Lecture--2

2.1 RESISTANCES IN SERIES:-

• When some conductors having resistances R1 , R2,

R3 are connected end-to-end they are said to be
connected in series..
For a series ckt:-
• The current is same through all conductors.
• Different resistors have their individual voltage
drops.
• Applied voltage equals the sum of different
voltage drops.
• Resistances and power are additative
• From the above ckt.
• V=V1+V2+V3 =IR1+IR2+IR3
• V=IR
• R=Equivalent resistance
• = R1+R2+R3
R1 R2 R3

V
 2.2 Voltage dividing rule:-

• Since in series ckt same current flows through

each of the resistor voltage drop varies
directly with its resistance.
• According to voltage dividing rule:-
• V1 =VX R1/R V2= VX R2/R V3= VX
R3/R
 2.3 RESISTANCE IN PARALLEL:--

• When the same terminals of the resistor are

connected to each other the restaor are said to
be connected in parallel.
• For a parallel ckt.
– P.D across each restor is same.
– Different resistors have their individual current.
– Branch currents are additative.
– Conductance are additative.
– Powers are additative.
– Current dividing rule is used
• Therefore from the given ckt.
• I= I1+I2+I3
• = V/R1+V/R2+V/R3
• I= V/R
• R=Equivalent resistance
• Where 1/R = 1/R1+ 1/R2+1/R3
R1

R2

R3

V
 2.4 Current dividing rule:-

• Consider 2 resistances R1and R2 are connected

in parallel to a voltage source of V volts. The
ckt takes a current I and produces a current
division I1 and I2 respectively.
• I1=I(R2/R) I2=I(R1/R) Where R= R1+R2
Lecture--3
 3.1 INDUCTANCE
• The inherent property of a conductor or a coil
by virtue of which it would oppose any time
rate of change of magnetic flux linking with it
by inducing an emf in it is known as
inductance .
• The unit of inductance is Henery.
• There are two types of inductance.
– Self inductance
– Mutual inductance
3.1.1 a)Self inductance:-

The property of a coil by virtue of which opposes any

increase or decrease of current or flux in it is known as
self inductance.
It is denoted by the symbol L.
Consider a coil having n no of turns.
• I = current in amp A = area of cross section
• L = Length of conductor Φ= flux produced in Weber.
• The self inductance L= NΦ/I
• L = N2/(l/μ0μrA)=N2/S
• Where μ0= absolute permeability of free space= 4π
X10-7 H/m
• μr =relative permeability of material
3.1.2 b)Mutual inductance:-

• It is defined as the ability of one coil to produce an emf in

near by coil when the current in the first coil changes.It is
denoted by M.
• Consider two coils A & B
• N1 and N2= are no of turns of A and b
• I1 = current in coil A
• Φ1= flux produces in coil 1
• A= area of cross section of iron upon which coil wound
• L= length of iron core.
• The mutual inductance is given by
• M= N2Φ1/I1 Henery
• M= N1 N2/(l/μ0μrA) Henery
3.2 ENERGY STORED IN INDUCTOR:-
• The amount of energy stored in an n inductor
is given as
• WL = ½ LI2 Where L= is the self inductance
of the coil.
•
3.3 CAPACITOR:-

• A capacitor is a device which can store electrical energy.

• The ability of a capacitor to store charge is known as
capacitance.
• Unit of capacitance is Farad.
• The charge stored in a capacitor is directly proportional top
the PD across it.
• Therefore Q/V= constant=C
• When no of capacitors are connected in series the
equivalent capacitance is 1/C=1/c1+1/C2+1/C3…….
• When capacitors connected in parallel C= c1+C2+C3………….
3.4 ENERGY STORED IN CAPACITOR:-

• The amount of energy that can be stored in a

capacitor is
– Wc=1/2 CV2
• Where C is the capacitance of the capacitor.
 3. 5 INDUCED EMF:-

• When magnetic flux linking a coil changes an

emf is induced in it.Induced emf is of 2 types
 Dynamically induced emf
 Statically induced emf.
3.5.1 A) Dynamically induced emf:-
• When conductor moves in a stationary
magnetic field an emf induced in it known as
dynamically induced emf.
• The magnitude of this emf is given by e= Blv
sinθ.
• Where B= flux density in wb/m2
L= length of conductor in m.
V= velocity of conductor in m/sec
 3. 5.2 Statically induced emf:-

• When the conductor is stationary and

magnetic field is rotating the emf induce in it
is known as statically induced emf.
• These are of 2 types: 1)self induced emf
2)mutually induced emf.
• self induced emf:-
The emf induced in a coil due to the change
in its own magnetic field linked with the coil is
known as self induced emf.
 Self induced emf = N dФ/dt
Mutually induced emf:-
• The emf induced in a coil due to the change in current
in other coil is known as mutually induced emf.
• Consider two coils A and B placed adjacent to each
other. The emf induced in coil A is the self induced emf
and in B is the mutually induced emf.
• The magnitude of mutually induced emf eM=NB dФ/dt
 Lecture--4

Voltage & Current Source, Source

Conversion,
 4.1 IDEAL AND PRACTICAL SORCES:--

• 4.1.1VOLTAGE SOURCE:-
• Ideal source:-
• A voltage source that maintains constant terminal voltage irrespective of
variable load current is called as ideal voltage source.
• For ideal voltage source internal resistance is zero.
• Symbol:-
• Practical source:-
• The voltage source in which the internal resistance is not equal to zero is
known as practical voltage source.
• When no load is connected the terminal voltage equals to the source
voltage but when a load is connected it is noit equals to the source
voltage.
• If I is the load current through load resistance R, E is the source voltage
then the terminal voltage V is equals to
• V = E - IR
 4.1.2 CURRENT SOURCE:-

• Ideal source:-
• A current source that maintains constant
output current irrespective of variable load is
known as constant current source
• For ideal current source internal resistance is
infinite.
• Symbol:-.
• Practical source
• A current source in which the internal
resistance has finite value is known as
practical current source.
• In practical source the output current may
change with the variation of load.
• Symbol;-
 4.2 SOURCE CONVERSION:-

• A real voltage source can be converted in to a

current source and vice versa.
• Consider a voltage source connected across
aload resistance Rl.Rint is the internal
resistance of the ckt.
• I = E/Rint.
• During the conversion of voltage source into
current source the internal resistance remains
constant but connected in parallel with the
source.
• Simillarly when a current source is converted
in to voltage source
• E = I Rint
• And the internal resistance is connected in
series with the source.
LECTURE 5
 Key Topics:
• Imp.terms
• KCL & KVL
• Voltage & Current signs
• Problems.
 5.1.1 KIRCHOFF’S LAW:-

FIRST LAW :- KIRCHOFF’S CURRENT LAW.

• The algebric sum of currents flowing towards
the junction is equals to zero.
• Applying kirchoff’s law at junction ‘o’
• I1+I2+I4+(-I3)=0
• I1+I2+I4=I3
• Incoming currents = Outgoing currents.
 SECOND LAW :- VOLTAGE LAW
• In any closed ckt or mesh the algebric sum of
emf’s and voltage drops is equal to zero.
• A rise in potential should be +ve and fall in
potential should be –ve.
Voltage & Current signs
 5.1.2 METHODS TO SOLVE:-

• Assume unknown currents and show their

directions by arrow.
• Choose any closed ckt or loop and find out the
voltage equations.
• Put the algebric sum of voltage drops and
algebric sum of emf’s equals to zero.
• Write the equations for as many as loops.
• If the value of assumed current is negative it
means the actual direction is opposite to the
assumed direction.
EXAMPLE:- Using kirchoff’s law calculate the current in 2
ohm resistor.
 SOLUTION
• step-1:- Mark the current directions as shown in figure.
• Step-2:- Since there are two unknown quantities only
two equations can be formed.
• Loop ABCFA 35-3XI1-2(I1+I2) =0
5I1+2I2=35……….. 1
• Loop EDCFA 40-4I2-2(I1+I2) =0
6I2+2I1=40 ………… 2
• From equation 1 & 2
I1= 5 amp I2= 5 amp
• Therefore the current through 2 ohm resistor is
I1+I2 = 10 amp.
 LECTURE--6

Mesh Analysis & problems

 6.1 MESH CURERNT ANALYSIS:-

• In this method kirchoff’s voltage law is applied to a n/w

to write mesh equations in terms of mesh current in
stead of branch currents.
• Note:- Mesh is loop which cannot be further
subdivided in toi a loop.
– Branch is a part of n/w which lies between two nodes.
• Each mesh is assigned with a separate mesh currents.
• The mesh current is assumed to flow in clockwise
directions with out splitting at the junctions .
• The KVL is applied to write voltage equations in terms
of unknown mesh currents.
• In the given ckt I1 & I2 are the two mesh currents of
mesh ABDA & BCDB.
Mesh ABDA
E1 – I1R1 –(I1-I2)R2=0
I1(R1+R2)+I2R2=E1………….. 1
• Mesh BCDB
-I2R3-E2-(I2-I1)R2=0
-I2(R3+R2)+I1R2=E2
I2(R3+R2)-I1R2=E2………………. 2
• Solving equation 1 and 2 the valuesof I1 and I2 are
calculated
 LECTURE--7

Nodal Analysis with Volt. & Current

Sources & problem.
 7.1 NODAL ANALYSIS:-

• Nodal analysis is used to detremine the

branch currents in the ckt.
• In this method one of the node is taken as
reference node.
• The potrential of all the points are measured
w.r.t the reference node.
7.1.1 ILLUSTRATION
• In the given figure A,B,C,D are the four nodes
and D is taken as reference node.
• The voltage of node A and C are known i.e
120V and 65 V .
• The potential of B w.rt is unknown and taken
as Vb.
• Vb can be calculated by applying KCL at node
b.
• I1+I2 = I3…………. 1
I1 = E1-VB/R1
In CBDC I2=E2-VB/R3
• Putting the values of E1, E2, R1, R2, and R3 VB
can be calculated.
• After getting Vb from equation 2, 3, 4 the
currents I1, I2, I3 can be calculated.
 LECTURE:-- 8

Thevenins Theorem & Problems.

 8.1 THEVENIN’S THEOREM:--

• Any network having two terminals can be

replaced by a single source of emf Eth in series
with a single resistance Rth. Where
i)emf Eth is the open ckt voltage obtained
between the open terminals by removing the
load.
ii)Rth is the equivalent resistance measured
from the open terminals by replacing all the
sources with their internal resistance.
8.1.1 STEPS
• Behind the terminals A B the ckt can be replaced by a
single voltage source Eth and Resistance Rth.
• Steps:--
1)remove the load resistance RL from the terminals A,B.
2)Eth = voltage across R3.
= current through R3 X resistance of R3
= V/(R1+R3) X R3
3)To find Rth replace the source by short circuit.
4)looking in to the terminals AB Rth = R2 + (R1IIR3)
5)when the load RL is connected between A & B the
current I is given by
I = Eth /( Rth + RL)
 Lecture--9

Norton’s Theorem & Problems.

 9.1 NORTON’S THEOREM:--

• THE THEOREM STATES THAT “Any two terminal

active network consisting source and resistances
when viewed from its output terminals is
equivalent to a constant current source and
parallel resistance. The constant current source is
equal to the current which flows in a short ckt
placed across the terminals by removing the load
and parallel resistance is the equivalent
resistance which is obtained by removing the
entire source with internal resistances.”
9.1.1 EXPLANATION
• Step 1—short the load terminals A & B . the
current I N is the short ckt current.
• Step 2 – for the given ckt R’ = R1+R2II R3
• The ckt current I ‘ = V / R’
• There fore IN = I’ X R3/(R3+R2) [ current
dividing rule]
• Step 3 – To find RN remove the load and replace
the battery by short.
• RN = R2+ R1II R3
 Step 4 --- using the values of IN and RN draw Norton’s equivalent ckt

From the ckt I = IN X RN/(RN+RL)

 Lecture--10

Superposition Theorem & Problems

 10.1 SUPERPOSITION THEOREM:--

• According to this theorem, if there are a number of

emf’s acting simultaneously in any bilateral network,
then each emf acts independently of the others. The
value of current in any conductor is the algebraic sum
of the currents due to each emf.
• Statement:- “In a network of linear resistance
containing more than one source the current which
flows at any point is the sum ofd currents which would
flow at that point if each source were considered
separately and all other sources replaced by their
internal resistances for the time being.”
10.1.1 EXPLANATION
Rt= R1+R2+Rp
Where Rp= R2R3/(R2+R3)

The current I
• I= I1+I2
• Where I1 = current due to E1
I2 = current due to E2
• In superposition theorem the voltage source is
replaced by short ckt and current source is
replaced by open ckt.
 Lecture--11

Transients in R-L with d.c excitation

11.1 TRANSIENTS IN DC CIRCUITS
• Whenever a ckt goes from one steady state condition
to another steady state condition it passes through a
transient state for short duration.
• The first steady state is known as intial state and
second is known as final state.
• 11.1.1 R – L CKT:-
• Consider an RL ckt supplied by a dc source voltage V.
• When switch is closed the current incereses slowly and
reach the final value.
• Suppose at any instant the current is ‘I’ an dit increases
with a rate di/dt.
Then V = VR+VL

=iR + L di/dt
• V-iR = Ldi/dt
• di/v-iR=dt/L
• Know multiplying both sides by –R
• -R [di/v-iR]=-R[dt/L]
Integrating both sides
Log e (V-iR) = -R/Lt+K
• Using intial conditions at t=0 i=0 then K= loge V
• Loge (V-iR) = -R/Lt + Loge V
• i= V/R(1-e-R/Lt)
• the maximum current in R L ckt ocurres when di/dt=0
• I max= V/R
• The instantaneous rise in current is
• i= I (1-e-R/Lt)
• Where L/R = time constant = λ
• 11.1.2 Decay of current:-
• When the switch is trough to the position 1 the voltage is zero.
• In this time the RL ckt does not cease immediately but gradually decays to Zero.
• Suppose at any instant the current is I and is decreasing at a rate of di/dt.
• Then 0 = iR+Ldi/dt
• Di/I = -R/L dt
• Integrating both sides
• Logei = -R/L t +K
• Using initial conditions at t=0 i=I
• K= log e I
• Using the value of K
• i = I e –R/Lt
• where L/R = λ = time constant.
 Lecture--12

Transients in R-C Circuits with d.c

excitation
 12.1 R – C CKT:-

• Cosider an uncharged capacitor C connected in

series with a resistor R to a voltage source V.
• When the switch S is closed the capacitor starts
charging and the ckt carries charging current.
• The charging current is maximum at the time of
switching and is zero when the capacitor charged
to V volts.
• 12.1.1 Charging of capacitor:--
At the time of switching initial charging
current Im= V/R
discharging
• Voltage across capacitor = 0
• Charge on the capacitor i=0
• At any instant charging current = i
• Voltage across the capacitor = v
• Charge on the capacitor =q= Cv
• Rise of voltage across the capacitor:--
• Applying KVL V = v + iR
• = v+ C dv/dt R
• V- v = C dv/dt R
• Multiplyiong both sides by – sign and
integrating
• Loge (V-v)= +K
• Applying initial conditions at t=0 v=0
• Therefore K = log e V
• Using the value of K
• V=v (1-e –t/RC)
• = v(1- e – t/λ)
• Where λ = time constant = 1/RC
• The charging current :--
• Using KVL V-v = iR
• And V- v = V e –t/RC
• iR = V e –t/RC
• i=V/R e –t/RC
• i = Im e – t/λ
• 12.1.2 Discharging of a capacitor:--
• Whe n the switch s is open the voltage across the capacitor
is V volts.
• Whe n the switch is closed the voltage across the capacitor
starts decreasing
• The discharging current instantly rises to Im and then decays to zero.
• At any instant of discharging i= discharging current
• v = pd of capacitor.
• q = charge on capacitor.

• Using KVL 0 = v +iR

• = v+CR dv/dt
• dv/V = -dt/CR
• at t = 0 v = V
• K= logeV
• Using the value of K v = V e – t/λ
• Discharging current I = - Im e – t/λ
• Rate of rise of voltage dv /dt = V/CR
• Note :- the capacitor is fully charged at time of 5RC.
Lecture—13

DC GENERATOR
• An electrical generator is a device that
converts mechanical energy to electrical
energy, generally using electromagnetic
induction.
 13.1 WORKING PRINCIPLE:--

• The energy conversion in generator is based on

the principle of the production of dynamically
induced e.m.f. Whenever a conductor cuts
magneticic flux , dynamically induced e.m.f is
produced in it according to Faraday's Laws of
Electromagnetic induction.This e.m.f causes a
current to flow if the conductor circuit is closed.
Hence, two basic essential parts of an electrical
generator are (i) a magnetic field and (ii) a
conductor or conductors which can so move as to
cut the flux.
• Consider a single turn coil rotating in a
magnetic field of two poles. The ends of the
coil are connected to two slip rings and a load.
When the coil starts rotating in the magnetic
field an emf is induced due to the faraday’s
laws of electromagnetic induction.The
magnitude of induced emf is given by
e=N dΦ/dt
• When the coil sides are perpendicular to the lines of
flux the Φ is maximum. So that induced emf is zero.
When the coil sides are inclined to the lines of forces
some emf is induced in the coil sides. When the coil
sides are parallel to the lines of forces Φ is minimum
and induced emf is maximum. In this manner an
alternating emf and current flows in the load circuit for
one complete revolution.
• The current through the load circuit is ac. In order to
get a dc output the Commutator segments are used
along with brushes.
 13.2 CONSTRUCTION:--

• YOKE
• FIELD ELECTROMAGNETS
• ARMATURE
• ARMATURE WINDING
• COMMUTATOR
• BRUSHES
• BEARINGS.
 LECTURE—14

TYPES OF DC GENERATOR:--
• DC generators are classified based on their
method of excitation. So on this basis there
are two types of DC generators:-
• 1. Separately excited DC generator
• 2. Self excited DC generator
14.1 SEPARATELY EXCITED DC
GENERATOR
• This dc generator has a field magnet winding
which is excited using a separate voltage
source (like battery).
 14.2 SELF EXCITED DC GENERATOR

• A)SERIES GENERATOR:-- the armature winding

is connected in series with the field winding
so that the field current flows through the
load as well as the field winding.Field winding
is a low resistance,thick wire of few turns.
Series generators are also rarely used
B)SHUNT GENERATOR
• the field winding is wired parallel to armature winding so that
the voltage across both are same. The field winding has high
resistance and more number of turns so that only a part of
armature current passes through field winding and the rest
passes through load.
C)COMPOUND GENERATOR
• Short shunt:- Here the shunt field winding is
wired parallel to armature and series field
winding is connected in series to the load. It is
shown in fig (1)
• Long shunt:- Here the shunt field winding is
parallel to both armature and series field
winding (Rse is wired in series to the
armature). It is shown in figure (2)
LECTURE-15

EMF EQUATION
 15.1 EMF EQUATION
• Let
Φ = flux/pole in weber
Z = total number of armture conductors
= No.of slots x No.of conductors/slot
P = No.of generator poles
A = No.of parallel paths in armature
N = armature rotation in revolutions per
minute (r.p.m)
E = e.m.f induced in any parallel path in
armature
• Generated e.m.f Eg = e.m.f generated in any one
of the parallel paths i.e E.
Average e.m.f geneated /conductor = dΦ/dt volt
(n=1)
Now, flux cut/conductor in one revolution
• dΦ = ΦP Wb
No.of revolutions/second = N/60
Time for one revolution, dt = 60/N second
Hence, according to Faraday's Laws of
Electroagnetic Induction,
• E.M.F generated/conductor is

• For a simplex wave-wound generator

No.of parallel paths = 2
No.of conductors (in series) in one path = Z/2
E.M.F. generated/path is
• For a simplex lap-wound generator
No.of parallel paths = P
No.of conductors (in series) in one path = Z/P
E.M.F.generated/path
• In general generated e.m.f

• where A = 2 - for simplex wave-winding

= P - for simplex lap-winding
LECTURE—17

DC MOTOR
 17.1 VOLTAGE EQUATION
• Let in a d.c. motor
• V=applied voltage
• Eb=back e.m.f.
• Ra=armature resistance
• Ia = armature current
• Since back e.m.f. Eb acts in opposition to the
applied voltage V, the net voltage across the
armature circuitis V-Eb.
• The armature current Ia is given by;
• Ia = (V – Eb)/ Ra
• or V = Eb + IaRa ……………………………..(i)
• This is known as voltage equation of the d.c. motor
 17.2 SPEED EQUATION OF DC
MOTOR:--
• We know that
• V = Eb + IaRa
• There fore Eb = V- IaRa
• Eb = P ZN/60A
• As P,Z,A are constant
N= K( V- IaRa)/
where:
N = revolutions per minute (RPM) ,i.e. motor
speed
K = proportional constant
R a= resistance of armature (ohms)
V = electromotive force (volts)
Ia = current (amperes)
Φ = flux (webers)
• FROM THE ABOVE EQUATION
N ά Eb/
• For shunt motor = constant
• N1/N2= Eb1/Eb2
• For series machine ά Ia
• N1/N2=Eb1/Eb2 X Ia2/Ia1
Lecture--18
 18.1 B—H CURVE

• The Magnetic Hysteresis loop above, shows the

behavior of a ferromagnetic core graphically as
the relationship between B and H is non-linear.
• Starting with an unmagnified core both B and H
will be at zero, point 0 on the magnetization
curve. If the magnetisation current, i is increased
in a positive direction to some value the magnetic
field strength H increases linearly with i and the
flux density B will also increase as shown by the
curve from point 0 to point a as it heads towards
saturation.
• Now if the magnetizing current in the coil is
reduced to zero the magnetic field around the
core reduces to zero but the magnetic flux does
not reach zero due to the residual magnetism
present within the core and this is shown on the
curve from point a to point b.
• To reduce the flux density at point b to zero we
need to reverse the current flowing through the
coil. The magnetizing force which must be
applied to null the residual flux density is called a
Coercive Force.
• This coercive force reverses the magnetic field
re-arranging the molecular magnets until the
core becomes unmagnified at point c.
• An increase in the reverse current causes the
core to be magnetized in the opposite
direction and increasing this magnetization
current will cause the core to reach saturation
but in the opposite direction, point d on the
cure which is symmetrical to point b.
• If the magnetizing current is reduced again to
zero the residual magnetism present in the core
will be equal to the previous value but in reverse
at point e.
• Again reversing the magnetising current flowing
through the coil this time into a positive direction
will cause the magnetic flux to reach zero, point f
on the curve and as before increasing the
magnetisation current further in a positive
direction will cause the core to reach saturation
at point a.
• Then the B-H curve follows the path of a-b-c-
d-e-f-a as the magnetising current flowing
through the coil alternates between a positive
and negative value such as the cycle of an AC
voltage. This path is called a Magnetic
Hysteresis Loop.
Lecture--21
21.1 SINGLE PHASE AC GENERATION:-

• Consider a single turn coil rotating in a

magnetic field of two poles. The ends of the
coil are connected to two slip rings and a load.
When the coil starts rotating in the magnetic
field an emf is induced due to the faraday’s
laws of electromagnetic induction.The
magnitude of induced emf is given by
•
• e=N dΦ/dt
• Consider a rectangular coil having N turns and rotating
in a uniform magnetic field with an angular velocity of
w radian/second
• When the coil sides are perpendicular to the lines of
flux the Φ is maximum. So that induced emf is zero.
When the coil sides are inclined to the lines of forces
some emf is induced in the coil sides. When the coil
sides are parallel to the lines of forces Φ is minimum
and induced emf is maximum. In this manner an
alternating emf and current flows in the load circuit for
one complete revolution.
21.2 EQUATION OF ALTERNATING
VOLTAGE AND CURRENT
• When the coil coincides with OX axis the flux linking is maximum at
denoted as max.
• Let the coil turns through an angle =ωt in anti-clock wise direction in t
seconds in the
• Position the maximum flux max is acting vertically down ward and has 2
components.
•
• max sinωt parallel to the plane of coil. This component induces no emf.
• max cosωt perpendicular to the plane. This component induces emf in the
coil.
•
•  flux linkages of the coil at any instant (i.e. at o)
•
• = No. of turns x flux linking
• = n max cosωt
• flux linkages of the coil at any instant (i.e. at o
= No. of turns x flux linking
• = n max cosωt
•  As we know
• e= = n max ωsin ωt
•
21.3 A.C. Terminology :
• Wave Form :
• Instantaneous value :
• Cycle :
• Time period :
• Frequency :
• Amplitude :
Lecture--22
 22.1 AVERAGE VALUE OF
ALTERNATING VOLTAGE AND
CURRENT
• The average value of a sinnoidal voltage and
current is given by :
= Area of one alternation / Base length of one
alternation

• The equation of alternating current is given by i =

Im Sin

• Consider an elementary strip of width d in the

first half cycle. Let i be the mid ordinate of the
strip.
•  Average value = Iav = Area of half cycle /
Base length of half cycle
= 2 Im / 
Iav = 0.637Im
• Similarly
Eav = 0.637 Em
For H.W. rectification Iav = Im/
 22.2 RMS or Effective Value :

• The effective or RMS value of an alternative current is

that steady state or dc current which when
• flowing through a given resistance for a given time
products the same amount of heat as produced
• by the alternating current when flowing through the
same resistance for the same time.
• Consider the half cycle of a non-sinusoidal current ‘i’
flowing through a resistance R for t sec.
• Divide the time t in n equal intervals of time where
each interval is t/n sec.
• The total heat produced by alternating current i is
:
= (i12R + i22R+ …….+ in2 R) t/n
= (i12R + i22R + …….. + in2R / n) t joules
• Heat produced by equivalent dc current is = I2RT
• I2Rt = (i12R + i22R + …….. + in2R / n) t joules
• = I = i12 + i22 + …… in2 / n
•  RMS Value = Area of half-cycle wave squared
/ half cycle base
 22.2.1RMS Value of Sinusoidal
Current

• Consider an elementary strip of d in the first

half cycle of squared current wave.
• Let i2 is the mid ordinate.

• Irms = Im2 / 2 /  = Im / 2
• Irms = 0.707 Im
• Similarly Erms = 0.707 Em.
• For H.W. rectification Irms = Im / 2
 22.3 FORM FACTOR
• The ratio of rms value to the average value of
an alternating quantity is known as form
factor .
Form Factor = RMS Value / Average Value
= 0.707 x Im or
Em / 0.637 x Im or Em
= 1.11
 22.4 PEAK FACTOR
• The ratio of maximum value to the RMS value
is known as peak factor :
• Peak Factor = Max value / RMS Value

• = Max Value / 0.707 x maximum value

• = 1.414
 LECTURE-- 22

AC THROUGH A PURE INDUCTANCE

& CAPACITANCE
 24.1AC THROUGH A PURE
INDUCTANCE :

• As there is no ohmic resistance drop the

applied voltage has to overcome the self
induced emf only.
  = L di / dt
Vm Sin ωt = L di / dt
 i =  Sin ωt dt
= Sin (ωt -  / 2)
i = Im Sin (ωt -  / 2)
• The applied voltage  = VmSin ωt and current i
= Im Sin (ωt -  / 2). Hence the current lags
behind the voltage by a phase of  / 2.

• Im = =Vm/XL
• Where XL = Inductive reactance
= 2  f L its unit is ohm.
 24.2 AC THROUGH A PURE
CAPACITANCE
• The charge on the capcitor :
q = c
= C Vm Sin ωt
• The current i is given by
i = dq / dt = C d(Vm Sin ωt) / dt
= ωCVm Cosωt
• i = Im Sin (ωt +  / 2)
• P = i
= sin 2 ωt=0 for whole cycle
24.3 AC THROUGH RESISTANCE AND
INDUCTANCE:--
• Consider a pure resistance R and inductor L are connected in series
• Let V = rms value of applied voltage
• I = rms value of the resultant current
VR = IR resistive drop
VL = IXL reactive drop
From the phasor diagram it is noted that the applied voltage V leads the I
by an and .
Where  = tan-1 XL / R
• Rectangular form of impedence and PF:-
• Z = R + jXL
 = tan-1 (XL / R)
Polar Form :
Z = R + jXL = Z<o I = V/Z = V<0o / Z<o = < - o
Lecture—23
23.1 PHASE AND PHASE DIFFERENCE :

• The phase of a particular value of an alternating

quantity is the fractional part of the time period
or cycle through which the quantity has advanced
from the selected zero position.
• Consider an alternate voltage wave of time
period T sec. The maximum +ve value occurs at
T/4 sec. or /2 radians.
• The phase of maximum +ve is T/4 Sec.
• Similarly the phase of maximum –ve Vm is 3T/ 4
or 3 / 2 radians.
 23.2 PHASE DIFFERENCE :

• When two alternating quantities of same

frequency have different zero points they are said
to have a phase difference. Consider an ac ckt in
which the v and i has different phases.
• The angle between the zero points of
the two waves is known as phase angle ‘’.
There are 3 types of phase difference :
• In phase
• Leading
• Lagging
 23.3 AC THROUGH A PURE
RESISTANCE
• Let the applied voltage is given by the equation.
• u = Vmsinwt …….. ………. ……….. (1)
• Let R = Ohmic resistance is instantaneous
current.
• In the given Ckt.
•  = iR
•  Vmsinωt = iR
•  i = (Vm / R) sin wt
• Power :
• The Instantaneous power P = i
• = Vm Im Sin2 ωt
• = (VmIm / 2 )(1 – Cos2ωt)
• ==( Vm / 2) x (Im / 2) = VI
• P = VI Watts
• V = Rms value of volta I = rms value of current
•  In a pure resistive ckt power is always +ve.
 LECTURE--24

POWER , POWER
FACTOR,RESONANCE,SIGNEFICANCE
OF J OPERATOR
 26.1 POWER FACTOR

• It is defined as the cosine of angle of lead or lag.

• If  phase angle of lead or lag then Power factor = Cos

• The power factor is also defined as the ratio of resistance of

impedance.

Cos = R / Z
There are 3 types of power factors
 unity pf
 lagging pf
 leading pf
 26.2 ACTIVE, REACTIVE AND
APPARENT POWER
• (i) Apparent Power (S):-
• The power obtained by multiplying voltage and current
in an ac circuit is known as apparent power.
• App. Power = Voltage X current VA

• (ii)active power of true power (P):-

• The power which is obtained by multiplying KVA by
Cos is known as active power.
• Active / Actual / True = KVA x Cos
= KW
= VI Cos
• (iii)Reactive Power (Q):-
• The power which is obtained by multiplying
the KVA by Sin is known as reactive power.
• Reactive power = KVA x Sin
= VI Sin KVAR
 26.3 RESONANCE IN R – L – C
CIRCUIT:
• The net reactance of RLC ckt is X = XL – XC. Let
an RLC ckt is connected to an ac supply source
of constant voltage V but of frequency varying
from zero to infinity. At a certain frequency XL
= XC and X = 0 and R = Z. This is known as
electrical resonance. The frequency at which
the circuit resonates is known as resonant
frequency.
Resonant frequency f0 =
 26.4.1 SIGNIFICANCE OF j OPERATOR

• The symbol ‘j’ indicates an operation of rotating the phasor

through 90o in CCW diagram.
• The operator j does not change the magnitude of the
phasor.
• The value of j =-1
• When the phasor is multiplied by j it rotates through 90o in
CCWdirection. Each successive multiplication of j rotates
the phasor through an additional 90o.
• Multiplying a phasor by j = -1 90o rotation from OX axis.
• J2 = -1 180o CCW rotation from OX
• J3 = j2.j = -j 270o CCW rotation
• J4 – j2j2 = 1 360o CCW rotation
LECTURE 25

Rc and rlc circuit

25.1 RC SERIES CKT :
• ER = IR drop across R
• Ec = IXc drop across capacitor

ET= ER2 + EC2

= (IR)2 + (-IXC)2
= IR2+XC2
I = ET/ (R2 + XC2) = ET / Z
Where Z = (R2 + XC2 )
 = tan-1 (-XC/R)
 Rectangular Form :

I = I + j0
ET = ER + EC
= (IR + j0) + (0 – j IXC)
= I (R – jXC)
= IZ
Z = R – jXC
|Z| = (R2 + XC2 )  = tan-1 (-XC / R)

In this case current leads the applied voltage

byangle 
 Polar Form :
• I = I + j0 = I<0o
Z = R – jXC = ZL - o
ET = IZ
= I<0o X Z< - o
= IZ < - o
It indicates that the voltage lags the current by
o.
25.2 SERIES RLC CKT :
VR = IR = v.d across R in phase with I.
VL = IXL = V.d across inductor, leads the current I.
VC = IXC = V.d across capacitor lags the current I.
OD = (OA2 +AD2)
= VR2 + (VL – VC)2
= [(IR)2 + (IXL – IXC)2]
= I R2 + (XL – XC)2
V = I R2 + X2
I = V / R2 + X2 = V/Z
Z = R2 + X2 = R2 +(XL – XC)2
Phase angle  = tan-1 [(XL – XC) / R]
 Rectangular Form :

V = VR + j(VL – VC)
= IR + j(IXL – jXC)
= I(R + j(XL – XC) )
= IZ
Z = R + J (XL – XC)
Magnitude of Z = R2 + (XL – XC)2
Phase angle  = tan-1 [(XL – XC) / R]
If XL > XC then  is +ve, if XL < XC  is –ve
 Polar Form :

I = I + j0 = I<0o
Z = R + J (XL - XC) = Z <  o
V = IZ = I<0o X Z <  o
= IZ <  o
I = V / Z = V < 0o / Z <  o
= (V / Z) < + o
 LECTURE 25

MATHEMATICAL REPRESENTATION
OF PHASOR
 27.1MATHEMATICAL
REPRESENTATION OF PHASOR

• There are three methods to represent a

phasor mathematically.
 Rectangular form
 Trigonometrical form
 Polar form
 27.1.1Rectangular Form :

• This method is also known as symbolic notation.

• In this method the phasor is resolved into horizontal
and vertical components and is expressed in complex
form.
• In rectangular form

V = a + jb
• Magnitude of phasor = V = a2 + b2
• Its angle wrt OX =  = tan-1 (b / a)
• In CCW direction  is +ve and in CW direction  is –ve.
 27.1.2 Trigonometrical Form :

• In this method the in phase and quadrature

components of phasors are expressed in the
trigonometrical form.
From the given figure :
• a = V cos
• b = V sin
• Where V is the magnitude of the phasor V.
 V = V (cos + jsin)
• In this form the phasor is expressed in terms of its
magnitude and phase angle.
 27.1.3 Polar Form:

• In this method the trigonometric form of

phasor V = V (cos + jsin) is represented in
polar form. V=V<
• Where V is the magnitude of the phasor and 
is its angle measured CCW from reference
axis.
• In general the polar form can be represented
as :
V=V<
 27.4 CONVERSION FROM ONE FORM
TO OTHER :
• EXAMPLE:--

• Consider a phasor V having in phase and

quadrature components as 3 and 4
respectively.Magnitude of the phasor
• V = 32 + 42 = 5
• Its angle w.r.t. OX is  = tan-1 4 / 3 = 53.1o
Rectangular Form
• V = a + jb
= 3 + j4
• Trigonometric form
V = V (Cos + jsin)
= 5 (Cos53.1o + jsin 53.1o)
• Polar Form
V = V <  = 5 < 53.1o
 LECTURE 26

1- TRANSFORMER
• 28.1
DEFINATION:--Transformer is a static
device which transfers the power from
one circuit to another without
changing the frequency.
28.2 CONSTRUCTION AND WORKING:-
-
• A transformer consists of a rectangular core of soft iron in the
form of sheets insulated from one another. Two separate coils
of insulated wires, a primary coil and a secondary coil are
wound on the core. These coils are well insulated from one
another and from the core. The coil on the input side is called
Primary coil and the coil on the output side is called
Secondary coil. Suppose an alternate voltage source Vp is
connected to primary coil. Current in primary will produce
magnetic flux which is linked to secondary. When current in
primary changes, flux in secondary also changes which results
an EMF Vs in secondary. According to Faradays law EMF
induced in a coil depends upon the rate of change of magnetic
flux in the coil. If resistance of the coil is small then the
induced EMF will be equal to voltage applied.
 According to Faradays law
Vp=Np dΦ/dt ------------ (1)
Where Np = Number of turns in primary coil.
Similarly, for secondary coil.
Vs = Ns dΦ /d t ------------ (2)
Dividing equation (1) by equation (2)
Vp /Vs = Np /Ns
This expression shows that the magnitude of
EMF depends upon the number of turns in the
coil.
 28.3 TYPES OF TRANSFORMER:--
ANSFORMER
There are two types of transformer:

Step up transformer
Step down transformer
STEP UP TRANSFORMER
A transformer in which Ns>Np is called a step up
transformer. A step up transformer is a transformer which
converts low alternate voltage to high alternate voltage.
STEP DOWN TRANSFORMER
A transformer in which Np>Ns is called a step down
transformer. A step down transformer is a transformer
which converts high alternate voltage to low alternate
voltage.
LECTURE 27

EMF EQUATION
 29.1
Let N1 = No. of turns in primary
N2 = No. of turns in secondary
m = maximum flux in core in wb
= BmXf
f = Frequency of ac input in HZ.
The maximum flux occurs at one quarter of the
cycle.
 The rate of change of flux :
= d / dt= = 4fΦm
Average induced emf / turn = d / dt = 4fm
RMS value of induced emf / turn = 4fm x 1.11
= 4.44f m volts
Total induced emf in primary
= 4.44f ΦmN1 volts
= 4.44 fN1BmA
Total induced emf in secondary
= 4.44 f N2m
=4.44 fN2BmA volts
 29.2 Voltage transformation ratio :

• From emf equation of primary and secondary :

 E2 / E1 = N2 / N1 = K
• K is known as voltage transformation ratio.
1. If K > 1, N2 > N1 , V2 > V1
The TFR is step up
• 2. If K < 1, N2 < N1, V2 < V1
TFR is step down
• Again for an ideal TFR
V1I1 =V2I2
 V2 / V1 = I1 / I2
•  = = = = K
 29.3 IDEAL TRANSFORMER:--

• An ideal transformer has no losses.So the

energy transfer from the primary circuit to the
secondary circuit is perfect. The diagram
represents such a transformer, showing the
core with magnetic flux φ, the primary
winding of N1 turns, and the secondary
winding of N2 turns. The reference directions
for the voltages and currents at the terminals
are shown
LECTURE 29
 31.1DELTA OR MESH CONNECTION

• In this method the dissimilar ends of the three

phase windings are joined together.
• The finishing end of one is connected to the
starting end of other.
• The 3 line conductors are taken out from 3
junctions.
• It provides a 3  3 wire system.
31.1.1Voltage and Currents in 
connection :
• In  connection the neutral is absent. So VL = VPH
• IAC = ICB = IBA = Iph are the phase currents.
• IA = IB = IC = IL are the line currents.
• From the phasor diagram
IA = 2 Iph Cos (60 / 2) = 3 Iph
IB = 2 Iph Cos (60 / 2) = 3 Iph
IC = 3 Iph
Therefore :
IL = 3 Iph
The 3 phase power is given by
P = 3 Vph Iph Cos
= 3 VL x (IL / 3) Cos
P = 3VLIL Cos
= 3 Vph Iph Cos
 31.2 POWER MEASUREMENT IN 3
CKTS :
• The 3  power is measured by using watt
meters. There are 3 methods :

 One Wattmeter method

 Two Wattmeter Method
 Three Wattmeter Method
 One Wattmeter method :
• In this method only one Wattmeter is used per
ckt.
• It measures the power consumed by the
particular phase .
• Since the ckt is balanced the power consumed by
other phases remains equal.
• The total power consumption becomes three
times the reading obtained from single
wattmeter.
• WTOTAL=3 X W/phase
 Three wattmeter method :
– In this method one wattmeter is connected in
each phase.
– The total power is the algebraic sum of individual
wattmeter reading

W = W1 + W2 / W3
 Two Wattmeter Method :
• In this method two wattmeters are used for power
measurements.
• The current coils are connected in series with the lines
and the pressure coils are connected to the common
phase.
• The pressure coil of W1 measure the voltage VRY and
current coil measure IR. The pressure coil of W2
measures the voltage VBY and current I
W1 = VLIL Cos (30o + )
W2 = VLIL Cos (30o - )
W = W1 + W2 = 3 VLILCos
 Measurement of Pf :

For leading pf
tan = - 3 [(W1 – W2) /( W1 + W2)]
For lagging pf
tan  = 3[ (W1 – W2) / (W1 + W2)]
 LECTURE 30

3 PHASE AC CIRCUITS
30.1 Comparison between 3 and 1 :
• Three Phase
• 3  Power has a constant magnitude.
• A 3 system set up a rotating magnetic field.
• For same rating 3 machines are smaller,
simplex in construction.
• The weight of copper of transmission line to
transmit the 3 power is less.
• Voltage regulation is better.
• Single phase
• 1 power pulsates from zero to peak value at
twice of supply frequency.
• In 1 it is not possible
• Larger and costlier
• Weight of copper to transmit same amount of
power is more.
• Voltage regulation is poor.
30.2 Three phase emf generation :
• Consider a three phase alternator where the
armature coils are stationary and field winding’s
rotating.
• The three armature coils A, B, C are identically
and symmetrically displaced by 120o electrical.
• As the field rotates it produces a rotating
magnetic field in the air gap.
• The rotating magnetic field induces 3 emfs in the
armature coil which are equal in magnitude but
displaced by 120o electrical.
• The equations of emf are :
eA = Em sinωt
eB = Em Sin (ωt – 120o)
eC = Em Sin (ωt – 240o)
 30.3 INTER CONNECTION OF 3
PHASES
• The 3 phases are inter connected using 2
methods: (i) Star or Wye (Y) connection (ii) Delta
or Mesh Connection.
• 30.3.1. Star / Y Connection :
– In this method the similar ends of the 3 phases are
joined together to form a common junction N.
– The common junction is known as star point or
neutral point.
– The 3 line conductors run from the 3 free ends are
designated as R.Y.B.
 – A star connection provides 3, Y Wire
interconnection system.
– The voltage between any 2 lines called the line
voltage e.g. VRY, VBR, VYB, the voltage between
the line and neutral is known as phase voltage. Eg
: VRN, VYN, VBN.
• Similarly the current flowing in the phases is called as
phase current and that of in lines called as line
current.
• Relation between line voltage and phase voltage:
ERN = EYN = EBN = Phase voltages
VRY = VBY = VBR Line voltages
• The line voltage between any two lines is the phase difference of 2
phase voltages.
VRY = ERN – EYN
VYB = EYN – EBN
VBR = EBN – ERN
YBR = 3 Eph
 Line Voltage = 3 x phase voltage
• In star connections each line conductor is connected in series with the
phase.
•  Line current = Phase current
IL = Iph
P = 3 VL IL Cos
P = 3 VPH IPH Cos
 LECTURE 32

3 PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR

• The three phase induction motors are most widely used
electric motors in industry.
• These are the constant speed motors from no load to full
load.
• In dc motors the power conducted directly to the armature
because both the motor and stator winding are connected
to the voltage source.
• In ac motors i.e. in induction motors the stator and rotor
windings are isolated from each other and the power from
the stator transferred to rotor by the method of induction.
So these motors are known as Induction motors .
• These are also known as rotating TPR’s in this case primary
i.e. stator winding as stationary and secondaryi.e. rotor
winding is rotating.
 32.2 CONSTRUCTION :

It has two parts : (a) Stator (b) Rotor

32.1.1 (A)STATOR :
• It carries the 3Φ field winding and supplied by 3Φ
supply.
• The stator winding is wound for definite no. of poles
depending upon the required speed.
• When the stator winding is supplied by 3 supply it
produces a rotating magnetic field whichis of constant
magnitude but rotates at synchronous speed Ns =
120f/P.
• The revolving magnetic field induces emf in the rotor
by induction.
• 32.2.2 (B)ROTOR :
There are 2 types of rotors (i) squirrel cage rotor (ii)
phase wound rotor or slip ring motor
• (i)Squirrel cage rotor:-
• The rotor consist of a cylindrical laminated core
with parallel slots for carrying rotor conductors.
• One bar is placed in each slot.
• The rotor conductors are shorted at the two ends
by the help of end rings so there are permanently
short circuited.
(ii)Phase Wound rotor :
– The rotor winding is star connected.
– The internal resistance to the rotor can be
connected through slip rings.
 32.3 WORKING PRINCIPLE :
When a 3 stator windings are fed by a 3 supply a
magnetic flux of constant magnitude, but rotating at
synchronous speed is set up. The flux passes through the
air gap, sweeps past the rotor surface of cuts the rotor
conductors which are stationary.Due to the relative speed
between the rotating flux and the stationary conductors an
emf is induced according to the Faraday’s laws of electro-
magnetic induction. The frequency of induced emf is the
same as the supply frequency and magnitude is
proportional to the relative velocity between the flux and
conductors. As the rotor bars form closed ckt it carries the
rotor current. The direction of rotor current is given by
Lenz’s law according to which it opposes its very cause i.e.
the relative velocity between the rotating flux of the stator
and the stationary rotor conductors.Hence, to reduce the
relative speed, the rotor starts running in the same
direction as that of flux.
LECTURE-- 34
 34.1 SLIP :

– The rotor never succeeds in catching up with stator field.

– If the rotor catches the speed of stator flux the relative
speed is zero and no current flows through the rotor.
– Therefore the rotor always rotates at a speed less than the
synchronous speed.
– The difference between the synchronous speed Ns and the
actual speed N of the rotor is known as slip.
– It is always represented as %age
% slip S = x 100
Where Ns – N = Slip speed
 The rotors speed N = Ns (1 – s)
 34.2 FREQUENCY OF ROTOR
CURRENT :
• When the rotor is stationary the frequency of
rotor current is same as supply frequency.
• When the rotor starts revolving the rotor
frequency depends on the relative speed.
• Let at any slip speed the frequency of rotor
current is f’.
• Ns – N = 120f’ / P and Ns = 120f / P
 = f’ = sf
 34.3 TORQUE – SLIP
CHARACTERISTICS
• The equation of running torque of 3 IM is given by :
/
Tr = K2sR2 R2 2+ S2X22
• The relationship between the torque and slip of IM for a
particular resistance is known as torque slip characteristics.
• When Ns = N the slip is zero. Therefore torque is zero and
the characteristic graph starts from origin.
• When s is small sX2 << R2. So it is negligible at this instant.
Tr  s/ R2
S [ R2 is constant]
• Therefore smallest values of Slip the characteristics graph is a
straight line.As the slip increases the torque increases and reaches
to the maximum at maximum torque slip is givenby :
Sm = R 2 / X 2
The maximum torque is known as breakdown torque or pull out
torque.
• At the larger values of the slip sX2 >>> R2. Therefore :
• Tr  s / S2X22
ά1 / s
• As torque is inversely proportional to slip the graph after maximum
torque is a rectangular hyperbola.
• The addition of resistance to the rotor ckt does not change the
maximum torque but it only changes the value of slip at which
maximum torque occurs.
 LECTURE-- 35

1- INDUCTION MOTORS

 35.1 1- INDUCTION MOTORS

• It is similar to a 3 squirrel cage IM.

• It consists of a squirrel cage rotor identical to

3 IM and a single phase winding on the
stator.

• Application: (i) Fans (ii) Washing m/cs. (iii) oil

burners (iv) compressors (v) hair dryers (vi)
toys, etc.
 35.2 WORKING:

• A 1- IM has no self starting torque but requires some external

means to start because.In the single phase induction motor, single
phase a.c. supply is given to the stator winding. The stator winding
carries an alternating current which produces the flux which is also
alternating in nature. This flux is called main flux. This flux links with
the rotor conductors and due to transformer action e.m.f. gets
induced in the rotor. The induced e.m.f. drives current through the
rotor as rotor circuit is closed circuit. This rotor current produces
another flux called rotor flux required for the motoring action. Thus
second flux is produced according to induction principle due to
induced e.m.f. hence the motor is called induction motor. As against
this in d.c. motor a separate supply is required to armature to
produce armature flux. This is an important difference between d.c.
motor and an induction motor. Another important difference
between the two is that the d.c. motors are self starting while
single phase induction motors are not self starting.Therefore it
requires external means to start
35.3 TYPES OF INDUCTION MOTOR
• Depending on methods of starting there are 3
types of 1- IM.

• Split phase
• Capacitor motors
• Shaded pole motors.
35.3.1SPLIT PHASE
• It has 2 windings – (a) main winding of low
resistance (b) starting winding of high resistance
• When 1- supply is given the current splits into
two parts Im and Is both lags the voltage by some
angle.
• The starting torque produced depends on the
angle  i.e. T  Sin  as  increases torque
increases and rotor rotates.
• When the rotor attains a speed of 80% of normal
the centrifugal switch is open and the starting
wing us disconnected.
35.4.2 CAPACITOR MOTOR
• It consist of a capacitor connected in series with the
starting winding.
• When the supply is given the i/p current splits into 2
parts Im and Is.
• Im lags the voltage and Is leads the voltage.
• Due to this the angle  increases.
• As  increases the starting torque of this type of motor
is high.
• When the motor attains a speed of 80 to 85% of
normal the capacitor and the starting winding are
disconnected.