DENTAL MATERIALS 6

Structure of Matter and Principles of Adhesion

STRUCTURE OF MATTER & PRINCIPLES OF  In contrast with primary bonds, secondary bonds

ADHESION do not share electrons.

 Instead, charge variations among molecules or
INTERATOMIC BONDS
atomic groups induce polar forces that attract the
 The forces that hold atoms together ale called
molecules.
cohesive forces (KCET-10)
 These inter atomic bonds may be classified as
1. Hydrogen Bonding
Primary or Secondary bonds
 Hydrogen bonding can be understood by
studying a water molecule
Primary Bonds
 Attached to the oxygen atom are two hydrogen
1. Ionic Bonds
atoms. These bonds are covalent because the
 Bond formed between two ions by the transfer
oxygen and hydrogen atoms share electrons.
of electrons
 As a consequence, the protons of the hydrogen
 Ionic bonds result from the mutual attraction of
atoms pointing away from the oxygen atom are
positive and negative charges.
not shielded efficiently by the electrons, and
 The classic example is sodium chloride (Na+Cl-
the proton side of the water molecule is
). Because the sodium atom contains one
positively charged
valence electron in its outer shell and the
 On the opposite side of the water molecule, the
chlorine atom has seven electrons in its outer
electrons that fill the outer orbit of the oxygen
shell, the transfer of the sodium valence
atom provide a negative charge. Thus a
electron to the chlorine atom results in the
permanent dipole exists that represents an
stable compound NaCl.
asymmetric molecule
 In dentistry, ionic bonding exists in certain
 When a water molecule intermingles with
crystalline phases of some dental materials,
other water molecules, the hydrogen (positive)
such as gypsum and phosphate-based cements.
portion of one molecule is attracted to the
oxygen (negative) portion of its neighboring
2. Covalent Bonds
molecule and hydrogen bridges are formed
 Bond formed by the sharing of electrons
 Polarity of this nature is important in
 The hydrogen molecule, H2 is an example of
accounting for the intermolecular reactions in
covalent bonding
many organic compounds, such as the sorption
 Covalent bonding occurs in many organic
of water by synthetic dental resins
compounds, such as dental resins in which the
compounds link to form the backbone
2. Van der Wall’s Forces
structure of hydrocarbon chains.
 Form the basis of a dipole attraction
 The carbon atom has four valence electrons
 Such inter atomic forces are quite weak
forming an sp3 hybrid configuration and can
be stabilized by combining with hydrogen.
CRYSTALLINE STRUCTURE
 A typical characteristic of covalent bonds is
 Atoms are bonded to each other by either primary
their directional orientation.
or secondary forces
 In the solid state, they combine in a manner that
3. Metallic Bonds
ensures minimal internal energy
 Results from the increased spatial extension of
 A space lattice can be defined as any arrangement
valence-electron wave functions when an
of atoms in space in which every atom is situated
aggregate of metal atoms is brought close
similarly to every other atom (COMEDK-06)
together
 Space lattices may be the result of primary or
 Formed between atoms of metallic elements
secondary bonds
 Electron cloud around atoms
 There are 14 possible lattice types or forms, but
many of the metals used in dentistry belong to the
Secondary Bonds
cubic system

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Structure of Matter and Principles of Adhesion
 All dental amalgams, cast alloys, wrought metals,
gold foil, and dental amalgam are crystalline.
 Some pure ceramics, such as alumina and zirconia
ceramics are entirely crystalline.
 Other ceramics, such as dental porcelains, consist of
non-crystalline glass matrix and crystalline
inclusions
NONCRYSTALLINE SOLIDS
 Glass is also considered to be a noncrystalline solid
 Composites have a noncrystalline matrix and may
or may not contain crystalline filler particles
 Noncrystalline solids do not have a definite melting
temperature, but rather they gradually soften as the
temperature is raised.
 The temperature at which there is an abrupt
increase in the thermal expansion coefficient,
indicating increased molecular mobility, is called
the glass transition temperature (Tg) and it is
characteristic of the particular glassy structure
COLLOIDS
 Colloids were first described by Thomas Graham
(1861) as a result of his studies of diffusion in
solutions. He observed that substances such as
starch, albumin, and other gelatinous materials did
not behave in the same manner as acids, bases, and
salts.
 Because these substances were glue like in nature,
Graham described them as colloids, which was
derived from the Greek word kolla for "glue" and -
oid- meaning "like."
 The term colloid now is used to describe a state of
matter rather than a kind of matter.
Nature of Colloids
 Substances are called colloids when they consist of
two or more phases, with the units of at least one of
the phases having a dimension slightly greater than
simple molecular size
 Colloidal systems can be fine dispersions, gels,
films, emulsions, or foams
 Except for a dispersion of a gas in a gas, which is a
true solution, each of the three forms of matter-gas,
liquid, and solid-may be dispersed as colloidal
particles in the other and in itself as well.
 The dispersed phase, which may be in the form of a
gas, liquid, or solid, may also exist in a variety of
conditions. Some examples of these dispersed
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DENTAL MATERIALS 7
phases are: (1) colloidal silica as a filler in resin
composites, (2) colloidal silica in water to be mixed
with high-strength dental stone to improve
abrasion resistance, (3) droplets of oil in a water
base used to prevent rusting of dental instruments
during steam sterilization, (4) fillers used in rubber
impression materials to control such properties as
viscosity, and (5) agglomerates of detergent
molecules in water that serve as wetting agents for
wax patterns
 Characteristic property of the dispersed phase is an
enormous surface area
 A sol resembles a solution, but it is made up of
colloidal particles dispersed in a liquid.
 When a sol is chilled or caused to react by the
addition of suitable chemicals, it may be
transformed into a gel.
 In the gel form the system takes on a semisolid, or
jellylike, quality.
 The liquid phase of either a sol or a gel is usually
water, but may be some organic liquid such as
alcohol. Systems having water as one component
are described as hydrosols or hydrogels. A more
general term might be hydrocolloid, which is often
used in dentistry to describe the agar or alginate
gels used as elastic impression materials.
 A general term to describe a system having an
organic liquid as one component would be organosol
or organogel.
Gels
 Gels possess an entangled framework of solid
colloidal particles in which liquid is trapped in the
interstices and held by capillarity. Such a gel has
some degree of rigidity, depending on the extent of
the structural solids present.
 Gels that are formed with water are hydrophilic
(water loving) in character and tend to imbibe large
quantities of water if allowed to stand immersed.
The imbibition is accompanied by swelling and a
change in physical dimensions.
 When allowed to stand in dry air, the gel loses
water to the atmosphere, with an accompanying
shrinkage. Such changes may be observed readily
in agar or alginate gels
 A very common method for forming a gel is to add
water to gelatin, agar, starch, or other substance
that develops a dispersed colloid of the sol type.
Such sols are often heated to aid the dispersion.
 DENTAL MATERIALS 8
Structure of Matter and Principles of Adhesion

 Simple cooling of this sol results in the gel
formation. Gels produced in this manner are
usually reversible in nature because they can be
reconverted to a sol by heating and again to a gel by
cooling. A common example of such a gel is agar.
 Another common method of forming gels is by a
reaction of two chemicals. The best-known example
in dentistry is alginate gel, which results from the
reaction of soluble potassium alginate with calcium
ions to form an insoluble calcium alginate gel. This
gel is thermally nonreversible, in contrast to the
agar gel. Silicate-bonded dental investments set as a
result of the formation of silica gel, which results
from the reaction of sodium silicate
hydrochloric acid. This gel is an example of an
inorganic non reversible gel.
Syneresis
 A characteristic of many gels is to contract on
standing in closed containers and to exude or
squeeze out some of the liquid phase. This process
of accumulating an exudate on the surface is known
as syneresis.
Emulsions
 A uniform dispersion of minute droplets of one
liquid within another constitutes an emulsion.
 The two liquids are highly insoluble
immiscible, but by mechanical means a colloidal
dispersion of one liquid is produced in the other.
 Mechanical blenders, homogenizers, or grinders are
used to prepare emulsions.
 Most emulsions are either oil dispersed in water or
water dispersed in oil.
 Usually an emulsion developed by the mechanical
dispersion of pure liquids is unstable and soon
breaks, with the droplets coalescing and separating
into layers.
 The emulsion may be stabilized by the addition of a
small quantity of a third substance known as an
emulsifier.
 The emulsifier enters into the interface between the
droplet and the dispersing liquid to give stability to
the system. The action of the emulsifier is to lower
the interfacial tension between the two liquids.
DIFFUSION & OSMOTIC PRESSURE
 Osmotic pressure is the pressure developed by
diffusion of a liquid or solvent through a
membrane.
 The solvent passes from the dilute to the more
concentrated solution through the membrane
separating the two solutions.
 The development of osmotic pressure has been
used to explain the hypersensitivity of dentin.
 It has been considered that the change in pressure
(as the result of contact with saliva or concentrated
solutions) of solutions present in natural tooth
dentin in exposed carious teeth gives rise to
and diffusion throughout the structure to increase or
decrease the pressure on the nerve system.
ADSORPTION, ABSORPTION & SORPTION
 It is common for liquids and solids to adsorb gases
or other liquids on their surfaces; this process is
always exothermic.
 In the adsorption process, a liquid or gas adheres
firmly by the attachment of molecules to the surface
of the solid or liquid, thus reducing their surface
free energy.
 In the process of absorption, the substance absorbed
diffuses into the solid material by a diffusion
process and the process is not noted for
and concentration of molecules at the surface.
 In instances in which both adsorption and
absorption are known to exist and it is not clear
which process predominates, the whole process is
known as sorption.
 High-energy surfaces such as metals will adsorb
molecules more readily than low-energy surfaces
such as waxes; oxides have intermediate surface
energies
SURFACE TENSION & WETTING
 Surface tension is measured in terms of force
(dynes) per centimeter of the surface of liquid.
 In the case of water at 20°C, the value is 72.8
dynes/cm.
 There is a reduction in surface tension of all liquids
as the temperature is increased
 The surface tension of liquids is also reduced by the
presence of impurities, some of which are
exceedingly effective. Detergents, such as sodium
lauryl sulfate, or the ingredients of soaps, including
sodium stearate or sodium oleate, which have long

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 DENTAL MATERIALS 9
Structure of Matter and Principles of Adhesion

hydrocarbon chains attached to hydrophilic groups

(such as-COONa), are particularly effective in
reducing the surface tension of water.
 The wetting power of a liquid is represented by its
tendency to spread on the surface of the solid.
 The wetting of an adherent surface by an adhesive
is related to surface energy of the adherent (AIPG-
01)
 Much can be learned about the spreading of liquids
on solids, or the tendency for wetting surfaces, by
measuring the angle of contact between the liquid
and the solid surface
 The contact angle results from a balance of surface
and interfacial energies.
 The greater the tendency to wet the surface, the
lower the contact angle, until complete wetting
occurs at an angle equal to zero (AIPG-93, AIIMS-
07, APPG-08)

CAPILLARY RISE
 The penetration of liquids into narrow crevices is
known as capillary action.
 The following equation relates the differential
capillary pressure developed when a small tube of
radius r is inserted in a liquid of surface tension Υ
(usually expressed in dynes/cm) and with a contact
angle θ
∆P = 2Υcosθ/r
 It follows that, if the contact angle of the liquid on
the solid is less than 90 degrees, ∆P will be positive,
and the liquid will penetrate. If the contact angle is
greater than 90 degrees, ∆P will be negative, and
the liquid will be depressed.

FORCES INVOLVED IN DENTURE RETENTION

 Factors include: (1) capillary forces involving the
liquid film between the oral tissues and the denture
base; (2) surface forces controlling the wetting of the
plastic denture base by the saliva; (3) the seating
force applied to the denture, which, for the most
part, determines the thickness of the saliva film
between the denture and the oral tissues; (4) the
surface tension of the saliva; (5) the viscosity of the
saliva; and (6) the atmospheric pressure.

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