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Abstract: Artificial iieurnl networks (ANNs) cain be used succcsstiilly to dctcct l'aults i n rotating
machinery, using statistical cstiriiates of the vibration signal as input features. 111 any givcii
scenario, there arc many tliffcrcnt possiblc features that niay be used as inputs fus the ANN. One
o f the main problems facing the u s e of ANNs i s tlic sclcction o f tlic best illpiits 111 the ANN,
allowing thc crcation (if compact, Iiighly accurate networks that rcquisc coiiiparativcly little
prepsoccssing. The paper examines the use of a genetic algorithin (GA) to sclcct llic most
significant input features rsom a large set OS possiblc features i n machine condition iiionitoring
contexts. Using a (?A, a suhsct of six input features is sclcctcd fsoiii a set ol' 66, giving a
classification accuracy of 99.R%,, comparcd with a i r accuracy of 81.2% using an ANN without
feature selection and all 66 inputs. From a Iargcr set of 156 dilfbrcnl rccalurcs, the GA is able to
select a set of six features to give 100% rccognitimi accuracy.
best type of encoding i s very imiicli problem depcndcnt, 14) cl3ill) c l 2 l l 2 J ~ 1 4 ) (IJ ~ 1 2 c
) l31 ~141'
and may require sonic Corm of coinbination or two or inorc c.> <. 2, ,' I
(;(1Jl3)
x y ,i m, I 3 1
10 Results
where y. E [O, I ) are both randomly sampled nniformly 10.1 Results: ANN
distributed variables. Table I sliows ii sominary o f results Tor a11 six Seature sets
uscd The ‘no. neurons’ quoted in tlie second column is the
8 Fitness function numbcr of neurons itsett in the hiddeu layer of the best
network in each training run. ‘Classification succcss’
rcprcscnls Ihc pcrccnlagc succcss rate of the ANN using
The fitness function uscd in tlie GA simply rctttrns Ihc
immbcr of corrcct classifications made over tlie whole the complete dalascl, which includes both training and lest
data. Thc ‘Calse alarm’ sate dctails the percentage or
datasct. No direct penalisation is made for incorrect clas-
sification hcrc, just that the classification score will be ‘iiorinal’ conditions that were misclassified as alarm condi-
correspondingly lower. The whole dataset is uscd to tions. The ‘Saault iiot rccognisctl’ category clctails the
provide sonic forin of cvaluation of the generalisation percentage of I‘ault conditions that wcrc classified as
properties 01‘ the network. While the perforiniince could normal.
As can be sccn, all tlic fcalurc sets have a performance
be rated nii only the performance of tlie validation set, it
was fell that this would give an inadequate measure of the greater than 80%, with two cases in excess of 90%; the
performance of the G A on the training sct. Owing to tlic spectral reaturc set givcs the best performance, at 97% Sor
nature of the machine syslcni, it is not always easy to the overall datasct. While this is a comparatively small
choose training data that arc complctcly representative o r feature se1 containing 66 rcat~rcs.the spcctral content of
likely characteristics of the fault data, and so the perfor- tlie data is ideally suited to recognising scvcral oC tlne
innincc of thc G A / A N N is mcasurcd over both datasets lo periodic type faults that are generated by the diffcrciit
conditions. The aggrcgatc nf tlie false alarm rate and
allow the GA to bc more representative in its sclcction of
fault not recognised rates is also the lowest of all the
features.
diffcrcnt fcaturc sets. This would perhaps suggest that
More complex forms of fitness ftmction, cithcr involving
breaking the signal down into a niiiiibcr of different
incorrect classifications or sum squared error or other
f~-cqucncy‘bins’ allows the A N N to classify the different
factors, could be uscd to determine the performance of
features comparatively easily.
each network trained; however, tlne performancc achieved
using this comparatively siniplc fitness function shows that The poorest performance is given by the feature set
which used high- and lowpass filtering. Again, this is a
they are not needed to achieve good results in this applica-
comparatively small Ccaturc set, containing only 36
tion.
features; however, it is not the sniallcst fcaturc sct, and il
may be the case that the filtering process is removing
9 Training and simulation ccrtain data conccrning the spccd of rotation, etc. that the
ANN rcqoircs for accurate recognition.
Training was carried out using six dalascls. lour oC the Generally speaking, those datasets coutaining little or no
datasets were statistically based, using tlne plain statistics spectrally based inrormalion have iiot performed as well as
fcattirc set (18 fcalurcs), signal differencing and sunlining those that do. Examining the actuiil classification rcsulls
(36 features), and high- and Iiiwpass filtering (36 fcalurcs), for the case using the spectral fcaturc set (Table 2), the
the fourth lcattirc set comprising all the statistically based brealdown of the A N N classification can be seen. Each
features (90 features). The set of 66 spectral fwturcs was column of the table sliows the relative classifications made
used as an individual case, and this dalpel was combined by the A N N for a given condilion. Each row i n thc colnmnn
with all the statistical feature sets to forin an input fcaturc vector sliows what the ANN perceived them as, expressed
set oC 156 inputs. Each lcalure set contained a total of 960 a s a pcrcentage of the total number of cases for that
cases. Using the gcinctic algorithm running for a total o f 2 0 condition. As can he seen, two categories inanage to
generations, each containing ten mcmhcrs (meaning tlic achieve 100% accuracy, wlnilc most others are in excess
training OS 200 neural networks), eight separate cases were of OX’%, accurate. Thc lcast iiccuralc fault condition is tlne
209
Table 2: Classification success (%) for straight ANN, 'normal' and as such arc 1101rcgarded iis fatiil conditions.
using spectral data only Thcrc still rcniiiins a rairly high proportion o f misclassifi-
cations hcing made, with the rcmiiindcr bciiig conliiscd
Perceived Actual condition hclwccn outcr race (OK) and cage Tauits (CA). Of lliesc
condition NO NW IR OR RE CA
two categories, tlic cage Iiault i s tlic inorc coininon classi-
NO 98.8 0 0 0 0 12.5 lication, a1 15.6% 'l'his i s cc~nsistcntwith the niisclassifi-
cations that wcrc seen with tlic spectral dalasc~,in that it
NW 0 100 0 0 0.6 0
would seein that tlic two inorniiil cases and the cage Tault
IR 0 0 98.8 0 0 0 appcar similar to the ANN.
OR 12 0 1.2 100 0 2.5
RE 0 0 0 0 99.4 0
CA 0 0 0 0 0 85.0 10.2 Genetic algorithm with ANN after 20
generations
Table 4 shows a coiiq~arisunhclween the results generated
after a run of 20 gciicrations using tlic combined genetic
cage (CA) Tault, which the ANN has a lot o r Irouble algorithm ANN prograiii (GANN), and the stand-alone
classifying, consislently confusing the f i u l t conditi(in A N N program. The tahlc shows specific i-csulls fool- cach
(85%) with the norinal condition (12.5"/0), and also lo a ANN considercd i n Table I, and compares tliesc against
lesser extent, the outer race (OR) Can11 (2.5%). This i s the best rcsull achieved using Ilic C A N N systcm. The third
consistent w i l h the fail1 condition, which can he erratic a t subset of columns show Lhc iiicaii perforinancc and the
times and, depending on the bearing loading, can be range of pcrTormauccs achieved, exprcsscd as perccntagc
difficult lo detect. It would perhaps suggest that Ihe acciiracies.
resolution nT the FFTs that were taken i s not sufficiently On cxaminiiig tlie rcstilts on a like Tor l i k e basis, it can
high lo detect the hull; alternatively, due to the intermittent be secn that all cases havc a success sale in cxccss of
nature that the liault exhibited under the experimental load 92.0%, and tlic hcst (;ANN solution lias a marltedly higher
condilions, i t inmy be that the amplitude of the Tau11 signal classilicalion rale tllan tlic cquivulenl 'sli-aighl' ANN. Tlic
i s very similar to that of the normal conditions, and tlic
number o T inputs sclecled in cach ciisc i s significantly
ANN has lrouhlc distinguishing between them. sinaller than tlic coinpletc fcaturc sets used in cach set, the
Examining the classification tablc (Table 3) Tor thc worst seleclcd features arc subscts of tlic original datasets, aiitl
casc (the higli/lowpass filtered dala), the exlcnt oT the thus any informalion available to the small GANN i s also
inisclassification that i s occurring can be sccn. Threc available to ttic larger one.
categories in particular arc very poor; thc normal (NO) Exaiiiining the rcsulls Cor tlic nicau pcrrurmancc, it cm
casc i s the worst of these, with a classilication accuracy oC
be s e w that cvcsy singlc result achieved a i i g h c r perTor-
22.5%. The poor performance i s no1 as bad as firs1 inancc using the GANN than the stand-alunc ANN. This i s
impressions may give; it can be seen that a Turther 61.9% also bornc out by the performatice mngc figures, wliicli
of the cases have been classified as worn norinal (NW) show that i n a l l cases Ihe inputs selected hy the GANN
hcarings, which while iiicorrcclly classificd, are still provide a superior perfimnancc to an ANN using all
available inputs. As can he sccn, Ihc spcclral datascl,
wliich had the higlicst pcrTormancc, improves rrom
Table 3: Classification success (%) for straight ANN, 97.0% (using 66 inputs) to 99.7% (using only eight
using highpassilowpass data illputs). 'l'liis inicans Ilial, out of the lotnl oT 960 examples,
only thrcc havc been misclassified, using oiily one-eighth
Perceived Actual condition
condition NO NW IR OR RE CA
of the inputs. Intcrcstingly, Ilic highhwpass iiltercd data
have undcrgonc the largest improvement in pcrrornmcc,
NO 22.5 0 0 0 0 0.6 jumping Trom 83.1% to 97.7%. This compares well with
NW 61.9 100 1.3 0 1.3 10 thc other results. 'lhc fact that the high/lowpass cl;ita are
able to reach ii value i n cxccss oT 07% iinplics that the
IR 0 0 88.8 0 0 0
infc~rmationcontained within the fcaturc set i s sufficient lo
OR 0 0 2.5 100 0.6 0
allow accurale classification, witiiout the n c c d Tor extra-
RE 0 0 0.6 0 98.1 0 neous in~orination.Additionally, the nontbcr of inpols
CA 15.6 0 6.8 0 0 89.4 required lo achieve this level of accuracy i s one-quarter
of that used by lhe straight ANN.
Table 4: Comparison between stand-alone ANN and GA with ANN after 20 generations, for all six datasets
210 IEE i'lor'-Vi.~.iiaaxc Sigtwl l'mwn., I'oi 147, dNo 3. .him, 2lliiil
Examining the classifications o f the spectral fcaturc set hclpful criterion in the sclcction of condition monitoring
after 20 generations (Table 5 ) , a number o f things can he systcms.
seen. The classification of the nctwork has improved Looking at thc results for the high- and lowpass filtering
markedly in that thcrc arc only a few mistakes. All faults (Tahlc 6), the improvement in the classification from the
are now classificd as t:dults, and all normal conditions arc straight A N N (Table 3) is very evident. Four o f the six
classified correctly. Whilc the actual classification bctwccn conditions achieve I00% accuvacy, whilc one ol' the other
some or the fault conditions is not yet ciitirely right, the two categories (rolling clement fault, RE) has remained as
fact that there arc no errors heing madc in the classification accurate, and the other (cage fault, CA) has dcterinrated
of faults as normal, and vice versa, i s perhaps the most slightly. The only Eaull condition which i s being confused
with the 'normal' conditions is the cage fault, and this is
thc same problem as previously existed. It may hc that the
Table 5: Classification success (%) for GANN after 20
spectral information by itself i s insufficiently detailed to
generations, using spectral data
allow discrimination hetwccn these conditions at the lower
Perceived Actual condition spceds o f rotation.
condition NO NW IR OR RE CA
Table 7: Comparison between stand-alone ANN and GA with ANN after 40 generations, for all six datasets
Dataset Straight ANN GA with best ANN GA with ANN
No. of No. No. of NO. Mean Perf.
inputs hidden Perf. % inputs hidden Perl. % perf. % range
~
Table 8: Comparison between stand-alone ANN and GA with ANN after 60 generations, for all six datasets
Dataset Straight ANN GA with best ANN GA with ANN
No. of No. No. of No. Mean Perf.
inputs hidden Perf. % inputs hidden Perf. % perf. % range
Statistics only 18 14 84.4 9 5 97.0 95.5 94.2-97.0
Highpassllowpass 36 7 83.1 8 io 97.7 97.4 97.0-97.7
Difierencinglsumming 38 12 89.3 6 8 97.6 96.6 96.147.6
All statistics 90 7 83.1 7 9 97.4 96.6 95.7-97.4
Spectral data 66 8 97.0 7 10 99.7 99.4 98.9-99.7
All data 156 6 91.1 7 15 I00 98.7 96.4-100
improvcment ovcr the shorter ~UIS. In almost all cascs, the 12 Acknowledgments
algorithms had converged by 60 gcnerations. Comparing
the results for GO gencmtions, it can bc seen that Ihc Thanks must be cxpresscd to Weir Pumps for the loan of
pcrformancc oC llic best nctwnrks for each dataset the machinc set uscd in the cxperimcnts. Fiiiancial support
rcmaincd similar, cxcept that it improved fnr the statistics was provided b y Weir Pumps, Solatron Instruments and the
only case. University o f Livcrpool.
In Tour C ~ S C S (statistics only, differcncing/sitinming.
spectral and all data), tlic mean pcrformance oC thc featurc
sets imorovcd. whilc in thc othcr two [all statistics and 13 References
..
due to an inadcqnacy o f t l i c fitncss fmiction, i n tllitt there i s
no pcndty term for larger sizcs of hidden laycr. Incorpiir-
., ,...
ating this into the fitncss funclion would allow better 5 ILlU, Trl., a n c l MliNGCL, J.M.: ‘Intelligent monitoring of ball bearing
results in this rcspect. cmtlilioils', M e d . .SjmSigrid t ' i a c ~ ~ ,1992,
~ , 6, (5), pp. 4 1 9 4 3 1
6 BlSl IOP, C.M.: 'Neural nctworks h r lpattem locognilion' (Clarendon
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7 GUNN, S.R., and BROWN, M.: 'SIJPANOVA ii sparse transparent
modcllitig approach'. Procecrlings of IEEB Workshop on Neirml
11 Conclusions
rotatiiig siiafl loading conditions using ilrlificinl neond nctworks', IEEli
The work that has been carried ont so Car appcars very lians. Newal Nefw, 1997, 8, (3), pp. 748-757
promising. Thc performance of networks trained using thc 10 HAYKIN. S.: 'Ncural nciwarks: A comnrchcnsivo huntlation'
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allows rcature sclcctioo to be carried out in an automatic I? CKILDBERG. G.B.: (mictio illmrithms in SCBICII. ontimisation ai11
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13 RAYMtR, M.L., PUNCH, W.F., GOODMAN, IE, SANSCIIA-
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automatically. It has been shown in one set of cxperimcnts sclcctioii itbins n inaskine emetic nleorithm'. Proceedines of 7th
that the genetic algorithm i s capable of selecting a snbsct I'ublishing, San rmcisco, 1997) p p 6% 642
of six inputs from a set of 156 features that allow the ANN 14 TANG, K,S., MAN, K.F., KWONG, S., and Hli, Q.:'Gcnetic algo-
to nerforni with 100% accnraw. Addilionallv. ~. oii a smallcr rithms md their applications', ll!liR Sigltal 1'roce.w !Max., 1996, 13,
~~
useful and dcsimblc approach. The smaller the numbcr of 17 MENDBL, J.M.:'Signal pmcessing with higher
S i g d P~oce.ssMug., 1993, 10, (4), pp. 10-37
inputs and computation required lo carry out classification Ix NANDI, A , , ~ , : 'Blind eSti,natiOn using stilti~tice,
successfully, the lcss complex thc proccssing nnit nscd Tor (Kluwer Academic I'ublishers, Ihston, 1999)
classificaiio11 w i l l have to be, wit11 tlic colrscqucnt benefits 19 I'APOIJLIR, A.: 'I'rohability, ratidmi variables and stochastic
pmcesscs' (McGlaw llill Inc., Ncw York, 1991)
i n costs and sizc, making a A N N based system suitahlc h r 2o M,: 'GAlib: C++ gcnctic i,lgnl.itllms lihlnry~, Availahlo
mounting 011 a chip or board in an intcgraled package. littp:lllancct.mir.~~l~~lg~~
212