with wind tunnel data
(Rofail, 1995)

Shimizu Experimental Building (Hibi et al., 1994)

Temporal Variation of Instantaneous Wind Pressures

21
Full-scale Measurement of Internal Pressures

Setagaya Business Square : Kato et al. (1997)

- Highly Precise Absolute Pressure Transducers
Range: 800 – 1100 hPa
Resolution: 5ppm

Setagaya Business Square

Kato et al., 1996

22
 Setagaya Business Square

Comparison of full-scale and wind tunnel model-

scale pressure coefficients (Kurita et al., 1996)

Setagaya Business Square

Correlation between full-scale and model-scale

mean pressure coefficients (Kato et al., 1996)

23
 Setagaya Business Square
Ground
7th story
13th

hPa))
Mean Internal Pressure ((hPa
18th
24th

7th Ground

13th

18th
24th

Temporal variations of mean internal pressures

(Full-scale, Kato et al., 1996)

Setagaya Business Square

mmAq))

1
Difference From Reference Pressure ((mmAq

− 0.26 Internal
Pressure Coefficient
Cpi = pi / qR
pi
24th story
18th
13th
(Office)
13th
7th
(after altitude compensation)

Mean Velocity Pressure at Top : qR

Variation of mean internal pressures with reference
velocity pressure (Full-scale, Kato et al., 1996)

24
 TOPICS

Monitoring of Winds
Laboratory-scale
Atmospheric Boundary Layer
Terrain Roughness Monitoring
Monitoring of Wind Pressures
Laboratory-scale
Full-scale
Monitoring of Wind-induced Responses
Full-scale

RESPONSE MONITORING
Wind-induced Response:
Static Comp. + Quasi Static Comp. + Resonant Comp.
Accelerometers
Monitoring of Displacements
- He-Ne Gas Laser Transmitter
Kobayashi et al. (1964)
- CCD Cameras
Maeda et al. (1999)
- RTK-GPS
Çelebi (1998), Toriumi et al. (2000),
Tamura et al. (2001), Ding et al. (2002),
Kijewski & Kareem (2002),
Breure & Konopka (2002)

25
 Global Positioning System
At an altitude of
20,000 km
6 Orbits
× 4 Satellites
= 24 Satellites
(Revolution：
Twice／Day)

GPS Survey
Receiving of radio wave from GPS satellite
→ Necessary Traveling Time → Distance
Causes of Errors
- Position Dilution of Precision(PDOP)
- Clock Errors of GPS D2
- Orbit Errors of GPS Satellites D1
- Ionosphere Delay D3
- Troposphere Delay (x,y,z)
- Multi-path, Electric Wave (Cellular Phone, TV)
- Receiver Noise
- Selective Availability (Accuracy Deteriorate Signal)

26
 Real Time Kinematic GPS
(RTK-GPS)
GPS Satellites
Moving Body
GPS
2-Frequency Type Antenna

(Interference Survey) GPS Position

GPS
Receiver
Antenna Adjustment
DMCA Radio GPS
Signal

(Digital Multi-
Multi-Channel Receiver
Receiver

Wave）
Access Wave） Modem

Transmission PC Data
Modem Recorder

Fixed Reference Point Measuring Point

- Possible range: 2 km (Exactly known position)

Real Time Kinematic GPS

(RTK-GPS)

Measuring Point
(X, Y, Z)
al
gn
Si
no
cti
re
or
rC
ro
Er

(X0 , Y0 , Z0)
Reference Point (Fixed) 40-09

27
 RTK-GPS Monitoring
Leica GPS Receiver (MC1000)

GPS Antenna
・10Hz Sampling
・X, Y ：1cm + 1ppm
・Z ：2cm + 2ppm
・5 Satellites

Harmonic Movement
of Exciter’s Mass

Wire-type Displacement
Transducer GPS Antenna

GPS Antenna Exciter

(Reference Point) (Measuring Point)

28
 GPS Record of Harmonic Motion
DIS : Accurate Displacement
Y = 2cm
4 cm 4 cm DIS

Displacement
Displacement

GPS
2 GPS 2
0 0
-2 DIS -2
-4 -4
0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5
f = 0.5Hz Time (sec) f = 3Hz Time (sec)
cm 4 cm

Displacement
4
Displacement

GPS DIS GPS

2 2
0 0
-2 -2
DIS
-4 -4
0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5
f = 1Hz Time (sec) f = 4Hz Time (sec)

GPS Record of Harmonic Motion

f = 2Hz DIS : Accurate Displacement
1 cm 4 cm
Displacement
Displacement

GPS GPS
2
0 0
DIS -2
-1 -4 DIS
0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5
Y=0.25cm Time (sec) Y=2cm Time (sec)

2 cm GPS 6 cm GPS
Displacement
Displacement

1 3
0 0
-1 -3
DIS
-2 -6
0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5
Y=1cm Time (sec) Y=5cm Time (sec)

29
GPS Monitoring of Building Responses

RTK-GPS can measure:

- Dynamic Component + Static Component
- Frequency ≤ 2Hz (Building Height H ≥ 30m)
- Amplitude ≥ 2cm

ex. Mean Wind Speed V10m =15m/s

(Extratropical Cyclones) : Building Height H ≥ 80m
Mean Wind Speed V10m =25m/s
(Tropical Cyclones): Building Height H ≥ 60m
- Seismic Responses

Response Monitoring
of a 108m-high Actual Tower
Anemometer
GPS Antenna
Accelerometer

108m

Reference Point
GPS Antenna

16m

30
 GPS Antenna at Tower Top

13m
13.000 NN

13.000
13.000

13m
X X
X
N 0
00
Y 5.

Y
13.000

Top Floor Plan GPS Antenna

Temporal Variations of Responses

cm/s 2
20 Accelerometer
Acceleration

10
0
-10
Resonant Comp -20

cm
6 RTK−GPS
Displacement

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (s)

31
 Temporal Variations of Responses
cm/s 2
20 Accelerometer
Acceleration

10
0
-10
Resonant Comp -20

cm Resonant component
6 RTK−GPS
Displacement

2 Static component
Quasi-static component
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (s)

Comparison of Power Spectra of

Responses by GPS and Accelerometer
-3
10
0.57Hz

-4
10
S ( f ) [m2 s]

-5
10
RTK-GPS
Dis

-6
10
Accelerometer
-7 (2πf)−4 SACC(f)
(2π
10
0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
Frequency f [Hz]

32
Static Deflection Due to Solar Heating
6
5 10:00 11:00 12: 00 X
4 13:00
9:00 Y
3 14: 00
y [cm]

8:00
2
1 16:00
15:00 N
0 7:00
17:00
-1 6:00
-2 18:00
-3
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5
x [cm]

33