A.

CONDUCTOR

Definition
A conductor is an electrical material that is used to carry a flow of electric charge,
whether it is solid, liquid or gas. Therefore, the most important characteristic that must be
possessed by conductors is the nature of electrical conductivity and high heat conductivity. High
electrical conductivity is due to the conductor having many electrons which are free to move.
Properties of Conductor Materials.
1. Electrical conductivity
The electric current flowing in the conductor always experiences resistance from the
conductor itself. The size of the Resistivity depends on the type, length of material and
cross-sectional area.

Effect of Temperature on Resistivity

The electrical resistance of a conductor when the temperature is raised, it will
increase and the amount of constant increase.

Rt  Rt o 1   t  t0 

Rt = conductor resistance at temperature t0 C (Ω)

Rto = conductor resistance at temperature to0 C (Ω)
α = constant temperature coefficient
2. Mechanical characteristics
The characteristics of an electrical material is an ability that must be possessed by
electrical materials on all the forces or pressures that are on it. The tensile strength of
an electric conductor will increase as the number of mixtures increases and the degree
of work increases.

Application of Conductor Material.

1. Wire

Wire is used to flow electric current, so the material used is high conductivity.
Copper and aluminum are generally used, because they have high conductivity, are
easy to form, flexible, heat resistant, and at an affordable price rather than using silver,
gold, and other materials. Wire is made with a size that is not too large because to
avoid the symptoms of the skin effect.
B. INSULATOR

Definition
A material that has the nature of resisting electric current and heat, meaning that the material
has a very large resistance. Insulator materials are difficult to carry out the movement /
displacement of electrons because the valence of the electrons is tightly bound to the core
tensile force, so it requires a very large amount of energy to transfer electrons. If these
electrons move, breakdown voltage occurs. Insulator material is used as a sealing material so
that electric current cannot flow. Insulator material is also used to withstand heat.

Properties of Insulator Materials

1. Electricity characteristic
An insulating material has a very large resistance to electric current, but the insulator
material will experience a leakage current, the leaky current is relatively very small. If
the insulating material used is not good / damaged so that the resistivity value is
reduced, a leakage current can occur which can make an electric shock if held.
There are two type resistance :
- volume resistance
- surface resistance
𝑅𝑠 . 𝑅𝑣
𝑅𝑖 =
𝑅𝑠 + 𝑅𝑣

Ri = loss current resistance (Ω)

Rs = surface resistance (Ω)
Rv = volume resistance (Ω)

Is
arus
Iv
Rs Rs
 Surface resistance (Rs) depends on the outer layer of the insulator and the
environment around the insulator material such as inertia. If the voltage acting on the
insulator material is greater, the resistance of the insulator material will decrease. At AC
voltage with high frequency, the breakdown voltage is lower.
Effect of Temperature on Resistivity
Electrical resistance of an insulator when the temperature is raised, the electrical
resistance to the insulator will decrease.
Capacity
Each insulating material has an electrical capacity depending on the size and type
of dielectric / insulator material.

10−19 𝐴
𝐶= 𝜀
36 ℎ

C = capacity (farad)
A = surface (cm2)
h = range (cm)
𝞮 = dielectric coefficient
2. Mechanical characteristic
The mechanical strength of the insulator material is the ability of the material to
overcome the forces that are there, namely the pull / pressure depending on the tensile
stress coefficient / insulator material and fragility / hardness of the material.
3. Chemical Characteristic
An insulating material can be damaged or dropped because of water, salt, oil, etc., which
ultimately shortens the life of the material. Insulator material must also be avoided from
substances that are acidic / basic because it will change the structure of the material and
reduce the size of the resistivity.
Application of Insulator Materials
1. Wired protection
Conductors are used to flow electric current. If the conductor is left open it will
cause problems such as a current flow when the conductor comes into contact with
other objects or can make an electric shock when held by hand. Therefore we need
insulation material that can hold it. Generally cables use insulation material from
plastic or rubber. Plastics or rubber are widely used because they are electrical
insulators, durable, can be bent / bent (flexible), cheap, and the manufacturing
process is easy.
C. SEMICONDUCTOR

Definition
Semiconductors are materials with conductivity between conductors and insulators,
semiconductors are also called semi-conductors of electricity. In a condition the material is
conductor and in other conditions the material can be insulated. The atomic structure of
semiconductor materials is formed by very strong covalent bonds, so that a large amount of
energy is needed to separate the electrons. At room temperature (± 25º) the semiconductor
material has a high resistance so that it functions as an insulator. Semi-conductor type resistance
will decrease with increasing temperature so that it functions as a conductor because there are
electrons that are free from the bond. Examples of semiconductor components in electronic
circuits are diodes and transistors, while examples of semiconductor materials are silicon and
germanium.

Temperature effect on Resistivity

Electrical resistance of a semi-conductor material when the temperature is raised, it will
reduce the resistance value that exists in the material, so it will cause the semiconductor material
to have conductive properties.
Doping
Doping is one process that aims to increase the conductivity of a semiconductor material. The
doping process is also called the fouling process which is done by adding atoms to a pure semi-
conductor / intrinsic semiconductor so that the semiconductor becomes impure.

Hole
Hole is a lack of electrons so that there are holes in the structure of the atom. Hole can occur
because the temperature rises so that there are electrons free of bonds. In addition, holes can
also occur if the semi-conductor material is doped by valentic atoms 3.

Types of semiconductor
1. Intrinsic semiconductors
Semiconductors that are still pure or have not experienced atomic insertion. Intrinsic
semiconductors do not have free electrons or holes, so semiconductors at that time were
insulators with no electrical current input. At high temperatures valence electrons can
escape from bonds and move so that holes are formed. The higher the temperature, the
higher the conductivity value. At this high temperature the semiconductor changes its
character to become a conductor. The conductors of electricity in semiconductors are
electrons and holes.
2. Extrinsic semiconductors

Pure semiconductors that have been doped to increase conductivity.

There are 2 types:
1. Type N
The doping or filing process is carried out by pentavalent atoms / valentic atoms 5.
The impurity atom / dopant is called a donor so that it is positively charged (positive
ion) and the charge carrier is a majority of electrons, while the minor charge carrier
is a hole. Examples of Phosphorous (P), Arsenic (As), and Antimony (SB).
2. Type P
The process of doping or contamination is carried out by pentavalent atoms / valentic
atoms 3. The dopant atom is called an acceptor so that it is negatively charged
(negative ion) and the carrier is the majority of the hole, while the carrier of the
minority charge is electron. Examples are Boron (B), Gallium (Ga), and Indium (In).
Application of Semiconductor Materials
1. Diode

Diodes are made by combining 2 types of semiconductors, namely type N and type
P. If given a forward voltage, where the P side voltage is greater than the N side, then
the electrons move easily from the N side to fill the P side hole. there are electrons
that move to fill the hole on the side of P from the N side, this is called reverse voltage.
The diode functions as a rectifier.

2. Transistor
The transistor is a diode with 2 connections, the connection can form PNP and NPN.
The terminal ends are called base, emitter, collector. This transistor is called a bipolar
transistor because the principle works depends on the transfer of electrons filling the
hole.
We can conclude that:
a) Insulator
Insulator material is a material that has a large resistance value and the resistance value
will decrease with increasing temperature received by the material, because the
temperature will be an additional energy obtained.

Figure (a) besides shows that the gap between the minimum
conduction band and the maximum valence band on the insulator is
very large. In this case, the insulator conduction band is empty, not
filled with electrons, so the conductivity is very low. In isolator
materials have Eg = 6eV so that it is more resistive.

b) Semiconductor
Electrical resistance of a semi-conductor material when the temperature is raised,
it will reduce the resistance value that exists in the material, so that it will cause the
semiconductor material to have conductive properties..

Figure (b) shows the structure of the semiconductor energy band.

Band width is relatively small, Eg = 1 eV. When the temperature
rises, electrons in the valence band can move to the conduction band.
Because there are electrons in the conduction band, this material is
slightly conductive, so it is called a semiconductor.
 c) Conductor
The conductivity value of the conductor will increase with increasing temperature, this
is related to the expansion of the long expansion that occurs in the conductor material.

Rt  Rt o 1   t  t0 

Rt = conductor resistance at temperature t 0 C (Ω)

Rto = conductor resistance at temperature t o0 C (Ω)
α = constant temperature coefficient

Figure (c) shows the structure of the conductor energy band.

Conduction band conductors are partially filled by electrons. If there
is an external electric field, then the electron will gain additional
energy to move from the valence band to the conduction band, which
results in an electric current. These moving electrons are called free
electrons. And have Eg <1eV

According to some of the statements above we can conclude that:

"The greater the Energy Gap, the higher the resistivity value of a material it will tend to
have resistive properties.”
Quantum Mechanics

Brave over view

In 19th and early 20th centuries, it became clear that physics (concepts of physics)
needed revision or improvement. This is due to the increasing number of experimental results
and observed physical phenomena that cannot be explained by physical concepts that have
been mastered at that time (classical physics), even with an approach.
The problems referred to above arise mainly in "small" physical objects (microscopic,
atomistic), such as elementary and atomic particles and their interactions with radiation or
electromagnetic fields. "Differences" in the physics experiment can be overcome first by
postulates and hypotheses. However, because the number is increasing and the problem is
seen as fundamental, it demands and encourages physicists to make improvements, and if
necessary changes to the formulations and concepts of physics. The result is a concept called
"Quantum Mechanics".

Difference between Newtonian mechanics and Newtonian Mechanics:

 Newtonian Mechanics
1. The initial position can be determined
2. Initial momentum
3. Styles that react to it
4. Strength is observed carefully
5. The initial and final conditions can be determined carefully
 Quantum Mechanics:
1. Quantity can be observed
2. The observed quantity is different from atomic
3. The initial position and momentum cannot be obtained with
enough accuracy

Before going on to the discussion about the problem of quantum mechanics, it would
be better to know classical physics. Where classical physics is the origin of the formation of
the concept of modern physics or more precisely quantum physics.

Classical Physics Concepts

Classical physics concepts are included in two major groups, namely Newtonian
Mechanics (classical, non-quantum) and classical electromagnetics. Newtonian mechanics
discusses particles that are thought to move under the influence of forces, which follow the
laws of motion (Newton's Law)
with F is the resultant force acting on the particle p = mv is the momentum of the particle line
with mass m and velocity v and t declare time. Classical electromagnetic talks about electric
fields E (r) and magnetic fields B (r) and its sources, namely electric charge q and electric
current I. Classical electromagnetic laws are formulated as Maxwell equations,

and

with c is the speed of light, ρ is the density of the space charge, ε is permittivity vacuum, and j
is current density. For free space, so it becomes:

Maxwell's equations in free space provide separate electric and magnetic field equations as:

is the equation of electromagnetic waves in free space. Settlement shaped wave equation

and
In classical physics, natural phenomena can be specified with Mechanics Newton who
mastered the particles, and electromagnetics that controlled the field electromagnetic or
radiation. Both components of classical physics can seen as separate from one another, but
related to equality Lorentz:
Photovoltaic

Definition
Photovoltaics is the field of technology and research related to the devices which
directly convert sunlight into electricity. The solar cell is the elementary building block of the
photovoltaic technology. Solar cells are made of semiconductor materials, such as silicon. One
of the properties of semiconductors that makes them most useful is that their conductivity may
easily be modified by introducing impurities into their crystal lattice.
For instance, in the fabrication of a photovoltaic solar cell, silicon, which has four
valence electrons, is treated to increase its conductivity. On one side of the cell, the
impurities, which are phosphorus atoms with five valence electrons (n-donor), donate weakly
bound valence electrons to the silicon material, creating excess negative charge carriers. On
the other side, atoms of boron with three valence electrons (p-donor) create a greater affinity
than silicon to attract electrons. Because the p-type silicon is in intimate contact with the n-
type silicon a p-n junction is established and a diffusion of electrons occurs from the region of
high electron concentration (the n-type side) into the region of low electron concentration (p-
type side). When the electrons diffuse across the p-n junction, they recombine with holes on
the p-type side. However, the diffusion of carriers does not occur indefinitely, because the
imbalance of charge immediately on either sides of the junction originates an electric field.
This electric field forms a diode that promotes current to flow in only one direction.
Ohmic metal-semiconductor contacts are made to both the n-type and p-type sides of the solar
cell, and the electrodes are ready to be connected to an external load. When photons of light
fall on the cell, they transfer their energy to the charge carriers. The electric field across the
junction separates photo-generated positive charge carriers (holes) from their negative
counterpart (electrons). In this way an electrical current is extracted once the circuit is closed
on an external load.
Historycal overview

The photovoltaic effect has been discovered in the first half of the 19th the century. In
1839, a young French physicist Alexandre Edmond Becquerel observed a physical
phenomenon oreffect that allows the conversion of light into electricity. The solar cells' work
is based on this principle of photovoltaic effect. In the following years, a number of scientists
have contributed to the development of this effect and technologies through their researches,
the most relevant among them are Charles Fritts, Edward Weston, Nikola Tesla and Albert
Einstein, who has been awarded the Nobel Prize for his work on "photoelectric effect" in the
year 1904.

Work principle Photovoltaic

The word „photovoltaic“ consists of two words: photo, a greek word for light, and
voltaic, which defines the measurement value by which the activity of the electric field is
expressed, i.e. the difference of potentials. Photovoltaic systems use cells to convert sunlight
into electricity. Converting solar energy into electricity in a photovoltaic installation is the
most known way of using solar energy.
The light has a dual character according to quantum physics. Light is a particle and it
is a wave. The particles of light are called photons. Photons are massless particles, moving at
light speed. The energy of the photon depends on its wavelength and the frequency, and we
can calculate it by the Einstein's law, which is:

where:
E = photon energy
h = Planck's constanth = 6.626×10 − 34Js
v = photon frequency

In metals and in the matter generally, electrons can exist as valence or as free. Valence
electrons are associated with the atom, while the free electrons can move freely. In order for
the valence electron to become free, he must get the energy that is greater than or equal to the
energy of binding. Binding energy is the energy by which an electron is bound to an atom in
one of the atomic bonds. In the case of photoelectric effect, the electron acquires the required
energy by the collision with a photon. Part of the photon energy is consumed for the electron
getting free from the influence of the atom which it is attached to, and the remaining energy is
converted into kinetic energy of a now free electron. Free electrons obtained by the
photoelectric effect are also called photoelectrons. The energy required to release a valence
electron from the impact of an atom is called a „work out“ Wi, and it depends on the type of
material in which the photoelectric effect has occurred. The equation that describes this
process is as follows:
Where:
hv = photon energy
Wi = work out
E = kinetic energy of emitted electron

The previous equation shows that the electron will be released if the photon energy is
less than the work output. The photoelectric conversion in the PV junction. PV junction
(diode) is a boundary between two differently doped semiconductor layers; one is a P‐type
layer (excess holes), and the second one is an N‐type (excess electrons). At the boundary
between the P and the N area, there is a spontaneous electric field, which affects the generated
electrons and holes and determines the direction of the current.

To obtain the energy by the photoelectric effect, there shall be a directed motion of
photoelectrons, i.e. electricity. All charged particles, photoelectrons also, move in a directed
motion under the influence of electric field. The electric field in the material itself is located in
semiconductors, precisely in the impoverished area of PV junction (diode). It was pointed out
for the semiconductors that, along with the free electrons in them, there are cavities as charge
carriers, which are a sort of a byproduct in the emergence of free electrons. Cavities occurs
whenever the valence electron turns into a free electron, and this process is called the
generation, while the reverse process, when the free electron fills the empty spaces ‐ a cavity,
is called recombination. If the electron‐cavity pairs occur away from the impoverished areas it
is possible to recombine before they are separated by the electric field.
 Photoelectrons and cavities in semiconductors are accumulated at opposite ends,
thereby creating an electromotive force. If a consuming device is connected to such a system,
the current will flow and we will get electricity.

Application of Photovoltaic:

1. Solar Cell
There are several types of solar cells. However, more than 90 % of the solar cells
currently made worldwide consist of wafer-based silicon cells. They are either cut from
a single crystal rod or from a block composed of many crystals and are correspondingly called
mono-crystalline or multi-crystalline silicon solar cells. Wafer-based silicon solar cells are
approximately 200 μm thick. Another important family of solar cells is based on thin-films,
which are approximately 1-2 μm thick and therefore require significantly less active,
semiconducting material. Thin-film solar cells can be manufactured at lower cost in large
production quantities; hence their market share will likely increase in the future. However,
they indicate lower efficiencies than wafer-based silicon solar cells, which means that more
exposure surface and material for the installation is required for a similar performance.
A number of solar cells electrically connected to each other and mounted in a single
support structure or frame is called a ‘photovoltaic module’. Modules are designed to
supply electricity at a certain voltage, such as a common 12 volt system. The current produced
is directly dependent on the intensity of light reaching the module. Several modules can be
wired together to form an array. Photovoltaic modules and arrays produce direct-current
electricity. They can be connected in both series and parallel electrical arrangements to
produce any required voltage and current combination.
There are two main types of photovoltaic system. Gridconnected systems (on-grid
systems) are connected to the grid and inject the electricity into the grid. For this reason, the
direct current produced by the solar modules is converted into a grid-compatible alternating
current. However, solar power plants can also be operated without the grid and are then called
autonomous systems (off-grid systems). More than 90 % of photovoltaic systems worldwide
are currently implemented as grid-connected systems. The power conditioning unit also
monitors the functioning of the system and the grid and switches off the system in case of
faults.
Solar cell Installation
Electric Charge

There are two types of observed electric charge, which we designate as positive and
negative. The convention was derived from Benjamin Franklin’s experiments. He rubbed a
glass rod with silk and called the charges on the glass rod positive. He rubbed sealing wax
with fur and called the charge on the sealing wax negative. Like charges repel and opposite
charges attract each other. The unit of charge is called the Coulomb (C).

The smallest unit of “free” charge known in nature is the charge of an electron or proton,
which has a magnitude of

Charge of any ordinary matter is quantized in integral multiples of e. An electron

carries one unit of negative charge, , while a proton carries one unit of positive charge, e−e+.
In a closed system, the total amount of charge is conserved since charge can neither be created
nor destroyed. A charge can, however, be transferred from one body to another.

Coulomb's Law

Consider a system of two point charges and separated by a distance in vacuum. The
force exerted by on is given by Coulomb's law:

where is the Coulomb constant, and k is a unit vector directed from to , as illustrated in
Figure:

Note that electric force is a vector which has both magnitude and direction. In SI units, the
Coulomb constant k is given by:

Where
Electric Field
The electrostatic force, like the gravitational force, is a force that acts at a distance,
even when the objects are not in contact with one another. To justify such the notion we
rationalize action at a distance by saying that one charge creates a field which in turn acts on
the other charge.
An electric charge q produces an electric field everywhere. To quantify the strength of
the field created by that charge, we can measure the force a positive “test charge” experiences
at some point. The electric field E is defined as:

We take to be infinitesimally small so that the field generates does not disturb the
“source charges.” The analogy between the electric field and the gravitational field is depicted
in Figure:

Using the definition of electric field given in previous equation and the Coulomb’s
law, the electric field at a distance r from a point charge q is given by:

Using the superposition principle, the total electric field due to a group of charges is
equal to the vector sum of the electric fields of individual charges:
Gauss’s Law
The electric field and field lines, Electric field lines provide a convenient way of
visualising the electric field. The field lines are drawn according to the following rules:

1. The field lines point in the same direction as the electric field at every point in space.
Therefore the electric field at a point is always at a tangent to the field lines at that
point.
2. Field lines always start on the positive charge and end on the negative charge.
3. The strength of the field is represented by the density of the lines. The number of lines,
in 3 dimensions, leaving a positive charge or approaching a negative charge is
proportional to the magnitude of the charge.
4. No two lines touch or cross.

Electric Flux
Definition of flux:
The flux of any vector quantity through an area is the product of the area and the component
of the vector at right angles to the area.
For an electric field, the flux φ is measured by the number of lines of force that pass
through a hypothetical surface.
For a flat surface in a uniform electric field E the electric flux is:
φ = EAcos θ
where:
φ = the flux through the surface A
A = the surface area
θ = the angle between the surface vector and the field vector

This can be generalised for any surface by:

If a closed surface (such as a sphere or cube etc.) encloses no net charge then its total
flux is zero. The total flux through a surface enclosing a net charge is proportional to the value
of the charge.
Gaussian surfaces

A Gaussian surface is an imaginary surface drawn so as to be able to use Gauss’s law. dA

represents a small area of the surface and is known as the surface vector. The vectors
magnitude is the small surface area; its direction is represented as being normal to the surface
and away from the volume. The surface must surround some or all the charge and must go
through the point where the electric field is to be calculated. The surface is chosen to represent
the symmetry of the system.
The total electric flux of a closed surface in an electric field is 4π times the electric
charge within that surface.
The total electric flux through a closed surface is proportional to the charge enclosed
by that surface:

where:

qn = the net charge enclosed by the surface

E.dA = the flux through a small surface element
∫ E.dA = the total flux through a closed surface

This integral can be difficult to solve unless the surface chosen exploits the symmetry
of a system which can the simplify the solution.