Open in the Academia.
edu App
The world's largest open access
library in your pocket
N OT N O W
$ Search for papers,
# people, and in
A Study of the
Impact of Input
Modification by
Using Glosses on
Vocabulary
Acquisition and
Retention
International Journal of English
Language & Translation Studies,
2019
I. and Translatio...
+ !
A Study of the Impact of Input Modification by Using Glosses on Vocabulary
Acquisition and Retention
ABSTRACT
Recently, electronic texts have become dominant in the academic world. This study examined the
impact of three different combinations of electronic gloss components on vocabulary retention. More
specifically, it tried to determine which of the combinations of electronic gloss components (only definition;
definition + translation; and definition + translation + picture) had a greater influence on vocabulary recall.
Participants consisted of 120 foreign language learners of English enrolled in a language program at an
Iranian Language Institute. 60 learners attended elementary courses in four classes and 60 others were
intermediate level learners forming four other classes. The participants received 5 hours of classroom
instruction per week in a computer lab. They also completed two screening vocabulary tests: one
immediately after the class and a delayed test after three weeks. The results showed a significant difference
between the three experimental groups who received different types of glosses and control group who did
not receive any types of glosses on both immediate and delayed tests. In addition, there was a significant
difference among the three experimental groups who received different kinds of glosses. These findings
confirm the results of the previous studies on the beneficial role of glosses on L2 vocabulary acquisition,
and they point to the pedagogical advantages of using electronic glosses in language programs.
Keywords: Electronic Glosses, Immediate Test, Vocabulary Retention, Delayed Test, Multimedia
ARTICLE The paper received on
INFO 07/01/2019
Suggested citation:
Fathi, M. & Sarkhosh, M. (2019). A Study of the Impact of Input Modification by Using Glosses on Vocabulary
Acquisition and Retention. International Journal of English Language & Translation Studies. 7(1). 55-67.
1. Introduction
Foreign language learners encounter
two fundamental problems in their efforts to
master the target language they have chosen
or happen to be learning. In foreign
language learning, it is far from easy to
obtain suitable and enough language input,
both in and outside of language institutions.
This shortage creates the need to build a
system that helps to increase the language
input potential of the learners in as
consistently effective way as possible that
will allow them to develop the acquisition
and retention of functional language and
beyond. Since the appearance of computer-
assisted language learning (CALL), both
teachers and scholars have tried to discover
ways in which computer technology can be
of use in foreign language classes. Until
now, many researches in this regard have
been conducted (Makoto, 2006; De, Ridder,
2002; Jeong, 2001; Groot, 2000; Ellis, 1994;
Dunkel, 1991). As Jones (2000) puts
forward, accessing many current electronic
resources provides enough opportunities for
International Journal of English Language & Translation Studies (www.eltsjournal.org)
Volume: 07 Issue: 01 January-March, 2019
One of the means of facilitating
vocabulary learning and reading
comprehension is glossing (e.g., Davis,
1989; Hulstijn, 1992; Jacobs, Dufon, &
Hong, 1994; Ko, 2005; Watanabe, 1997). As
Richards and Schmidt (2010) contend,
glossing in second language learning refers
to providing a summary of words’ meaning
in a text usually found as notes in the margin
or between the lines of the text. Research
has shown that combining multiple forms of
media such as text, sound, pictures,
animated pictures, and video can aid
vocabulary learning and facilitate reading
comprehension (Chun & Plass, 1996a,
1996b, 1997; Al-Seghayer, 2001; Lomicka,
1998; Davis, 1998). Among studies done on
glossing as a means of vocabulary learning,
some found that marginal glossing has a
positive effect on vocabulary learning (e.g.,
Hashemian & Fadaei, 2012; Ko, 2012; Rott,
2007; Rott, Williams, & Cameron, 2002),
whereas some argued that it does not
necessarily lead to vocabulary learning as it
does not encourage differencing or word
meaning retrieval (Huang & Lin, 2014). As
Groot (2000) implies, there seems to be no
feasible alternative to intentional learning of
many words with the aid of authentic L2
material. Groot referred to the fact that
vocabulary in L1 is mainly learned
incidentally and gradually over longer
periods of time and that for L2, this time
factor is not attainable at the same level,
while the L2 learner needs a large number of
vocabulary words or phrases for instant use.
Although the above studies are a good
start to exploring the effectiveness of
electronic glosses in foreign language
learning, additional empirical studies
regarding the impact of glosses on
vocabulary learning and reading
comprehension are still needed (Kamil &
Lane, 1998; Ben Salem, 2006). The main
objective of the present study is to explore
ways of learning FL vocabularies that may
lead to better reading comprehension and
longer retention, while providing more
learner independence. The principal
objective of this research will be how
different annotations influence L2
vocabulary learning and reading
comprehension in incidental, intentional,
and interactive orientations. The results
could contribute to the improvement of
instruction in the teaching and learning of
foreign languages in general and the
teaching and learning of English as a foreign
language in particular. The study
Cite this article as: Fathi, M. & Sarkhosh, M. (2019). A Study of the Impact of Input Modification by Using
Glosses on Vocabulary Acquisition and Retention. International Journal of English Language & Translation
Studies. 7(1). 55-67.
A Study of the Impact of Input Modification by Using Glosses on Vocabulary …
subsystems: verbal and nonverbal. While the
verbal subsystem is specialized for
processing language (text and audio), the
nonverbal subsystem is for processing and
representing nonverbal objects or events
(pictures, animations, or video). The two
subsystems are linked to each other through
referential connections (Ben Salem, 2006).
Associational processing refers to the
connections within the verbal and nonverbal
subsystems. The links between the two
subsystems are referred to as referential
connections. Paivio (1991) claims that
pictures are thought to be more likely than
words to activate the verbal and nonverbal
subsystems upon processing.
2.2 Empirical Studies
Many researchers believe that
vocabulary acquisition is the most critical
part of second language learning (Knight,
1994). It is contended that, in order to
develop linguistic abilities, second-language
(L2) readers must achieve a specific level of
vocabulary threshold (Brisbois, 1995; Geva
& Clifton, 1994; Jimenez, Garcia, &
Pearson, 1996; Kim, 1995; Lomicka, 1998).
The impact of multimedia glosses on
vocabulary acquisition and reading
comprehension has been of great interest to
researchers in second language learning
(Chun, 2006). Most of the conducted studies
are based on testing the design principles
proposed by the Generative Theory of
Multimedia Learning (Mayer, 1997, 2001).
The multimedia principle which suggests
that people learn better when they are
exposed to both verbal and pictorial
information rather than either alone is one of
these principles that has received the most
attention in second language learning. A
number of studies have examined this
principle by exposing second language
learners to computerized texts that
incorporate verbal and pictorial glosses.
Khezrlou, Ellis, & Sadeghi, (2017) contend
that, electronic multi-glossing is effective in
aiding vocabulary learning even if the
learners did not make intentional attempts to
learn the words.
Despite the fact that these studies have
given consistent evidences to the impacts of
multimedia on vocabulary learning,
uncertain results have been acquired for
reading comprehension. One issue with the
current research that limits generalizability
of discoveries is the level of control given to
the learners regarding their interaction with
the available multimedia information. In a
few studies, learners are permitted to choose
the kind of multimedia (e.g. Chun & Plass,
International Journal of English Language & Translation Studies (www.eltsjournal.org)
Volume: 07 Issue: 01 January-March, 2019
International Journal of English Language & Translation Studies (www.eltsjournal.org)
Volume: 07 Issue: 01 January-March, 2019
& Plass, 1996a; Davis & Lyman-Hager,
1997; Lyman-Hager, Davis, Burnett, &
Chennault, 1993; Kost, Foss, & Lenzini,
1999). For example, the effectiveness of
glossing on reading comprehension of
second language readers was examined by
Lomicka (1998). She examined whether
glosses paved the way or hindered reading
comprehension among students of French.
Three groups with different conditions were
examined: full glossing (L1 translation, L2
definitions, pronunciations, images,
references, and questions), limited glossing
(L1 translation and L2 definitions), or no
glossing. The study outcomes showed that
text comprehension in a computerized text
can be promoted when it is fully glossed.
Lee (2015) in his studies concluded that the
electronic glossing condition resulted in the
greatest gains of vocabulary. The electronic
glossing condition was also the most
efficient in light of the cognitive load
framework, showing the highest
instructional efficiency.
Researchers Chun and Plass (1996a,
1996b, 1997) explored the impact of text-
picture and text-video glosses on vocabulary
maintenance among English speaking
learners of German language, discovered
positive effect of glosses. The outcomes
demonstrated that words glossed with both
text and pictures helped learners remember
more vocabulary than words explained with
just text or text and video. Kost et al. (1999)
revealed a positive effect of pictorial
glosses, their study demonstrated that
learners who utilized a blend of text and
picture gloss while reading a text,
outperformed who utilized just either textual
gloss or the pictorial gloss. The results of
another study by Chen & Yen (2013)
concerning vocabulary acquisition suggested
that glosses were effective in aiding
vocabulary retention for both short-term and
long-term memory for medium and high-
proficiency participants. However, format
did not significantly affect both test scores.
In a study like those of Chun and Plass
(1996a, 1996b, 1997), Al-Seghayer (2001)
studied the effects of video glosses versus
still-image glosses among ESL learners at an
American college. A program presented
three sorts of glosses to the learners. The
first had literary definition and an audio
section in which a local speaker articulated
the target word. The second type of gloss
included pictures alongside the definitions,
while the third kind of gloss was video clips
alongside the textual definitions. The
Cite this article as: Fathi, M. & Sarkhosh, M. (2019). A Study of the Impact of Input Modification by Using
Glosses on Vocabulary Acquisition and Retention. International Journal of English Language & Translation
Studies. 7(1). 55-67.
A Study of the Impact of Input Modification by Using Glosses on Vocabulary …
and constituted eight intact ESL classes.
Data collection took place in a computer lab
and each session was a regularly scheduled
part of their language course. Based on the
students’ self-expression, they were similar
in their experience with and attitudes toward
using computers as a pedagogical tool in the
ESL classroom.
The age range of the participants at the
elementary classrooms was 12 to 16,
whereas the age of the participants at the
intermediate classes ranged from 14 to 18.
All participants were English language
learners who had an interest in continuing
their English learning programs. The
researcher could access to participants’
grades or overall performance in class while
the study was conducted. The nature of the
study was explained to the participants and
they were informed that all the information
collected during the study would be kept
confidential; their scores would not be
shared with anybody and would not affect
their final grades.
3.3 Materials and Instruments
Reading passages
The researcher selected several
reading passages from an English textbook
(Select Readings) used by the participants to
use in this study. It proved hard to come up
with accurate pictures that would represent
certain words that needed to be glossed,
such as abstract concepts or action verbs that
may usually be found in existing reading
texts. Kost, Foss, and Lenzini, (1999) faced
the same problem when they were
annotating the target words of their text. So,
they deleted several sentences from the text
and replaced some words with others that
were easier to gloss with pictures. However,
in this study the passages remained intact to
preserve their originality as course texts. The
reason for selection of the passages out of
this textbook is that it is used as the reading
course book in these classes. To select the
words to be glossed in the passages, five
volunteer students read the passages and
highlighted the words that proved unknown
or difficult to them to understand. Then, the
researcher chose the words that were
selected three or more times by five students
as the target words to be glossed.
Immediate Vocabulary Tests
Immediate vocabulary tests were
designed by the researcher to measure the
effect of the three different combinations of
electronic gloss components on vocabulary
retention. The researcher designed the
vocabulary test to measure the effect of each
type of gloss on word retention and find out
International Journal of English Language & Translation Studies (www.eltsjournal.org)
Volume: 07 Issue: 01 January-March, 2019
International Journal of English Language & Translation Studies (www.eltsjournal.org)
Volume: 07 Issue: 01 January-March, 2019
Figure 2: A Screen Shot of Reading Condition 2:
Definition + picture (DP)
And, in the definition-picture-
translation format, the participants click on a
highlighted word, and can see on the right
screen a picture that illustrates the word and
definition and translation of the word (figure
3).
Figure 3: A Screen Shot of Reading Condition 3:
Definition + picture + Translation (DPT)
3.4 Procedure
The present study was conducted in
Maku Jahad Daneshgahi Institute’s
computer site that holds 17 computers. Four
intermediate groups each consisting of 15
English language learners and four
elementary groups each having 15 English
language learners took part in this study,
which totally comprised 120 participants.
The groups were homogenous because the
learners were screened before entering a
certain class in Jahad Daneshgahi Institute.
After the researcher made certain that the
participants are a homogenous sample, they
were randomly assigned to one of the four
groups in each level; three gloss groups (D,
D+P and D+P+T), and a control group. On
the day of exposure to the research
treatment, participants in the three gloss
groups received instructions for each gloss
conditions. They were taken to the lab and
demonstrated how to use the Flan program
before they began to read. All groups could
have access to the texts through Flan
program on computer screen. Participants
were tested individually and they worked
through the text at their own pace.
Definition gloss group read the
computerized written passages having
access to the definitions of the glossed
words in English. Pictorial plus definition
gloss group read the computerized written
passages with access to the pictures and
definitions of the glossed words. Definition,
pictorial and translation gloss group read the
computerized written passages with access
to the pictures, translation and the
definitions of the glossed words. Control
group read the computerized written texts
without having any access to the definitions,
pictures or translations of the words.
Cite this article as: Fathi, M. & Sarkhosh, M. (2019). A Study of the Impact of Input Modification by Using
Glosses on Vocabulary Acquisition and Retention. International Journal of English Language & Translation
Studies. 7(1). 55-67.
D O W N LOA D
"
[PP: 55-67]
Mousa Fathi
Urmia University, Urmia
Iran
Mehdi Sarkhosh
Urmia University, Urmia
Iran
Reviewed on Accepted after revisions on
09/02/2019 05/04/2019
making texts more comprehensible to
learners. One of the ways in making texts
more comprehensible to readers is using
computerized glosses or annotations.
Many researchers such as Knight
(1994), Laufer (1997), and Yoshii and Flaitz
(2000) consider vocabulary learning an
important part of each foreign language
learner’s life. Vocabulary learning still
brings about problems for many foreign
language learners in spite of the recognized
importance of it for researchers and
language learners. They tend to forget newly
learned words quickly and they have
difficulty using them in either speaking or
writing; However, the advent of CALL has
provided a new means for learning
vocabulary. With computers and Internet
becoming more and more popular, many
CALL programs and online materials have
inundated the area of language teaching and
learning. These CALL programs provide
FL/L2 learners with a variety of learning
activities (Jing-hua, 2009).
ISSN:2308-5460
investigates the impact of glossing on
vocabulary learning by utilizing a
computerized reading text in which the
target phrases are highlighted and
hyperlinked to definitional enhancements.
The study focuses on the extent to which the
participants in learning conditions, while
having control over the learning
environment in their own ways, will achieve
in the same way or very differently in terms
of comprehension, and most importantly in
terms of retention of English vocabulary,
first by the end of the activity and then some
time later. In short, the study aims at
uncovering how the acquisition of English
new vocabularies may be affected,
comparing when participants intentionally
learn and memorize the highlighted
vocabulary items to when they incidentally
acquire new items when reading an
academic text for comprehension.
The major significance of the present
study lies in the fact that it investigates
different ways of presenting vocabulary
items to readers in a computerized
environment with added help devices in an
attempt to find out which of the learning
modes of vocabulary through reading would
lead to better comprehension and longer
retention of the target items. This study
intends to expand the understanding of the
application of multimedia learning from the
psycholinguistic, teaching and testing
perspectives. It will investigate how text-
picture, text-translation, and text-picture-
translation glosses have an impact on L2
learners’ vocabulary learning in three
learning orientations. Therefore, the current
study attempts to answer the following
questions:
1. Does access to different gloss types affect
vocabulary learning in both elementary and
intermediate levels?
2. Does access to more gloss features result
in higher scores in vocabulary tests in both
elementary and intermediate levels.
3. Is there a difference between immediate
and delayed vocabulary scores in vocabulary
tests?
2. Review of Literature
2.1 Theoretical Framework for the Study
Dual-Coding Theory
Theory of Paivio’s dual-coding (1986)
explains how verbal and nonverbal
information is processed. Research has
shown that words that are associated with
actual objects or images are better acquired
and recalled (Clark & Paivio, 1991). This
theory postulates that there are two cognitive
Page | 56
Mousa Fathi & Mehdi Sarkhosh
1996a, 1996b; Plass, Chun, Mayer, &
Leutner, 1998) so that they utilize the
accessible text aides considering their needs,
though in others they are compelled to
access both verbal and pictorial data (e.g.
Plass, Chun, Mayer, & Leutner, 2003;
Yanguas, 2009) due to the fact that it is less
demanding to build referential associations
when the verbal and visual data is provided
at the same time (Mayer, 2005).
Laufer (1997) contends that learners
who have a resource knowledge of 3000
word families or 5000 lexical words can
accomplish a reading score of 56%, the
individuals who have a knowledge of 4000
word families or 6400 lexical words can
accomplish a reading score of 63%, while an
expansion to 6000 words families or 9600
lexical words will bring about a score of 77
%.
This critical amount of required
vocabulary is difficult to instruct in class as
it would take the time required for learners
to learn other different skills, for example,
listening, reading, speaking, and writing
(Groot, 2000). Hence, language learners
need to establish useful procedures to afford
newly introduced words (Harley, 1996).
Customarily, some of these procedures
involve the utilization of dictionaries and
marginal glosses inserted in certain language
textbooks. Yet these two techniques are not
very advantageous for learners who need to
stop and interfere with their reading process
and dismiss the content to find and
recognize the meaning of new words.
Moreover, in order to have the capacity to
utilize the dictionary proficiently, students
require special preparation, because
availability of several meanings for a single
word can sometimes be troublesome
(Nation, 2001) and confusing (Luppescu &
Day, 1993). Stahl (2003) believes that most
of the times, there are troublesome words in
the dictionary definition that makes the
definition itself more difficult to understand.
In line with generative theory, the dual
coding theory asserts that learning turns out
to be surprisingly better when the data is
gotten through two channels (verbal &
visual) to develop meaning (Paivio, 1986;
Clark & Paivio, 1991; Mayer, 1997; Mayer
& Sims, 1994). Words that are related with
real things or pictures are easily learned and
better retained (Clark & Paivio, 1991).
Various studies have been done to
investigate the effect of different glosses that
use different media, on vocabulary
acquisition and retention among second
language learners (Al Seghayer, 2001; Chun
ISSN:2308-5460
Page | 57
ISSN:2308-5460
outcomes demonstrated that words that were
explained with text and picture and those
with text and video were learned better than
words with simply text definitions. Also the
findings illustrated that words with text and
video explanations were remembered better
than words with text and pictures. Results
obtained from Al-Seghayer's studies were
opposite to those of Chun and Plass (1996a,
1996b, 1997) whose outcomes illustrated
that still pictures consolidated with
definitions are more viable for remembering
than videos accompanied by definitions.
Despite the fact that researchers have
explored some of the combinations of media
that included fundamentally text, picture and
video, it still stays ambiguous which mixture
is helping more in vocabulary acquisition
and reading comprehension. Definitely,
more research is required in this field to
analyze the viability of various combinations
of media on reading comprehension and
word retention. The present study intends to
fill this gap by exploring the research
questions mentioned in introduction section.
3. Method
3.1 Design
The study has three experimental
groups and one control group. It has two
posttests with between-subject and within-
subject analysis. It has an immediate and
delayed posttest but not a pretest. The study
explores and describes the performance in
vocabulary learning of intermediate and
elementary learners of Iran in a Computer
Lab in an Institute. Therefore, the study
utilized a quasi-experimental design because
of not having pretest. The type of electronic
gloss and teaching orientations provided
with the texts were deemed as the
independent variables. There were three
combinations of electronic gloss
components: a) definition; b) definition and
picture; and c) definition, picture and
translation. The dependent variable included
participants’ scores on the immediate
vocabulary test and the delayed vocabulary
test.
3.2 Participants
Participants in this study were Iranian
students of intermediate and elementary
level English enrolled in English courses at
Jahad Daneshgahi Institute of Maku. A total
number of 120 participants took part in the
study: 80 females and 40 males. Sixty
intermediate and sixty elementary level ESL
students studying at an Iranian institute took
part in the study. Learners were of mixed L1
backgrounds (Turkish, Kurdish and Persian),
Page | 58
Mousa Fathi & Mehdi Sarkhosh
whether students who had access to gloss
outperformed students in the control group
who had only a reading passage The tests
included 10 multiple choice questions.
Participants received one point for each
correct answer and no points for an incorrect
answer. The maximum score possible was
10.
Delayed Vocabulary Test
The delayed multiple-choice
vocabulary tests were also designed by the
researcher and were identical to the
immediate tests but with the items in a
different order. They were administered two
weeks after the intervention. The delayed
multiple-choice vocabulary tests allowed the
researcher to determine whether or not the
participants were able to recall the learned
words two weeks after the intervention.
Foreign Language Annotator Program
The Foreign Language Annotator
(FLAn) Program (Thibeault, 2014) was used
to present unfamiliar words by means of
hypermedia links in three formats of
definition, definition- picture and definition-
picture-translation. The program can be
available without any Internet connection
requirement. The screen layout is in
accordance with pre-specified design
principles. The screen consists of two
frames. The left screen is devoted to the
reading passage with the title at the top, and
the right screen is allocated to the glosses. In
the definition gloss type, when participants
click on a hypermedia link, the right screen
supplies a text definition of the word (figure
1).
Figure 1: A Screen Shot of Reading Condition 1:
Definition (D)
In the definition-picture type,
participants were able to see a text definition
of a word along with a picture as a result of
clicking on the word (figure 2).
ISSN:2308-5460
Page | 59
ISSN:2308-5460
During the teaching sessions, the
participants had access to reading passages
at computer site. As it was mentioned above,
the participants in each group worked
through the passages under different
conditions during four different sessions.
The gloss groups could consult glosses by
clicking the mouse pointer over the colored
words. When the participants clicked on the
colored words, the program showed a
definition in English (textual gloss group), a
picture and definition (pictorial gloss group),
or a combination of glosses (textual plus
pictorial plus translation gloss group) on the
right hand of the screen. Participants in the
control group read the texts without having
any access to glosses. After completion of
the reading task in different conditions by
the participants, the teacher-researcher asked
them to answer immediate multiple choice
vocabulary test at the end of the session. A
soft copy of the test which consisted of ten
multiple choice questions was provided for
each participant on the screen. The
participants answered the questions on the
answer sheets which were provided on
screen towards the end of the reading task.
The annotated words in the reading texts
were the focus of the tests. However in three
types of orientations namely incidental,
intentional and interactive the learners
received different types of teaching. In
incidental groups, the learners were
informed that after instruction there would
be a vocabulary test. But in intentional
groups, the students were aware of the
posttest and a list of new words which were
the target of tests, were given to them. In
interactive groups, a mix of traditional
method of teaching and glosses were used to
teach new words.
After two weeks, the delayed
vocabulary post-test was given to the
subjects, in the same way as for the
immediate posttest. It differed from the
immediate posttest in that it was
administered two weeks after the reading. It
used the same 10-item multiple-choice
vocabulary test that was employed for the
immediate posttest. The objective of this test
was to assess the level of retention of the
vocabulary learned with the initial reading in
the project, and to measure the degree of
divergence or convergence such as loss,
maintenance, or increase in the quantity of
the vocabulary items acquired, between the
immediate and delayed posttests. The
posttests were intended to record the impact
of the glossed reading task on the subjects at
Page | 60