Solvent

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Jump to navigationJump to search
For other uses, see Solvent (disambiguation).

A bottle of acetic acid, a liquid solvent

A solvent (from the Latin solvo, "loosen, untie, solve") is a substance that
dissolves a solute (a chemically distinct liquid, solid or gas), resulting in a
solution. A solvent is usually a liquid but can also be a solid, a gas, or a
supercritical fluid. The quantity of solute that can dissolve in a specific volume
of solvent varies with temperature. Common uses for organic solvents are in dry
cleaning (e.g. tetrachloroethylene), as paint thinners (e.g. toluene, turpentine),
as nail polish removers and glue solvents (acetone, methyl acetate, ethyl acetate),
in spot removers (e.g. hexane, petrol ether), in detergents (citrus terpenes) and
in perfumes (ethanol). Water is a solvent for polar molecules and the most common
solvent used by living things; all the ions and proteins in a cell are dissolved in
water within a cell. Solvents find various applications in chemical,
pharmaceutical, oil, and gas industries, including in chemical syntheses and
purification processes.

Contents
1 Solutions and solvation
2 Solvent classifications
2.1 Other polarity scales
2.2 Polar protic and polar aprotic
3 Multicomponent
3.1 Solvents
3.2 Thinners
4 Physical properties
4.1 Properties table of common solvents
4.1.1 Nonpolar solvents
4.1.2 Polar aprotic solvents
4.1.3 Polar protic solvents
4.2 Hansen solubility parameter values
4.2.1 Non-polar solvents
4.2.2 Polar aprotic solvents
4.2.3 Polar protic solvents
4.3 Boiling point
4.4 Density
5 Safety
5.1 Fire
5.2 Explosive peroxide formation
6 Health effects
6.1 Acute exposure
6.2 Chronic exposure
6.3 Environmental contamination
7 See also
8 References
9 Bibliography
10 External links
Solutions and solvation
When one substance is dissolved into another, a solution is formed.[1] This is
opposed to the situation when the compounds are insoluble like sand in water. In a
solution, all of the ingredients are uniformly distributed at a molecular level and
no residue remains. A solvent-solute mixture consists of a single phase with all
solute molecules occurring as solvates (solvent-solute complexes), as opposed to
separate continuous phases as in suspensions, emulsions and other types of non-
solution mixtures. The ability of one compound to be dissolved in another is known
as solubility; if this occurs in all proportions, it is called miscible.

In addition to mixing, the substances in a solution interact with each other at the
molecular level. When something is dissolved, molecules of the solvent arrange
around molecules of the solute. Heat transfer is involved and entropy is increased
making the solution more thermodynamically stable than the solute and solvent
separately. This arrangement is mediated by the respective chemical properties of
the solvent and solute, such as hydrogen bonding, dipole moment and polarizability.
[2] Solvation does not cause a chemical reaction or chemical configuration changes
in the solute. However, solvation resembles a coordination complex formation
reaction, often with considerable energetics (heat of solvation and entropy of
solvation) and is thus far from a neutral process.

Solvent classifications
Solvents can be broadly classified into two categories: polar and non-polar. A
special case is mercury, whose solutions are known as amalgams; also, other metal
solutions exist which are liquid at room temperature. Generally, the dielectric
constant of the solvent provides a rough measure of a solvent's polarity. The
strong polarity of water is indicated by its high dielectric constant of 88 (at 0
�C).[3] Solvents with a dielectric constant of less than 15 are generally
considered to be nonpolar.[4] The dielectric constant measures the solvent's
tendency to partly cancel the field strength of the electric field of a charged
particle immersed in it. This reduction is then compared to the field strength of
the charged particle in a vacuum.[4] Heuristically, the dielectric constant of a
solvent can be thought of as its ability to reduce the solute's effective internal
charge. Generally, the dielectric constant of a solvent is an acceptable predictor
of the solvent's ability to dissolve common ionic compounds, such as salts.

Other polarity scales

Dielectric constants are not the only measure of polarity. Because solvents are
used by chemists to carry out chemical reactions or observe chemical and biological
phenomena, more specific measures of polarity are required. Most of these measures
are sensitive to chemical structure.

The Grunwald�Winstein mY scale measures polarity in terms of solvent influence on

buildup of positive charge of a solute during a chemical reaction.

Kosower's Z scale measures polarity in terms of the influence of the solvent on UV-
absorption maxima of a salt, usually pyridinium iodide or the pyridinium
zwitterion.[5]

Donor number and donor acceptor scale measures polarity in terms of how a solvent
interacts with specific substances, like a strong Lewis acid or a strong Lewis
base.[6]

The Hildebrand parameter is the square root of cohesive energy density. It can be
used with nonpolar compounds, but cannot accommodate complex chemistry.

Reichardt's dye, a solvatochromic dye that changes color in response to polarity,

gives a scale of ET(30) values. ET is the transition energy between the ground
state and the lowest excited state in kcal/mol, and (30) identifies the dye.
Another, roughly correlated scale (ET(33)) can be defined with Nile red.

The polarity, dipole moment, polarizability and hydrogen bonding of a solvent

determines what type of compounds it is able to dissolve and with what other
solvents or liquid compounds it is miscible. Generally, polar solvents dissolve
polar compounds best and non-polar solvents dissolve non-polar compounds best:
"like dissolves like". Strongly polar compounds like sugars (e.g. sucrose) or ionic
compounds, like inorganic salts (e.g. table salt) dissolve only in very polar
solvents like water, while strongly non-polar compounds like oils or waxes dissolve
only in very non-polar organic solvents like hexane. Similarly, water and hexane
(or vinegar and vegetable oil) are not miscible with each other and will quickly
separate into two layers even after being shaken well.

Polarity can be separated to different contributions. For example, the Kamlet-Taft

parameters are dipolarity/polarizability (p*), hydrogen-bonding acidity (a) and
hydrogen-bonding basicity (�). These can be calculated from the wavelength shifts
of 3�6 different solvatochromic dyes in the solvent, usually including Reichardt's
dye, nitroaniline and diethylnitroaniline. Another option, Hansen's parameters,
separate the cohesive energy density into dispersion, polar and hydrogen bonding
contributions.

Polar protic and polar aprotic

Solvents with a dielectric constant (more accurately, relative static permittivity)
greater than 15 (i.e. polar or polarizable) can be further divided into protic and
aprotic. Protic solvents solvate anions (negatively charged solutes) strongly via
hydrogen bonding. Water is a protic solvent. Aprotic solvents such as acetone or
dichloromethane tend to have large dipole moments (separation of partial positive
and partial negative charges within the same molecule) and solvate positively
charged species via their negative dipole.[7] In chemical reactions the use of
polar protic solvents favors the SN1 reaction mechanism, while polar aprotic
solvents favor the SN2 reaction mechanism. These polar solvents are capable of
forming hydrogen bonds with water to dissolve in water whereas non polar solvents
are not capable of strong hydrogen bonds.

Multicomponent
Solvents
Name Composition
Solvent 645 toluene 50%, butyl acetate 18%, ethyl acetate 12%, butanol 10%, ethanol
10%.
Solvent 646 toluene 50%, ethanol 15%, butanol 10%, butyl- or amyl acetate 10%,
ethyl cellosolve 8%, acetone 7%[8]
Solvent 647 butyl- or amyl acetate 29.8%, ethyl acetate 21.2%, butanol 7.7%,
toluene or pyrobenzene 41.3%[9]
Solvent 648 butyl acetate 50%, ethanol 10%, butanol 20%, toluene 20%[10]
Solvent 649 ethyl cellosolve 30%, butanol 20%, xylene 50%
Solvent 650 ethyl cellosolve 20%, butanol 30%, xylene 50%[11]
Solvent 651 white spirit 90%, butanol 10%
Solvent KR-36 butyl acetate 20%, butanol 80%
Solvent P-4 toluene 62%, acetone 26%, butyl acetate 12%.
Solvent P-10 xylene 85%, acetone 15%.
Solvent P-12 toluene 60%, butyl acetate 30%, xylene 10%.
Solvent P-14 cyclohexanone 50%, toluene 50%.
Solvent P-24 solvent 50%, xylene 35%, acetone 15%.
Solvent P-40 toluene 50%, ethyl cellosolve 30%, acetone 20%.
Solvent P-219 toluene 34%, cyclohexanone 33%, acetone 33%.
Solvent P-3160 butanol 60%, ethanol 40%.
Solvent RCC xylene 90%, butyl acetate 10%.
Solvent RML ethanol 64%, ethylcellosolve 16%, toluene 10%, butanol 10%.
Solvent PML-315 toluene 25%, xylene 25%, butyl acetate 18%, ethyl cellosolve 17%,
butanol 15%.
Solvent PC-1 toluene 60%, butyl acetate 30%, xylene 10%.
Solvent PC-2 white spirit 70%, xylene 30%.
Solvent RFG ethanol 75%, butanol 25%.
Solvent RE-1 xylene 50%, acetone 20%, butanol 15%, ethanol 15%.
Solvent RE-2 Solvent 70%, ethanol 20%, acetone 10%.
Solvent RE-3 solvent 50%, ethanol 20%, acetone 20%, ethyl cellosolve 10%.
Solvent RE-4 solvent 50%, acetone 30%, ethanol 20%.
Solvent FK-1 (?) absolute alcohol (99.8%) 95%, ethyl acetate 5%
Thinners
Name Composition
Thinner RKB-1 butanol 50%, xylene 50%
Thinner RKB-2 butanol 95%, xylene 5%
Thinner RKB-3 xylene 90%, butanol 10%
Thinner M ethanol 65%, butyl acetate 30%, ethyl acetate 5%.
Thinner P-7 cyclohexanone 50%, ethanol 50%.
Thinner R-197 xylene 60%, butyl acetate 20%, ethyl cellosolve 20%.
Thinner of WFD toluene 50%, butyl acetate (or amyl acetate) 18%, butanol 10%,
ethanol 10%, ethyl acetate 9%, acetone 3%.
Physical properties
Properties table of common solvents
The solvents are grouped into nonpolar, polar aprotic, and polar protic solvents,
with each group ordered by increasing polarity. The properties of solvents which
exceed those of water are bolded.

Solvent Chemical formula Boiling point[12]

(�C) Dielectric constant[13] Density
(g/mL) Dipole moment
(D)
Nonpolar solvents
Pentane CH3CH2CH2CH2CH3 36 1.84 0.626 0.00
Cyclopentane Cyclopentane 200.svg
C5H10 40 1.97 0.751 0.00
Hexane CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2CH3 69 1.88 0.655 0.00
Cyclohexane Cyclohexane-2D-skeletal.svg
C6H12 81 2.02 0.779 0.00
Benzene Benzene 200.svg
C6H6 80 2.3 0.879 0.00
Toluene C6H5-CH3 111 2.38 0.867 0.36
1,4-Dioxane 1-4-Dioxane.svg
C4H8O2 101 2.3 1.033 0.45
Chloroform CHCl3 61 4.81 1.498 1.04
Diethyl ether CH3CH2-O-CH2CH3 35 4.3 0.713 1.15
Dichloromethane (DCM) CH2Cl2 40 9.1 1.3266 1.60
Polar aprotic solvents
Tetrahydrofuran (THF) Tetrahydrofuran.svg
C4H8O 66 7.5 0.886 1.75
Ethyl acetate Essigs�ureethylester.svg
CH3-C(=O)-O-CH2-CH3 77 6.02 0.894 1.78
Acetone Acetone-2D-skeletal.svg
CH3-C(=O)-CH3 56 21 0.786 2.88
Dimethylformamide (DMF) Dimethylformamide.svg
H-C(=O)N(CH3)2 153 38 0.944 3.82
Acetonitrile (MeCN) CH3-C=N 82 37.5 0.786 3.92
Dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) Dimethylsulfoxid.svg
CH3-S(=O)-CH3 189 46.7 1.092 3.96
Nitromethane CH3-NO2 100�103 35.87 1.1371 3.56
Propylene carbonate C4H6O3 240 64.0 1.205 4.9
Polar protic solvents
Formic acid Formic acid.svg
H-C(=O)OH 101 58 1.21 1.41
n-Butanol CH3CH2CH2CH2OH 118 18 0.810 1.63
Isopropyl alcohol (IPA) 2-Propanol2.svg
CH3-CH(-OH)-CH3 82 18 0.785 1.66
n-Propanol CH3CH2CH2OH 97 20 0.803 1.68
Ethanol CH3CH2OH 79 24.55 0.789 1.69
Methanol CH3OH 65 33 0.791 1.70
Acetic acid Essigs�ure - Acetic acid.svg
CH3-C(=O)OH 118 6.2 1.049 1.74
Water Wasser Strukturformel V1.svg
H-O-H 100 80 1.000 1.85
Hansen solubility parameter values
The Hansen solubility parameter values[14][15] are based on dispersion bonds (dD),
polar bonds (dP) and hydrogen bonds (dH). These contain information about the
inter-molecular interactions with other solvents and also with polymers, pigments,
nanoparticles, etc. This allows for rational formulations knowing, for example,
that there is a good HSP match between a solvent and a polymer. Rational
substitutions can also be made for "good" solvents (effective at dissolving the
solute) that are "bad" (expensive or hazardous to health or the environment). The
following table shows that the intuitions from "non-polar", "polar aprotic" and
"polar protic" are put numerically � the "polar" molecules have higher levels of dP
and the protic solvents have higher levels of dH. Because numerical values are
used, comparisons can be made rationally by comparing numbers. For example,
acetonitrile is much more polar than acetone but exhibits slightly less hydrogen
bonding.

Solvent Chemical formula dD Dispersion dP Polar dH Hydrogen bonding

Non-polar solvents
n-Hexane CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2CH3 14.9 0.0 0.0
Benzene C6H6 18.4 0.0 2.0
Toluene C6H5-CH3 18.0 1.4 2.0
Diethyl ether CH3CH2-O-CH2CH3 14.5 2.9 4.6
Chloroform CHCl3 17.8 3.1 5.7
1,4-Dioxane /-CH2-CH2-O-CH2-CH2-O-\ 17.5 1.8 9.0
Polar aprotic solvents
Ethyl acetate CH3-C(=O)-O-CH2-CH3 15.8 5.3 7.2
Tetrahydrofuran (THF) /-CH2-CH2-O-CH2-CH2-\ 16.8 5.7 8.0
Dichloromethane CH2Cl2 17.0 7.3 7.1
Acetone CH3-C(=O)-CH3 15.5 10.4 7.0
Acetonitrile (MeCN) CH3-C=N 15.3 18.0 6.1
Dimethylformamide (DMF) H-C(=O)N(CH3)2 17.4 13.7 11.3
Dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) CH3-S(=O)-CH3 18.4 16.4 10.2
Polar protic solvents
Acetic acid CH3-C(=O)OH 14.5 8.0 13.5
n-Butanol CH3CH2CH2CH2OH 16.0 5.7 15.8
Isopropanol CH3-CH(-OH)-CH3 15.8 6.1 16.4
n-Propanol CH3CH2CH2OH 16.0 6.8 17.4
Ethanol CH3CH2OH 15.8 8.8 19.4
Methanol CH3OH 14.7 12.3 22.3
Formic acid H-C(=O)OH 14.6 10.0 14.0
Water H-O-H 15.5 16.0 42.3
If, for environmental or other reasons, a solvent or solvent blend is required to
replace another of equivalent solvency, the substitution can be made on the basis
of the Hansen solubility parameters of each. The values for mixtures are taken as
the weighted averages of the values for the neat solvents. This can be calculated
by trial-and-error, a spreadsheet of values, or HSP software.[14][15] A 1:1 mixture
of toluene and 1,4 dioxane has dD, dP and dH values of 17.8, 1.6 and 5.5,
comparable to those of chloroform at 17.8, 3.1 and 5.7 respectively. Because of the
health hazards associated with toluene itself, other mixtures of solvents may be
found using a full HSP dataset.

Boiling point
Solvent Boiling point (�C)[12]
ethylene dichloride 83.48
pyridine 115.25
methyl isobutyl ketone 116.5
methylene chloride 39.75
isooctane 99.24
carbon disulfide 46.3
carbon tetrachloride 76.75
o-xylene 144.42
The boiling point is an important property because it determines the speed of
evaporation. Small amounts of low-boiling-point solvents like diethyl ether,
dichloromethane, or acetone will evaporate in seconds at room temperature, while
high-boiling-point solvents like water or dimethyl sulfoxide need higher
temperatures, an air flow, or the application of vacuum for fast evaporation.

Low boilers: boiling point below 100 �C (boiling point of water)

Medium boilers: between 100 �C and 150 �C
High boilers: above 150 �C
Density
Most organic solvents have a lower density than water, which means they are lighter
than and will form a layer on top of water. Important exceptions are most of the
halogenated solvents like dichloromethane or chloroform will sink to the bottom of
a container, leaving water as the top layer. This is crucial to remember when
partitioning compounds between solvents and water in a separatory funnel during
chemical syntheses.

Often, specific gravity is cited in place of density. Specific gravity is defined

as the density of the solvent divided by the density of water at the same
temperature. As such, specific gravity is a unitless value. It readily communicates
whether a water-insoluble solvent will float (SG < 1.0) or sink (SG > 1.0) when
mixed with water.

Solvent Specific gravity[16]

Safety
Fire
Most organic solvents are flammable or highly flammable, depending on their
volatility. Exceptions are some chlorinated solvents like dichloromethane and
chloroform. Mixtures of solvent vapors and air can explode. Solvent vapors are
heavier than air; they will sink to the bottom and can travel large distances
nearly undiluted. Solvent vapors can also be found in supposedly empty drums and
cans, posing a flash fire hazard; hence empty containers of volatile solvents
should be stored open and upside down.

Both diethyl ether and carbon disulfide have exceptionally low autoignition
temperatures which increase greatly the fire risk associated with these solvents.
The autoignition temperature of carbon disulfide is below 100 �C (212 �F), so
objects such as steam pipes, light bulbs, hotplates, and recently extinguished
bunsen burners are able to ignite its vapours.

In addition some solvents, such as methanol, can burn with a very hot flame which
can be nearly invisible under some lighting conditions.[17][18] This can delay or
prevent the timely recognition of a dangerous fire, until flames spread to other
materials.

Explosive peroxide formation

Ethers like diethyl ether and tetrahydrofuran (THF) can form highly explosive
organic peroxides upon exposure to oxygen and light. THF is normally more likely to
form such peroxides than diethyl ether. One of the most susceptible solvents is
diisopropyl ether, but all ethers are considered to be potential peroxide sources.

The heteroatom (oxygen) stabilizes the formation of a free radical which is formed
by the abstraction of a hydrogen atom by another free radical.[clarification
needed] The carbon-centred free radical thus formed is able to react with an oxygen
molecule to form a peroxide compound. The process of peroxide formation is greatly
accelerated by exposure to even low levels of light, but can proceed slowly even in
dark conditions.

Unless a desiccant is used which can destroy the peroxides, they will concentrate
during distillation, due to their higher boiling point. When sufficient peroxides
have formed, they can form a crystalline, shock-sensitive solid precipitate at the
mouth of a container or bottle. Minor mechanical disturbances, such as scraping the
inside of a vessel or the dislodging of a deposit, merely twisting the cap may
provide sufficient energy for the peroxide to explode or detonate. Peroxide
formation is not a significant problem when fresh solvents are used up quickly;
they are more of a problem in laboratories which may take years to finish a single
bottle. Low-volume users should acquire only small amounts of peroxide-prone
solvents, and dispose of old solvents on a regular periodic schedule.

To avoid explosive peroxide formation, ethers should be stored in an aritight

container, away from light, because both light and air can encourage peroxide
formation.[19]

A number of tests can be used to detect the presence of a peroxide in an ether; one
is to use a combination of iron(II) sulfate and potassium thiocyanate. The peroxide
is able to oxidize the Fe2+ ion to an Fe3+ ion, which then forms a deep-red
coordination complex with the thiocyanate.

Peroxides may be removed by washing with acidic iron(II) sulfate, filtering through
alumina, or distilling from sodium/benzophenone. Alumina does not destroy the
peroxides but merely traps them, and must be disposed of properly. The advantage of
using sodium/benzophenone is that moisture and oxygen are removed as well.[citation
needed]

Health effects
General health hazards associated with solvent exposure include toxicity to the
nervous system, reproductive damage, liver and kidney damage, respiratory
impairment, cancer, and dermatitis.[20]

Acute exposure
Many solvents can lead to a sudden loss of consciousness if inhaled in large
amounts. Solvents like diethyl ether and chloroform have been used in medicine as
anesthetics, sedatives, and hypnotics for a long time. Ethanol (grain alcohol) is a
widely used and abused psychoactive drug. Diethyl ether, chloroform, and many other
solvents e.g. from gasoline or glues are abused recreationally in glue sniffing,
often with harmful long term health effects like neurotoxicity or cancer.
Fraudulent substitution of 1,5-pentanediol by the psychoactive 1,4-butanediol by a
subcontractor caused the Bindeez product recall.[21] If ingested, the so-called
toxic alcohols (other than ethanol) such as methanol, propanol, and ethylene glycol
metabolize into toxic aldehydes and acids, which cause potentially fatal metabolic
acidosis.[22] The commonly available alcohol solvent methanol can cause permanent
blindness or death if ingested. The solvent 2-butoxyethanol, used in fracking
fluids, can cause hypotension and metabolic acidosis.[23]

Chronic exposure
Main article: Chronic solvent-induced encephalopathy
Some solvents including chloroform and benzene a common ingredient in gasoline are
known to be carcinogenic, while many others are considered by the World Health
Organization to be likely carcinogens. Solvents can damage internal organs like the
liver, the kidneys, the nervous system, or the brain. The cumulative effects of
long-term or repeated exposure to solvents are called chronic solvent-induced
encephalopathy (CSE).
Chronic exposure to organic solvents in the work environment can produce a range of
adverse neuropsychiatric effects. For example, occupational exposure to organic
solvents has been associated with higher numbers of painters suffering from
alcoholism.[24] Ethanol has a synergistic effect when taken in combination with
many solvents; for instance, a combination of toluene/benzene and ethanol causes
greater nausea/vomiting than either substance alone.

Many solvents are known or suspected to be cataractogenic, greatly increasing the

risk of developing cataracts in the lens of the eye.[25] Solvent exposure has also
been associated with neurotoxic damage causing hearing loss[26][27] and color
vision losses.[28]

Environmental contamination
A major pathway to induce health effects arises from spills or leaks of solvents
that reach the underlying soil. Since solvents readily migrate substantial
distances, the creation of widespread soil contamination is not uncommon; this is
particularly a health risk if aquifers are affected. Vapor intrusion can occur from
sites with extensive subsurface solvent contamination.[29][citation needed]

See also
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Solvents.
Free energy of solvation
Solvents are often refluxed with an appropriate desiccant prior to distillation to
remove water. This may be performed prior to a chemical synthesis where water may
interfere with the intended reaction
List of water-miscible solvents
Lyoluminescence
Occupational health
Partition coefficient (log P) is a measure of differential solubility of a compound
in two solvents
Solvation
Solution
Solvent systems exist outside the realm of ordinary organic solvents: Supercritical
fluids, ionic liquids and deep eutectic solvents
Water model
Water pollution

References
Tinoco I, Sauer K, Wang JC (2002). Physical Chemistry. Prentice Hall. p. 134. ISBN
978-0-13-026607-1.
Lowery and Richardson, pp. 181�183
Malmberg CG, Maryott AA (January 1956). "Dielectric Constant of Water from 0� to
100�C". Journal of Research of the National Bureau of Standards. 56 (1): 1.
doi:10.6028/jres.056.001.
Lowery and Richardson, p. 177.
Kosower, E.M. (1969) "An introduction to Physical Organic Chemistry" Wiley: New
York, p. 293
Gutmann V (1976). "Solvent effects on the reactivities of organometallic
compounds". Coord. Chem. Rev. 18 (2): 225. doi:10.1016/S0010-8545(00)82045-7.
Lowery and Richardson, p. 183.
dcpt.ru Solvent 646 Characteristics (ru)
dcpt.ru Solvent 647 Characteristics (ru)
dcpt.ru Solvent 648 Characteristics (ru)
dcpt.ru Solvent 650 Characteristics (ru)
Solvent Properties � Boiling Point Archived 14 June 2011 at the Wayback Machine.
Xydatasource.com. Retrieved on 2013-01-26.
Dielectric Constant Archived 4 July 2010 at the Wayback Machine. Macro.lsu.edu.
Retrieved on 2013-01-26.
Abbott S, Hansen CM (2008). Hansen solubility parameters in practice. Hansen-
Solubility. ISBN 978-0-9551220-2-6.
Hansen CM (January 2002). Hansen solubility parameters: a user's handbook. CRC
press. ISBN 978-0-8493-7248-3.
Selected solvent properties � Specific Gravity Archived 14 June 2011 at the
Wayback Machine. Xydatasource.com. Retrieved on 2013-01-26.
Fanick ER, Smith LR, Baines TM (1 October 1984). "Safety Related Additives for
Methanol Fuel". SAE Technical Paper Series. 1. Warrendale, PA. doi:10.4271/841378.
Archived from the original on 12 August 2017.
Anderson JE, Magyarl MW, Siegl WO (1 July 1985). "Concerning the Luminosity of
Methanol-Hydrocarbon Diffusion Flames". Combustion Science and Technology. 43
(3�4): 115�125. doi:10.1080/00102208508947000. ISSN 0010-2202.
"Peroxides and Ethers | Environmental Health, Safety and Risk Management".
www.uaf.edu. Retrieved 25 January 2018.
"Solvents". Occupational Safety & Health Administration. U.S. Department of Labor.
Archived from the original on 15 March 2016.
Rood, David (7 November 2007). "National: Recall ordered for toy that turns into
drug". www.theage.com.au.
Kraut JA, Mullins ME (January 2018). "Toxic Alcohols". The New England Journal of
Medicine. 378 (3): 270�280. doi:10.1056/NEJMra1615295. PMID 29342392.
Hung T, Dewitt CR, Martz W, Schreiber W, Holmes DT (July 2010). "Fomepizole fails
to prevent progression of acidosis in 2-butoxyethanol and ethanol coingestion".
Clinical Toxicology. 48 (6): 569�71. doi:10.3109/15563650.2010.492350. PMID
20560787.
Lundberg I, Gustavsson A, H�gberg M, Nise G (June 1992). "Diagnoses of alcohol
abuse and other neuropsychiatric disorders among house painters compared with house
carpenters". British Journal of Industrial Medicine. 49 (6): 409�15.
doi:10.1136/oem.49.6.409. PMC 1012122. PMID 1606027.
Raitta C, Husman K, Tossavainen A (August 1976). "Lens changes in car painters
exposed to a mixture of organic solvents". Albrecht von Graefes Archiv Fur
Klinische und Experimentelle Ophthalmologie. Albrecht von Graefe's Archive for
Clinical and Experimental Ophthalmology. 200 (2): 149�56. doi:10.1007/bf00414364.
PMID 1086605.
Campo P, Morata TC, Hong O (April 2013). "Chemical exposure and hearing loss".
Disease-A-Month. 59 (4): 119�38. doi:10.1016/j.disamonth.2013.01.003. PMC 4693596.
PMID 23507352.
Johnson AC, Morata TC (2010). "Occupational exposure to chemicals and hearing
impairment. The Nordic Expert Group for Criteria Documentation of Health Risks from
Chemicals" (PDF). Arbete och H�lsa. 44: 177. Archived (PDF) from the original on 4
June 2016.
Mergler D, Blain L, Lagac� JP (1987). "Solvent related colour vision loss: an
indicator of neural damage?". International Archives of Occupational and
Environmental Health. 59 (4): 313�21. doi:10.1007/bf00405275. PMID 3497110.
Forand SP, Lewis-Michl EL, Gomez MI (April 2012). "Adverse birth outcomes and
maternal exposure to trichloroethylene and tetrachloroethylene through soil vapor
intrusion in New York State". Environmental Health Perspectives. 120 (4): 616�21.
doi:10.1289/ehp.1103884. PMC 3339451. PMID 22142966.
Bibliography
Lowery TH, Richardson KS (1987). Mechanism and Theory in Organic Chemistry (3rd
ed.). Harper Collins Publishers. ISBN 978-0-06-364044-3.
External links
Look up solvent in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
"European Solvents Industry Group - ESIG - ESIG European Solvents Industry Group"
Solvents in Europe.
Table and text O-Chem Lecture
Tables Properties and toxicities of organic solvents
CDC � Organic Solvents � NIOSH Workplace Safety and Health Topic
EPA - Solvent Contaminated Wipes
vte
Basic reaction mechanisms
vte
Articles related to solutions
Authority control Edit this at Wikidata
GND: 4036160-3 NDL: 00574251
Categories: Chemical reactionsSoil contaminationSolventsSolutionsChemical compounds
Navigation menu
Not logged inTalkContributionsCreate accountLog inArticleTalkReadEditView
historySearch
Search Wikipedia
Main page
Contents
Featured content
Current events
Random article
Donate to Wikipedia
Wikipedia store
Interaction
Help
About Wikipedia
Community portal
Recent changes
Contact page
Tools
What links here
Related changes
Upload file
Special pages
Permanent link
Page information
Wikidata item
Cite this page
Print/export
Create a book
Download as PDF
Printable version
In other projects
Wikimedia Commons

Languages
???????
Espa�ol
??????
Bahasa Indonesia
Bahasa Melayu
Portugu�s
???????
????
??
58 more
Edit links
This page was last edited on 1 May 2019, at 09:01 (UTC).
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License;
additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and
Privacy Policy. Wikipedia� is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation,
Inc., a non-profit organizat