ISTITUTO ITALIANO DELLA SALDATURA

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2017 ©

RISAL – UT Advanced Techniques

Introduction to TOFD technique

Introduction to TOFD

Definition of TOFD
• TOFD - Time Of Flight Diffraction - is a
new UT technique used to detect and
size discontinuities in metallic
materials, with a thickness bigger than
or equal to 6mm;
• TOFD is based on measuring the time
of flight of the diffracted waves by the
tips of a defect;
• TOFD is mainly applicable to:
– non-alloy steel;
– low-alloy steels;
– austenitic steels;
Mobile carriage for TOFD
– fine grain aluminum and its alloys.
(Courtesy of Aut Solution)

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Introduction to TOFD

Principle of the technique

• When an ultrasound beam is incident on a defect, its surface reflects part
of the wave, while the tips of the discontinuity generate diffracted waves.
• These waves, even with low content of acoustic energy (signals with
amplitudes 20-30dB lower than reflected ones), have the advantage of
being generated from defects still oriented and form both two-dimensional
and three-dimensional. Incident
wave Diffracted
wave

• Note: Testing materials with high Reflected

acoustic attenuation is problematic wave
with TOFD system because of very low Trasmitted
energy of the waves Diffracted wave
wave

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Introduction to TOFD

Principle of the technique

• The TOFD technique involves the use
of a pair of probes, a transmitter and
a receiver, arranged symmetrically
with respect to the area to be
checked;
• The transmitting probe sends a beam
of longitudinal waves, which interact,
if present, with the tips of the defect,
creating waves that arrive at the
receiver.

• Advantages of longitudinal waves:

– Generation of more diffraction
phenomena
– Generation of lateral waves

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Introduction to TOFD

Principle of the technique

• The measurement of the time of
flight is used to determine, by
the Pythagorean theorem,

– Defect depth
– Height of defect

• The inspected area depends

on:
– size of the cone of emission
and receiving
– size of dead zone

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Introduction to TOFD

Type of Signal

• A-scan representation:
– Shows the scan data in the form of radio
frequency signals

• B-scan representation:
– it encodes A-scan in grayscale (at least 64
tones)
– white is associated with the 100% amplitude
with the positive phase
– black is associated with the 100% amplitude
with the negative phase

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Introduction to TOFD

Advantages
• POD (Probability of Detection) very
high: up to 90%, combined with an
FRC (False Call Rate) very low
compared to traditional techniques

• Capability to detect discontinuities

near the surface too (depending on
dead zone)

• Little influenced by the orientation of

the defects

• High scanning rate

• Accuracy and reproducibility of the

measurements (as they are based on
flight and signal amplitude)

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Introduction to TOFD

Disadvantages
• Presence of two dead zones:

– one at the surface

– one at the bottom of the piece

• Signals characterized by low intensity, which can be confused with the

electronic background noise:

– adequate calibration is necessary

• The presence of point defects of small entity can cover the presence of
more serious defects.

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Introduction to TOFD

Reference Standards
• Europe:
• ISO 16828 "Non-destructive testing - Ultrasonic Testing: Time-of-flight
diffraction techniques as a method for detection and sizing of discontinuities"
• ISO 10863 “Non-destructive testing of welds – Ultrasonic Testing: Use of time-
of-flight diffraction technique (TOFD)”
• ISO 15626 “Non destructive testing of welds - Time-of-flight-diffraction
technique (TOFD). Acceptance levels”

• USA:
• ASME V – art. 4 appendices
• Code cases (e.g. 2235-6, 2235-9, 181-1)
• Codes (e.g. for piping B31.3 + ASME VIII div.3)

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