William G.

Enloe High School

128 Clarendon Crescent, Raleigh, NC 27610

Creation and Ideation of Jet Engines Through

AutoCAD

Matthew Scott Simpson

Drafting Advanced Studies 2B

Mrs. Amber Martinez

September 25th, 2018

 Creation and Ideation of Jet Engines Through AutoCAD

Contents

1. Abstract…………………………………………………………………………………....3

2. Table of Figures…………………………………………………………………………..4

3. Introduction………………………………………………………………………………..6

4. History of the Jet Engine………………………………………………………………….8

4.1. Early History……………………………………………………………………....8

4.2. Modern Uses…………………………………………………………………......10

5. Parts of a jet engine ……………………………………………………………...…….. .11

5.1. Air entrance………………………………………………………...……...……..11

5.2. Compressor………………………………………………………………………12

5.2.1. Compressor Stall…………………………………………………………………13

5.3. Combustion chamber…………………………………………………………….14

5.3.1. Flameout…………………………………………………………………………15

5.4. Turbine………………………………………………………………………...…15

5.5. Bearing and seals…....……………………………………………………...……17

5.6. Nozzle…………………………………………………….……………………...19

5.7. Afterburner…………………………………………………………………….…20

5.8. Thrust reverser……………………………………………………………...…....21

6. Types of Jet Engine………………………………………………….…………………...22

6.1. Turbojet………………………………………………………………………….22

6.2. Turbofan…………………………………….…………………………………...23

6.3. Ramjet………………………………………………………………………...….24

6.4. Pulsejet…………………………………………………………………………...25

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 Creation and Ideation of Jet Engines Through AutoCAD

6.5. Turboshaft………………………………………………………………………..26

6.6. Turboprop………………………………………………………………………...2

7. Types of systems………………………………………………………………………....28

7.1. Cooling System…………………………………………………………………..28

7.2. Fuel System…………………………………………………………………...….30

7.3. Engine Starting System……………………………………...…………………...31

7.4. Lubrication System…………………………………………………………...….32

7.5. Control

System………………………...………………………………………....34

8. How a jet engine works…………………………………………………………………..35

8.1. Brayton cycle………………………………………………………...…………..35

9. Calculations and Formulas………………....……………………...……………………..37

9.1. Thrust……………………………………………………………………...……..37

9.2. Pressure…………………………………………………………………………..38

9.3. Turbine…………………………………………………………………………...38

9.4. Nozzle……………………………………………………………………...…….38

10. References………………………………………………………………...…………….39

1 Abstract

The purpose of this research paper is to generate a further understanding of the principals

and forces at work inside jet engines. This paper will be developed by introducing the history

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 Creation and Ideation of Jet Engines Through AutoCAD

and types of jet engines, the main parts of a jet engine and how the research was used to create a

working scale model of a jet engine from a 3D printed CAD model. Required testing and

calculations will be introduced throughout the paper. The information presented is derived from

multiple university research papers along with textbook material.

2 Table of Figures

Figure 1: The Wright brothers engine used on the first flight [Page 6] (Library of Congress,

2006)

Figure 2. A schematic depiction of the Boeing f-16 Falcon [Page 7]

Figure 3. A side view a turbine compressor assembly [8] (Private Pilot Ground School, 2014)

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 Creation and Ideation of Jet Engines Through AutoCAD

Figure 4. A cross-section depiction of an Annular combustion chamber [Page 9] ( Seitzman,

2017)

Figure 5. A Cross-sectional view of a turbine engine with the turbine assembly visible. [Page 10]

(GE Aviation 2017)

Figure 6. A Cross-sectional view of a ball bearing assembly with the lubrication system

diagram.[Page 11] (NTN Technical review No.82 (2014))

Figure 7. A visual of a test of a military grade turbine with an afterburner [Page 13] (Us Navy,

2016)

Figure 8. A cross section view of the different types of thrust reversers [Page 13] (Purdue

Engineering, 2015)

Figure 9. A basic view of a turbojet engine[Page 14] (Dahl, 2007)

Figure 10. A side view of the operation of a Turbofan engine.[10] (Aainsqatsi, 2008)

Figure 11. A side view of the operation of a Ramjet engine.[Page 15] (Cryonic,2008)

Figure 12. A side view of a Pulsejet engine.[Page 15] (Grozni,2018)

Figure 13. A side view of the operation of a Turboshaft Engine. [15] (Mliu, 2018)

Figure 14. A side view of the operation of a Turboprop Engine. [16] (Martin, 2017)

Figure 15.A comparison of engine Net thrust to airspeed. [Page 17]

Figure 16. A schematic view of the turbine bleed system used for cabin temperature regulation

and pressurization [17] (SE Aviation, 2016)

Figure 17 A schematic view of the engine storage and pumping system on a Boeing 777 series

airplane [18] (Federal Aviation Administration, 2008)

Figure 18. A rear view of the placement and size of the Auxiliary Power Unit. [19] (P3

Academy, 2016)

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 Creation and Ideation of Jet Engines Through AutoCAD

Figure 19. A schematic view of an turbine lubrication system. [20] (General Aircraft

Maintenance, 2004)

Figure 20. An illistron of the sensors associated with the Automatic Flight control system [21]

(Chief Aircraft, 2006)

Figure 21. A graph of the ideal Brayton Cycle [23] (NASA, 2015)

3. Introduction

A gas turbine engine is a machine defined by Merriam-Webster as an internal combustion

engine in which expanding gases from the combustion chamber drive the blades of a turbine

(Merriam-webster.com, 2018). Gas turbine engines use air as the working fluid to convert

chemical energy in the form of jet fuel to mechanical energy through compression of gas and

combustion to heat the air to drive an internal turbine to generate thrust (Shaw, 2014). There are

many interconnected systems and thousands of individual parts working together to ensure the

safety and dependability of modern commercial gas turbine engines. To fully understand the

inner workings gas turbine engines during operation, a thorough understanding of Newton's first
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 Creation and Ideation of Jet Engines Through AutoCAD

and second laws of motion, fluid dynamics, and thermodynamics are needed. The precision of

engineering and machining necessary to create a machine that can generate and withstand so

much repeated stress and temperature fluctuations is a marvel of human creation.

The Gas turbine has many applications past the aircraft field. Some gas turbines have

been used in electrical energy generation because of their efficiency at sea level. These

electricity generators use a single spool turbine to generate the most force for the amount of fuel

burned. Some experimental automobiles also use gas turbines as a form of propulsion. The

Thrust SSC which was the first car to break the sound barrier on October 15th, 1997, was

powered by two Rolls-Royce Spey turbofan engines allowing the car to achieve a top speed of

763 miles per hour.

The gas turbine has the same primary stages of operation despite each denomination from

the gas turbine engine. The basic stages of gas turbine operation follow the suck, squeeze, bang,

blow method of producing thrust, similar to most commercial engines. Air is introduced to the

engine by the large turbine at the front of the engine. The air is compressed through the

concentric spinning turbines of the engine while fuel is mixed with the air. Once the air reaches a

critical pressure and temperature the fuel is ignited with an electric spark and the expanding

gases spin the rear turbine as it is blown out the back of the engine. The exhaust of the engine is

connected to the main shaft of the engine that spins the inlet turbines allowing for more air to be

sucked into the engine, This process is ongoing with the amount of fuel dictating the amount of

thrust being produced. (Spittle, 2003).

Some of the most common types of gas turbines are the turbojet and turbofan engines.

Each type of engine has advantages and disadvantages in the amount of fuel needed to run the

engine, the ease of startup for each engine and the operating speed of the engine. For this

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 Creation and Ideation of Jet Engines Through AutoCAD

research project, the turbojet engine was selected as the best candidate for a small size of the

model and the engines ability to be easily started and shut off. Commercial Turbojet engines are

already available to the public for radio controlled applications but the inner mechanics and

hidden from view. The goal of this project is to acquire a further understanding through the

scholarly reports of the systems and processes that enable the dependable function of modern

aircraft.

4 History of the Jet Engine

4.1 Early History

The basic principle of jet engines has been around for over two thousand years. The

principles of Newton's third laws were first implemented in 150 BC by the inventor Hero of

Alexandria in his Aeolipile. A small steam turbine that generates energy through the heating of a

pot of water to produce steam. This stream was then funneled through two nozzles to spin the pot

on its suspended horizontal axis. It wasn't until the seventh century in China where China began

experimenting with rocket propulsion during the Tang dynasty. The Mongol invasion of China

lead to the diffusion of the idea of rocketry around Asia and Europe.

The first patent for a jet engine was published in 1791 by John Barber of the united

kingdom. His design called for a compressor forcing output air into a fuel-fired combustion

chamber. The hot gas was then used to drive the compressor, completing the cycle. Barbers ideas

were before the technology necessary for creation, so his plans lay dormant for decades.

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 Creation and Ideation of Jet Engines Through AutoCAD

The Wright brothers flew the first powered airplane on December 17, 1903. The Engine

they used was an early inline four-cylinder internal combustion engine. The linear movement of

the positions was transformed into rotational motion that would drive propellers to push air over

the wings. There was no need for a more efficient engine because the flight was relatively short

in length and the speed of the air entering was slow enough for the engine to efficiently burn

fuel. World war II was the turning point for the jet engine. With the top speed of aircraft

increasing, Pilots realized that the faster an airplane was flying, the harder it was to maneuver the

aircraft. Engineers began to look back at Barbers ideas and creation of the modern jet engine

began.

Figure 1. The Wright brothers engine used on the first flight [6]

The first aircraft company to use a working jet engine in flight was Heinkel He 178

developed by German scientist Ernst Heinkel in 1939. His plane then started a arms race to for

the united states during world war II to remain powerful over the German army. Sir Frank

Whittle created the first turbojet airplane for the axis powers in 1941 with his plane named the
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 Creation and Ideation of Jet Engines Through AutoCAD

Gloster Meteor. This prototype for a turbojet airplane was then shipped to general electric in the

united states where production was stated for the united states military. This rush of research

towards turbojet engines as a future means of creating thrust for aircraft allowed the invention to

flourish in post-war society. Leading to many applications of this new technology to better

society and increase commerce and decrease the time it takes to travel long distances.

4.2 Modern Uses

The post-war atmosphere allowed the jet engines technology to be applied to many

commercial products. Companies such as General Electric, Rolls-Royce, and Pratt & Whitney

expanded on the idea of jet propulsion to allow the jet engine to become the most used form of

propulsion for commercial aircraft. The applications of the jet engine range from commercial

aircraft propulsion to electric power generation, to hobby radio controlled aircraft engines

measuring less than a foot long. The power generation has been stabilized and operation has been

streamlined to ensure safe operation of the parts. Fail Safes have also been implemented into the

design of the jet engine to ensure the safety of operation while the parts are spinning at

supersonic speed.

Modern aircraft use specially designed jet engines to provide the most thrust with the

least amount of fuel consumption. This fuel efficiency makes airplane tickets cheaper generating

more profits for companies. The two most used engines in modern jet aircraft are the Rolls-

Royce Trent series supplying the Airbus A380, Boeing 777, Boeing 787 Dreamliner while the

General electric series of engines supplies the Boeing 777X, Boeing 747-8, Boeing F-16 fighter

jet, Boeing F/A-18.

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 Creation and Ideation of Jet Engines Through AutoCAD

Figure 2. A schematic depiction of the Boeing f-16 Falcon[7]

5 Parts of a jet engine

5.1 Air Entrance

The air entrance or cowling of a turbine engine is specially designed to minimize drag

and allow for the most air impu to the compressor system. The design of the inlet increases the

rator of compressor discharge pressure to inlet pressure allowing for more efficient flying with

minimal disruptions from turbulent air. When looking to an aircraft engine, the first major

component that is visible is the inlet guide vanes that striagnen the air flow to avoid compressor

stall and failure of the engine. The main design problem with the air entrance is the amount of

ice and debris that can be ingested into the inlet. To combat this, aircraft manufacturers can bleed

air from the exhaust and use in within the inlet to warm the air to a great enough temperature

where all the moisture such as rain and ice can be vaporized and not interfere with the

combustion chamber. A Compressor Inlet Screen is often attached in from of the compressor to

filter out and FOD or foreign object debris that can result from birdstries and debris carried into

the engine from wind.

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 Creation and Ideation of Jet Engines Through AutoCAD

For supersonic military aircraft the air entrance also serves as a crucial system that keeps

the air entering the compressor below supersonic speeds. If the air entering the engine is

traveling at over Mach 1 or over 767.26 mph then the sonic pressure wave would destroy the tiny

stators and fan blades of the engine. To combat this phenomenon the turbine will be fitted with

divergent ducts that have a small entrance but a wider exit to decrease the pressure and speed of

the air by adding more volume for the air molecules to disperse. This system keeps the air within

stable pressure for the turbine to operate efficiently.

5.2 Compressor

The first stage of a jet engine operation is the introduction of air through the inlet ports.

This air is then forced through a series of sequential fan blades and stators that increase the

pressure and temperature of the air that is being introduced to the combustor. The air needs to be

pressurized for the jet engine to work at altitudes where the air density is severely lower than it is

at sea level. The air is also needed to be pressurized at sea level to allow for greater fuel

consumption at lower altitude leading to greater thrust to propel the aircraft to produce lift.

The two main types of compressors are the axial and centrifugal compressor. In an axial

compressor, the air that is being compressed moves parallel to the axis that the rotor blades are

rotating around. The energy level of the fluid increases as it is moved through the compressor

because of the rotor blades exerting a torque on the fluid of air. The stationary blades are used to

slow the fluid, converting the circumferential component of the flowing air into pressure. In a

centrifugal compressor, the air that is being introduced is pressurized by the centrifugal force of

curved fan vanes spinning on an axis. The air that is being pressurized exits the compressor

perpendicular to the axis of rotation for the compressor. Centrifugal compressors are smaller and

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 Creation and Ideation of Jet Engines Through AutoCAD

generate less airflow than axial compressors. For this reason, centrifugal compressors are used in

many vehicles as a turbocharger and on some small hobby aircraft to power their combustors.

Axial compressors can also be linked together because of their parallel flow to create multi-stage

compressors capable of generating air pressure needed for reliable and efficient flying.

Figure 3. A side view a turbine compressor assembly [8]

5.2.1 Compressor Stall

Compressor blades are modeled after airplane wings and the bernoulli's principle of lift to

add velocity to air as it moves through the blades. The compressor blades are mounted at an

angle of attack that is most efficient in moving air into the engine. When the air entering the

engine changes vector such when an aircraft is climbing or losing altitude rapidly. The angle of

the airflow can create turbulence causing a compressor stall. When a stall happens the airflow

causes the compressor to slow down, stop, or move in the opposite direction. When the aircraft

goes into a compressor stall most or all thrust is lost and the combustion chamber will start to

overheat due to the lack of airflow over the flame tubes. A compressor stall is corrected by

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 Creation and Ideation of Jet Engines Through AutoCAD

changing the aircrafts angle of attack and cresering throttle to keep the combustion chamber from

overheating.

5.3 Combustion Chambers

After the air is pressurized by the compressor, a small portion of the air is introduced into

the combustor and mixed into a stoichiometric ratio with aircraft grade fuel either unleaded

kerosene or a naphtha-kerosene blend where it can be ignited to increase the pressure within the

engine furthermore. There are two types of combustion chamber types with a hybrid type that

bridges the gap between them. The first type is the annular combustion chamber, where the

flame tube called the annulus and fuel injectors fully surround the engine. This type of engine

allows for the most efficient fuel burn and the least drastic pressure drop within the engine due to

combustion. The second type is the cannular combustion chamber, which separates the air into

eighth or more cans that each contain a flame tube and ignite the air-fuel mix in separate

sections. An advantage of this type of combustion chamber is reliability and redundancy of the

compressor and easy maintenance for each can individually. The hybrid model named the can-

annular combustion chamber works with multiple flame tubes but allows outer air to flow freely

around all the flame tubes. This model gives the redundancy and repair capabilities of the can

design with the burn efficiency of the annular design.

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 Creation and Ideation of Jet Engines Through AutoCAD

Figure 4. A cross-section depiction of an Annular combustion chamber [9]

5.3.1 Flameout

A flameout is then the flame inside of the combustion chamber initially goes out. This

can be caused to much fuel in the mix or insufficient airflow to the engine. A flameout will result

in total loss of engine thrust and the decreased speed of an aircraft until the flameout is corrected.

When a the flameout energy procedure is initiated the pilots will attempt an airstart of the engine

to reignite the flame. If the engine does not restart the pilots much make an emergency landing

with an additional operation turbine engines.

5.4 Turbines

The air that has been mixed with fuel and ignited is then pushed through a set of turbines

to extract all of the kinetic energy from the expanded gas. The turbines are a set of fan blades

that start in a smaller diameter and get larger to decrease the pressure of the gas and extract

energy. The material that the turbines are made of consist of Tempered steel because they need

to be able to withstand the heat of exhaust gases for many hours without warping or causing any

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 Creation and Ideation of Jet Engines Through AutoCAD

other engine malfunction These turbines are attached through a central shaft to the fan and

compressor to draw in air. This connection between the compressor and the turbine called the

turbomachinery is the central link that allows the engine to produce thrust by pulling air into the

engine at a greater speed than it is traveling giving a thrust force to the aircraft. While the engine

is in operation, the typical operating RPM of commercial jet engines is between two thousand

five hundred and four thousand. While the Pratt & Whitney Canada PT6 can run as fast as thirty

thousand RPM. These speeds are all depended on the amount of high energy air that the engine is

able to push through the blades of the turbine to produce rotational energy.

Figure 5. A Cross-sectional view of a turbine engine with the turbine assembly

visible.[10]

5.5 Bearing and Seals

The bearing of an aircraft serves a critical function of allowing the rotational operation

of the compressor and turbine assembly. In designed turbine bearing there are certain criteria that

must be upheld to ensure efficiency and safety for the aircraft. Some of the main criteria are as

follows. Suitable for high-speed rotation, Operable in high temperature, and Highly reliable and

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 Creation and Ideation of Jet Engines Through AutoCAD

traceable. The aircrafts bearing must be able to reliably withstand the centrifugal force of being

spun at over three thousand RMP. This force acting on the bearings can be modeled by the

equation Fcentripital=Mass * (velocity2/radius). The bearing will also have to withstand the

temperatures associated with the heated gas flowing through the engine as well as the friction

force of the bearing within itself during operation. This energy force has been calculated to be

between two hundred degrees and three hundred degrees Celsius for an extended period of time.

To ensure all of the criteria are met, bearing manufacturers typically use materials such as

molybdenum-based steel or tungsten-based materials. These materials are able to withstand the

temperature of normal aircraft operation as well as the centrifugal stress knows as “hoop stress”.

These materials are often coated with silver to prevent contact with similar metals to decrease the

likelihood of intense wear.

There are four types of bearing associated with aircraft flight. These bearing types are

called the ball bearing, roller bearing, performed sleeve bearing, and the slipper bearing. For my

turbine engine, we will focus on the design of the roller bearing and ball bearing. The roller

bearing is a pressurized bearing with an inner and outer casing that enclose the series of

cylindrical rollers that allow the bearing to move freely. Within the bearing, there is a

mechanism for delivering oil to the system surrounded by either a helical oil seal or labyrinth oil

seal that allows the oil to be pressurized and prevents leakage from the bearing. This oil system

is also used as a cushion to damped any minute vibrations associated with the operation of the

turbine to ensure the smoothest flight possible for passengers inside of the aircraft. Since the

rollers provide more surface area for the cylinders to grip the outer walls of the bearing they are

commonly used in the rear stages of the aircraft where the pressure of the thrust requires a

stronger bearing. Near the front of the turbine is where the ball bearing reside. Their design is

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 Creation and Ideation of Jet Engines Through AutoCAD

largely similar to the roller bearing except there are steel balls located inside the bearing. These

bearings also require a lubrication delivery system to ensure the longevity of the closed system.

Figure 6. A Cross-sectional view of a ball bearing assembly with the lubrication system

diagram.[11]

5.6 Nozzle

This piece of the turbine converts the gas turbine into a jet engine. This component

constricts the flow of exhaust gases into an exhaust jet in order to maximize thrust for different

types of flying speeds. Propelling nozzles can be subsonic, sonic, or supersonic. Propelling

nozzles can be fixed in their position or can have hydraulic variable diameters that can be

controlled by the onboard flight computer of the aircraft. The three types of propelling nozzle

shapes are convergent nozzles, divergent nozzles and convergent - divergent nozzles also known

as C-D nozzles. From these nozzle shapes a multitude of different nozzles can be fabricated.

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 Creation and Ideation of Jet Engines Through AutoCAD

The low ratio nozzles are on most civil aircraft and is a C-D nozzle to prevent choking at

low airspeeds. These nozzles are used because of their low noise and reliability of performance.

The ejector nozzle is a simple form of a modern day iris nozzle with spring loaded pedals

controlled by the pilot. The iris nozzle is common on jet fighters because of hydraulic control

control that can be used to distribute pressure, add thrust and change the thrust vector of the

aircraft to climb and descent with unmatched speed. The bell nozzle is the most common

propelling nozzle for rocket engines because of its simplicity and low weight compared to other

nozzles. The Plug nozzle also known as the “aerospike” contains a long pressure reducing spike

that us self regulated to allow the most efficient airflow from the engine. These nozzles can offer

a reduction of up to thirty percent in total fuel constipation due to its ability to maximize pressure

of air. The last type of nozzle is the Annular and Linear aerospike. This nozzle is used when

many combustion engines are linked together against a truncated surface to direct each engines

exhaust gases into a uniform exhaust pattern to maximize efficiency of the aircraft at subsonic or

supersonic speeds.

5.7 Afterburner

The afterburner is used on many military grade aircraft and the supersonic concorde

civilian aircraft as a way of increasing the total thrust of a turbine engine by forty to seventy

percent for a short period of time while not adding any extra weight to the aircraft. The turbine

accomplishes this task by routing exhaust gases to a second set of fuel injectors. This process

allows the turbine to extract all of the remaining oxygen from the air that has already been

combusted. The turbine is required to have a convergent - divergent nozzle in order to change the

force vector from normal thrust potential to increase thrust potential.

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 Creation and Ideation of Jet Engines Through AutoCAD

The main disadvantage of an afterburner is that the fuel consumption increases drastically

to up to three times the normal consumption. so they can only be used in short burst such as

taking off from a short runway or to maneuver around obstacles. Afterbrunes also have to be

rigorously serviced and maintained to ensure their reliability in flight. The tolerances for each

part must allow the superheated exhaust gases to be channelled in a fashion that allows for a

constant flame channel to be ignited.

Figure 7. A visual of a test of a military grade turbine with an afterburner [12]

5.8 Thrust Reverser

To aid in the braking of an aircraft when it lands most commercial turbines are equipped

with a trust reversal system to direct the exhaust gases of the aircraft in the opposite direction of

travel creating a negative force vector. This system is used when the runway for landing is

shorter than optimal for the aircraft or if the aircraft is called into a rejected takeoff or if the

airport requires a manual pushback from the gate.

There are many systems that can perform this operation, The target reverse is used on

many commercial aircraft and involves a hydraulically actuated bucket system that closes over

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 Creation and Ideation of Jet Engines Through AutoCAD

the exhaust exit and deflected the exhaust toward the front of the aircraft. A cascade system is

used on high bypass systems where a target reverser would fail under the pressure of the engine.

A series of hydraulic radical deflectors fitted to be flush with the cowl of the aircraft during

normal operation. When actuated the deflectors move in front of the exhaust exit and a

translating cowl is opened to allow the exhaust gases to flow towards the front of the aircraft.

When the aircraft is fitted with propellers a reverse pitch system is implemented within the

propeller blades to allow the blades to rotate. This rotation of the blades allows the force of the

thrust to be disengaged or reversed to slow the aircraft.

Figure 8. A cross section view of the different types of thrust reversers [13]

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