Unit One - Geological Field Methods

Ore and Host Rock Identification

Objectives - The student will be able to:

 Give examples of mineralogical groups.

 Describe physical properties used to identify minerals.

 List the main groups of rocks and give examples of each.

 Describe the origin and formation of igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic

rocks.

 Describe how rocks are classified.

Explanation

Ore & Gangue Mineral Identification

This unit will cover ore minerals, which are the ones which contain valuable
commodities. Where these minerals are sufficiently concentrated in a rock, the rock is
described as “ore”.

The need to search for mineral resources should be obvious to everyone. Every
product that makes our society “tick” is derived in some way, directly or indirectly, from
minerals. Think about all the metals which are present in the materials which comprise
everything from a house, to an automobile, to a computer.

Minerals are naturally occurring substances in the earth’s crust. These substances
consist of chemical elements or compounds consisting of two or more elements. The
elements or compounds are repeated as patterns, which gives the mineral its crystalline
structure. Rocks are simply an aggregate of one or more minerals, or (less often) an
aggregate of organic matter (such as coal), a glassy substance (such as obsidian)
which has no crystalline structure.

There are approximately 3,000 minerals, often referred to as mineral species, which are
known, and approximately 60 new minerals are discovered each year. Naturally
occurring minerals are typically grouped according to their chemical formula and crystal
structure, and tend to fall into one of the following categories (after Dana, 1971):

Mineralogical Group Description/Examples Approx.

 No.

Native Elements Native metals: gold, silver, copper, platinum, 50

iron, arsenic, bismuth Native elements:
sulfur, diamond and graphite (carbon)

Sulfides & other “ides” Elements complexed with sulfur (sulfides). 300

Others: tellurides, bismuthides, antimonides,

arsenides, selenides,

Sulfosalts Similar to sulfides, sometimes called “double 100

sulfides”

Oxides Oxygen combined with one or more metals 250

250
Hydroxides Similar to oxides, but Hydrogen takes the
place of a metal

Halides Electronegative halogen ions dominate (Cl-, 100

Br-, F-, I-). NaCl (salt)

200
Carbonates Contains carbonate radical (CO3)

Nitrates Contains nitrate radical (NO3) 200

200
Borates Contains borate radical (BO3)

200
Sulfates Contains sulfate radical (SO4)

Chromates Contains chromate radical (CrO4) 200

 200
Molybdates Contains molybdate radical (MoO4)

200
Tungstates Contains tungstate radical (WO4)

350
Phosphates Contains phosphate radical (PO4)

Arsenates Contains arsenate radical (AsO4) 350

350
Vanadates Contains vanadate radical (VO4)

Silicates Built on SiO4 tetrahedra or derivative. SiO2 500

(quartz)

TABLE T1: Mineral Groups

Identification Procedure

Determining the name of a mineral involves testing of the physical properties of an

unknown mineral for identification purposes. The tests for ore minerals are the same as
for any other mineral. The observer needs to systematically note as many properties as
possible for the unknown mineral before consulting the mineral tables. Below are the
key properties to note:

Color: Color is not a good characteristic to identify minerals by because many silicate
and other minerals have multiple colors for the same mineral. For example “fluorite”
comes in at least eight colors. There are rare times when color is a useful indicator, for
example the color green or blue often indicates the presence of copper in an oxide
setting.

Luster: Three main types are metallic, submetallic and nonmetallic:

Metallic: means it is bright and shiny like a metal, and opaque (non translucent), may
yield a black streak on a streak plate.

Submetallic: means it looks shiny from a distance, but on close examination one can
see into the mineral, especially along a thin edge. This type of luster is not as common
as others.
Nonmetallic: this applies to all other minerals, from glassy to dull. Examples include
resinous (resin like), pearly (pearl like), greasy, silky, or adamantine (brilliant, diamond
like).

Other Optical Properties:

Streak Color: this is the color of the powdered mineral observed on a streak plate,
which has a hardness of 7).

Luminescence: behavior in ultraviolet light, caused by “activators” (foreign ions) in the

crystal structure, which become excited by certain wavelengths of light
.
Fluorescence: emits light when exposed to UV light or X-rays (for example “scheelite”).

Minerals under normal light and under ultraviolet light. Images courtesy of the San Diego
Natural History Museum. (www.sdnhm.org)

Phosphorescence: emits light on its own for a short time after the UV light is cut off (for
example “carnotite”).

Magnetism: indication of the minerals magnetic susceptibility, or strength of its own

magnetic field. The mineral “magnetite” is strongly magnetic; the mineral “pyrrhotite” is
weakly magnetic.

Specific gravity: this is the ratio of the weight of a substance to the weight of an equal
volume of water. For most minerals the specific gravity ranges from 2 to 5. Some
minerals, like gold (specific gravity 15 to 19), are extremely dense.

Cleavage: tendency to break in preferred directions along bright, reflective plane

surfaces.

Examples:

Basal cleavage (on flat plane): Mica

Rhombohedral (three directions not at right angles): Calcite

Cubic (three directions all at right angles): Galena

Fracture: this is similar to cleavage, but is the character of breakage along non-planar
surfaces.

Examples

Conchoidal (curved, fan-shaped surfaces): Obsidian

Splintery (as name implies): Tremolite

Hackly (irregular, rough and with sharp points): Copper

Crystal Habit: this is the crystal system the mineral follows by nature.

Examples:

Bladey (single or aggregates of flat blades): Calcite

Drusy (tiny crystals on a surface): Quartz

Micaceous (splits into extremely thin sheets): Mica

Hardness: this is the toughness on a scale of 1 to 10, having key minerals as indices,
named after Moh:

Softe
Hard Hardest
st

Hardne
ss 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Scale

Index Calcit Fluorit Apatit Feldsp Quart Topa Corundu Diamon

Talc Gypsum
Mineral e e e ar z z m d

Steel Strea
Other Fingern Penn (5.5) k Carbide
Objects ail (2.5 y (3) Glass Plate Tip (9.5)
(5.5) (7)

TABLE T2: Moh’s Hardness Scale

Effervescence: this is the bubbling behavior which happens when a carbonate
mineral is exposed to hydrochloric acid. This test needs to be done very carefully, by
using only a drop or two of HCl. Some carbonate minerals effervesce readily, while
others effervesce very slowly.

Host Rock Identification

Prospectors and geologists need to be able to recognize rock types so they can know
where to search for mineralization or petroleum. Once mineralization is discovered, the
“host rock” which contains the mineralization must be described in detail, leading to a
field call of the rock type, called “lithology”. After defining a lithology in the field, the
object is often to trace or map out the lithology of interest in order to attempt to find
valuable minerals.

Rocks are grouped into three main types known as igneous, sedimentary, and
metamorphic:

 Igneous Rocks: Crystallize from a melt, or “magma”

 Sedimentary Rocks: Form by the consolidation of sediments, compaction and

lithification

 Metamorphic Rocks: Form by changing the character of a previously existing

rock by application of heat and/or pressure.

These broad categories are genetic classifications because they are based on the
processes which derived them. Most rocks are so old that their origins have not been
witnessed, so their classification as igneous, sedimentary or metamorphic is done by
observation of details such as mineral composition and texture. The study of the details
of rock composition and texture is a science in itself, called petrology.

Igneous rocks

Igneous rocks are those which crystallize from a silicate or other

type of “magma” (molten rock) either deep underground or near
the surface. Igneous rocks which form deep underground are
called “plutonic” and igneous rocks which occur near or at the
surface are called “volcanic”.

Igneous rocks are composed mostly of crystals. It is the size of

the crystals, called “grain size”, which provides an important clue
as to the origin of the igneous rock in a plutonic or volcanic setting. The insulating
effects rock material surrounding a magma chamber below the surface and allows it to
cool slowly enough to grow larger crystals and thus create a coarse-grained texture.
Volcanic rocks are generally composed of very small crystals or even glass because the
magma is “quenched” rapidly when exposed to air or water at the surface of the earth.

There are many different classification schemes for igneous rocks. Most of the main
magma types can occur either at depth or at the surface, so their origin as a plutonic or
volcanic rock must be based on texture unless direct evidence is known. The general
color of igneous rocks can also be used to identify the rocks. This is because rocks rich
in minerals like quartz and feldspar tend to be light colored, and rocks rich in mafic
minerals (those containing abundant iron and magnesium) tend to be dark colored.
Below is an igneous rock identification chart based on color, composition and texture:

FIGURE F1: Igneous Rock Chart

The top row of the chart contains the volcanic rocks and the second row contains the
plutonic rocks which have equivalent compositions. Rocks on the left, like granite and
rhyolite, contain abundant quartz (up to 25%) and feldspar (> 10%, with potassium
feldspar dominant). Rocks on the right, like gabbro and basalt, contain abundant iron-
magnesium rich minerals such as pyroxene, amphibole and olivine.

Sedimentary Rocks

Sedimentary rocks are those which form by the consolidation of sediments and are
generally layered. They form by a wide variety of processes, including both water
movements and wind action. Like igneous rocks, they are classified according to their
composition and grain size. Sedimentary rocks can be
important host rocks for either mineral or petroleum
deposits. The most common types of sedimentary rocks
which are found in the field include the following:

 Limestone: Consists of carbonate minerals,

primarily calcite and dolomite. Other impurities can
be abundant, such as quartz, clays, feldspar, or
pyrite. Forms by different processes in marine environment, typically shallow
water environment, and can contain abundant fossils.

 Shale: Fine-grained rock formed by compaction of mud, silt and sand.

Characterized by fine laminations which cause the rock to be fissile, or break into
thin plates.

 Siltstone: Coarser-grained than shale in grain size, ranging from .00016 to .

0025 inches. Also lacks the fissility. Similar to shale in composition, except for a
higher quartz content.

 Sandstone: Medium-grained (> .0025 inches), and consisting largely of quartz

(85-90%) and various impurities, some of which provide the cementing agent to
bind the quartz grains together.

 Conglomerate: Consists of gravel in a fine-grained matrix of sand, silt or other

particles. The gravel “clasts” may be round or angular, and are generally at least
2 millimeters in diameter.

 Coal: Consists of 50 – 70% carbonaceous material derived from plants.

Colors of rocks are quite variable, so this property is not good for classification
purposes. However, in some areas certain rock “formations” do have distinct color
characteristics which can allow them to become a useful
marker when mapping in the field.

Metamorphic Rocks

Metamorphic rocks are those derived from pre-existing rocks of

any type (including igneous, sedimentary, or pre-existing
metamorphic rocks) by subjecting them to heat and/or
pressure. They are generally older rocks which have been
exposed to multiple deformation events over time. The
changing conditions also cause different minerals to form over
time, with later minerals sometimes completely replacing earlier ones. As heat and
pressure are applied to a rock, the original mineralogy changes to form new minerals
which are stable at the new temperature/pressure conditions.
Like igneous and sedimentary rocks, the classification of metamorphic rocks is based
largely on composition and texture. The rock name is likely to include the minerals
which are characteristic of the rock, followed by the rock name. The most common
types of metamorphic rocks include:

 Slate: Fine-grained and formed from shale. Characteristic breakage into slabs
due to slatey cleavage.

 Phyllite: Fine-grained and contains very small flakes of sericite and chlorite,
visible only with a hand lens or by using a microscope. Characteristic “sheen”
along cleavages, or foliations, which are caused by the alignment of the flaky
minerals.

 Schist: Strongly foliated and containing larger crystals due to strong

recrystallization.

 Gneiss: Very coarse-grained, usually banded to some extent, and usually with a
relatively strong foliation.

 Marble: Consists of recrystallized calcite or dolomite and forms from limestone.

 Quartzite: Consists of recrystallized quartz and forms from sandstone.

 Hornfels: Consists of recrystallized calcite and/or quartz and new minerals

formed from impurities present. Typically formed near contacts with igneous
intrusions.

Unit One Field Methods

1. Rock and Mineral Identification
Vocabulary

Ore and Gangue: The general definition of “ore” is a naturally occurring material
from which minerals of economic value can be extracted at a profit. Stating the
commodity for which it is mined, for example “gold ore” or “iron ore”, often
modifies the term “ore”. Ore minerals are the specific minerals containing the
commodity of interest. Many minerals contain elements of commercial interest,
but are not ore minerals because the mineral is “refractory”, meaning it is difficult
to impossible to extract the commodity from the mineral. “Gangue minerals” refer
to material so intimately associated with ore that it has to be mined with it, and
later removed by various crushing, grinding and separation processes. The “host
 rock” is the rock surrounding the ore and gangue, which, like the gangue, has no
value. To illustrate these relationships, consider the following example for a gold
ore:

A gold-bearing quartz vein 1 foot thick occurs in a granite intrusion. The

quartz vein contains arsenopyrite and pyrite in addition to native gold. The
“ore” in this example is the quartz vein material where it contains sufficient
concentrations of gold . The ore mineral is native gold. The gangue
minerals are quartz, arsenopyrite and pyrite. The granite is the host rock.

 Ore Deposits: An “ore deposit”, or “ore body”, is a continuous, well-defined

mass of material containing a sufficient volume of ore to mine economically. In
other words, the length, width and thickness must be determined as well as the
concentration of the commodity of interest. Defining an ore body (ore deposit)
generally requires drilling to determine the thickness as well as the depth below
the surface.

 Ore Minerals: Ore minerals are typically categorized as either “metallic” or

“nonmetallic” (also called “industrial”). Metallic minerals, as the name implies,
are minerals containing metals. We refer to the common metals, which are
chemically active and commonly alloyed, as “base metals” (eg, copper, lead and
zinc). In contrast, “precious metals” are rare metals with high commercial value
commonly desired in their isochemical form (eg, gold, silver, platinum).
Nonmetallic minerals are of course all other types of minerals.

 Lode Deposits: Ore deposits can are broadly broken down into two groups,
called “lode” and “placer”. Lode deposits are those that occur within consolidated
rock, having formed during the original formation of the rock, or some time after
that. The processes which form lodes are often implied to be chemical in nature,
whether it was due to the original fluids within a magma, or the magma itself, or
whether it was due to some hydrous (water rich) fluids which migrated through
the rock at a later date and altered its original composition.

 Placer Deposits: In contrast, a placer deposit is formed in inconsolidated

material, and forms as a result of physical processes at or near the earth’s
surface. The processes are secondary in nature and the prime example is
weathering. In some environments the climatic and hydraulic (action of water)
conditions are just right to create a natural mechanical concentration process.
The most typical environment is the stream environment. Where this
concentration happens, the unconsolidated sediments in the stream can become
enriched enough with valuable minerals to be classified as ore deposits. A large
amount of gold is mined from this type of deposit, called a placer gold deposit.
  Disseminated: Minerals which are scattered as small particles throughout a
rock.

 Vein: A tabular or sheetlike mineral deposit often filling a fracture or fault.

 Aggregate: Crowded or massed together into a dense cluster.

 Opaque: Does not allow light to pass through.

 Mineralization: To develop a mineral formation

 Consolidation: United into one form.

 Foliation: Consecutive thin layers

Geological Field Methods

Measuring Rock Structures

Objectives - The student will be able to:

 Explain the importance of measurement in geology.

 Describe the difference between magnetic north and true north.

 Describe the difference between the azimuth and quadrant system of measurement.

 Explain how to determine the strike and dip.

Explanation
Rock outcrops are places where bedrock is exposed at the surface. Rock structures are
features which can be observed from an outcrop. It can be things like the bedding of
sedimentary rocks or the foliation of metamorphic rocks. An inclined plane intersects
with a flat, or horizontal plane to form a line. By definition, this is the “strike” of the
inclined plane. The “dip” of the inclined plane is defined as the angle below the
horizontal measured at 90 degrees to the strike. Linear features are defined by
measuring the direction (or bearing) of the axis and its angle below horizontal (or
“plunge”). By recording the strike and dip, or the bearing and plunge at locations in the
field it is possible to create a map of an area showing geometrical relationships of
geological features in an area. This is important in mineral and petroleum exploration
because it allows more confidence in the prediction of subsurface resources.

Directional Measuring Systems

The reference system for direction is geographic north and south poles which are
located on the spin axis of the earth. In the northern hemisphere, the north pole is used
for reference. The earth’s magnetic north pole does not correspond to the geographic
north pole. The magnetic north pole is located in northern Greenland. The magnetic
north pole slowly moves over long periods of time.

The most common method of measuring a rock structure is to use a compass. Since a
magnetic compass needle points to the magnetic north pole, the compass needs to be
adjusted so that the directions can be understood as relative to true north. This is done
by setting the “declination” on the compass, which is the angular measurement between
true north and magnetic north. In north America the declination is east declination,
which means that when facing true north, the magnetic north pole is to the right. You
can check your compass quickly by aligning it to read 0 degrees (true north) and see if
the compass needle points to the right, or east, of true north.

Two main systems are in use to measure direction, including the “azimuth” and the
“quadrant” systems:

The Azimuth System

The azimuth system uses true north set to 0 (or 360) degrees. The complete circle is
divided into 360 degrees. In other words, true north is 0 or 360 degrees, east is 90
degrees, south is 180 degrees, and west is 270 degrees. The azimuth system is the
system most commonly used today.

The Quadrant System

The quadrant system is also set with reference to both true north and true south. In this
system directions (or angles) are measured in degrees, but are measured with
reference to the closer of the true north or true south directions. In other words, bearing
directions (angles) do not exceed 90 degrees. For example, a bearing direction which
is 30 degrees south of due east is described as “South 60 East”.

Azimuth to Quadrant to
Azimuth Quadrant
Quadrant Azimuth

north 75 degrees
75 degrees same numeric value same numeric value
east

135 south 45 degrees

subtract from 180 subtract from 180
degrees east

215 south 35 degrees

subtract 180 add 180
degrees west

315 north 45 degrees

subtract from 360 subtract from 360
degrees west

Information from http://www.fes.uwaterloo.ca/crs/geog165/mapcoords.htm. Visit the site

for more information on mapping.

Quadrant system Azimuth System

Dip Measuring System

Inclination is measured using an inclinometer to measure the dip. An inclinometer is a device
which measures the dip or plunge. There are two main types: 1) bubble level type, and 2)
pendulum type. The bubble level type works the same way a carpenters level works: a bubble
trapped in liquid in a curved tube seeks the uppermost portion of the tube. This type of
inclinometer is quite accurate and is generally preferred for measuring rock structures. The
other type of inclinometer, the pendulum type, has a weighted needle suspended from a point.
The needles vertical alignment with the earth’s gravity field allows it to be used as a reference.
Measuring Planar Geological Features
First, the observer must use an inclinometer to find a horizontal line within the planar feature of
interest. By definition, the bearing of this line is the strike direction of the feature. The most
common method is to use the inclinometer which is built into the compass, if available. One can
usually get pretty close to a horizontal line projection without the aid of an inclinometer by
moving to a position where the eye is in the plane of the feature. Aligning your arm within the
plane, and then follow the plane with your arm until it seems to be horizontal. Once the
direction of the horizontal line in the plane is established, line up the compass with the direction
of this horizontal line. The azimuth of this line will be the bearing of the strike direction.

Once the bearing of the strike is established, the direction at which the dip should be measured
can be calculated by subtracting 90 degrees from the bearing. The inclinometer is then aligned
with this new direction, which is at 90 degrees to the strike. Then use the inclinometer to
measure the angle below the horizontal. In other words, a dip of 0 degrees is horizontal, and a
dip of 90 degrees indicates something vertical.

The general direction of dip must be

specified. If only the dip angle is noted, and
not the general dip direction, there would be
two possibilities. This can be done by noting
the general dip direction at the time of
measurement, or by using the right hand rule. This rule states that the general dip
direction, if not otherwise specified, is to the right when facing the azimuth direction of
the strike. For example, if the azimuth is between 0 and 90 degrees, then the dip is to
the southeast.
Many types of planar geological features exist, the entire list being beyond the scope
here. In sedimentary or volcanic rocks the bedding is of particular interest. In
metamorphic rocks, the bedding is said to be “relict”, but still is an important feature to
measure. Fault surfaces are extremely important to measure so that outward
projections can be extrapolated and the fault can be traced.

In metamorphic rocks, there is the alignment of flakey or platy minerals which causes a
“foliation”. We measure each foliation in an outcrop and note which minerals are associated
with each. By looking at cross-cutting relations, the metamorphic history can be interpreted. It
is also important to measure brittle fracture patterns in rocks, especially with regards to mining.
The fracturing effects the strength of the rock and the manner in which it will behave in blasting
or mining conditions.

Measuring Linear Geological Features

Measuring a linear geological feature requires measuring an inclined line which is

aligned with the feature. The standard is to project the inclined line to a horizontal
plane, and then measure the bearing of this line. The angle created between the
inclined and horizontal lines is called the plunge. The plunge is measured using an
inclinometer, in a similar manner when measuring the dip as described above.

There are many types of linear geological features which are important to measure. Some are
real objects (such as aligned minerals) and others have to be created using the imagination
(such as the axis of a fold). Lineations measured together with strikes and dips at the same
observation point are particularly useful. At these points on the map the strike and dip is shown
together with the lineation measurement.

Plotting Structural Data on a Map

Structural data is generally recorded in a field notebook on site, but at some point should be
plotted on a map. For this reason the location data also needs to be collected on site. The
location data consists of X and Y coordinates which are used to pinpoint the site on a grid type
map. The grid map is essentially the same as an X – Y graph, except that the Y values are
called “northings” and the X values are called “eastings”. Northings increase in value going
north, and Eastings increase in value going east. The northings and eastings can be whatever
units are desired, such as feet, meters, miles, etc..., depending on what map scale is desired.
For example, on a map with a scale of 1 inch = 1000 feet, a site with coordinates of 4000 East,
4000 North will plot 4 inches to the east and 4 inches to the north of the origin.

Geological Field Methods

Measuring Rock Structures
Vocabulary

Hanging Wall: The block of rock above an inclined fault surface.

Footwall: The block of rock below an inclined fault surface.

Normal Fault: A fault, generally steeply inclined, along which the hanging wall block has
moved relatively downward.

Reverse Fault: A fault, generally steeply inclined, along which the hanging wall block
has moved relatively upward.

Thrust Fault: A special type of reverse fault with a very low angle fault plane, typically
dipping < 15 degrees.

Strike Slip Fault: A fault which has horizontal movement, or movement parallel to the
strike of the fault plane.
Axial Plane: An imaginary plane which intersects the crest or trough in such a manner
that the limbs or sides of the fold are more or less symmetrically arranged with
reference to it.

Anticline: Fold with limbs dipping away from the fold axis.

Syncline: Fold with limbs dipping towards the fold axis.

Symmetrical Fold: A fold in which both limbs dip equally away from the axial plane.

Asymmetrical Fold: A fold in which one limb dips more steeply than the other.

Overturned Fold: A fold in which one limb is tilted beyond vertical, resulting in both
limbs dipping the same direction, but not at the same dip angle.

Isoclinal Fold: A fold in which both limbs are approximately parallel.

Recumbent Fold: A fold with a nearly horizontal axial plane, resulting in overturned
beds on one or the other limbs.

Geological Field Methods

Creating Geological Maps and Cross-Sections

Objectives - Students will be able to:

 Explain what type of information is given in a topographic map.

 Describe 3 common coordinate systems.

 Explain what type of information is given in a geologic map.

  Describe the components of a geological map.

 Describe the different types of scales used in maps.

Explanation
Geologic maps are an extremely important form of communication for geologists. The
geologic map is a visual representation of geologic details. This is why field geologic
mapping is both a science and an art. On one hand, the mapper is recording objective
observations. On the other hand, the mapper must create a rendition of what they have
observed. The lines, symbols, patterns, colors, etc... on the map must be drawn with
skill and precision, and must be clear and understandable to the reader.

Ideally the geologic map is

created in the field from direct
observations at close range.
This type of geologic map is
sometimes called an “outcrop”
or “bedrock” geologic map,
because lines are drawn
showing the actual perimeter
of bedrock exposures at the
surface. Where there is more
than one map unit in an
outcrop, then a demarcation
line, or “contact” is shown
between them. The location
and nature of contacts provide
extremely important information about the relationship of different rock types and the
sequence of events which occurred. Field geologic maps are typically drawn using a
topographic base map, because geologic features can be more accurately located and
more easily sketched when referenced to identifiable landforms in the area.

In some instances the map may represent interpretations of the geology which are
made from evidence that has not been observed directly. This type of geologic map is
called an “interpretive” geologic map. Indirect evidence may consist of aerial
photographic evidence (including topographic or vegetation patterns), distant
observations, geophysical data or geochemical data. An interpretive geologic map
therefore represents a generalization of the geology of an area.

Topographic Maps

Topographic maps are maps which show the topography, or shape, of the surface within
an area, usually by means of contour lines. A contour line is a line of equal elevation.
The vertical distance between contour lines is called the contour interval. Steep areas
will have contour lines close together, and gentle sloped areas will have contour lines
far apart. Where contour line crosses over a stream or gully on a topographic map, it
forms a “V-shape”. The V shape will always point upstream. A contour line which forms
a circle indicates the presence of a peak.

Geographic Reference Systems: Every map must have a geographic location

reference system showing how the map area is related to the real world. Most of the
time, but not always, maps are drawn such that true north is towards the top of the
map. The magnetic declination for the area (angular measurement between true north
and magnetic north) is stated or shown graphically somewhere on the map. The
reference system used is uses a “coordinate system” very similar to an X – Y graph.
The X – axis coordinate could be a longitude or “easting”. The Y – axis coordinate
could be the latitude or “northing”. The pair of coordinates defines a point location
referenced to a grid system and to other points on the map.

The most common coordinate systems in use are:

Latitude-Longitude: Lines of latitude and longitude are given in degrees, minutes and
seconds. There are 60 minutes per degree, and 60 seconds per minute. Latitude
lines, which traverse the globe in an east-west sense, are called “parallels”, because
they encircle the globe parallel to each other. The equator has a latitude of 0 degrees.
A latitude of 89 degrees is near the north pole. Longitude lines, which traverse the
globe in a north-south sense, are not parallel, but instead, converge together at the
north and south poles. The longitude line labeled 0 degrees is called the prime
meridian. The globe is divided into 180 degrees of longitude west of the prime
meridian, and 180 degrees east of the prime meridian, to make the complete
circumference.

UTM: UTM is an acronym for “universal transverse mercator”. This system utilizes a
rectangular grid. The north-south lines of the UTM grid are therefore not parallel to
longitudinal lines, but instead diverge from longitudinal lines towards the north. The unit
of measure for the UTM grid system is the meter. The UTM system consists of a series
of rectangular grids with slight overlap, called “UTM zones”. (View the UTM Zones Last
Page) The UTM zone must be reported with the set of coordinates to completely define
the point location. Since it is a metric system, it has many advantages for ease of use.
Metes and Bounds: This system might also be called the “township-range” system. It is a
system used in surveying land which gives locations with reference to specific base lines (east-
west lines) and specific meridians (north-south) lines. A block of land called a township consists
of 36 square miles. Each township is a specified distance north or south of the base line, and a
specified distance east or west of the meridian. This system is most often used to describe
legal land descriptions, and not for general navigation purposes.

Geographic Projections: All maps of the earth’s surface are two dimensional
representations of a three dimensional object. In other words, the map is flat and
generally rectangular, whereas the earth’s surface is irregular and generally rounded.
The round real surface has more actual area than can fit on the map, especially in the
corner areas. For this reason, the actual surface area must be distorted in some
manner to make it all fit in the area of the rectangular map. The transformation from the
real surface to the flat surface is done mathematically, by changing the map
coordinates. This can be done in many different ways, each of which results in a
different map “projection”. There are many different projections used. The projection
used in the construction of the topographic map is specified somewhere on the map.

Geologic Maps

A geologic map is a map showing geologic information such as distribution, nature and
age relationships of rock units, structural features, mineral deposits, and fossil
localities. As mentioned above, bedrock geologic maps show the distribution of actual
bedrock outcroppings at the surface. Interpretive geologic maps show general
distributions based on interpretive studies. Geologic maps are often created on top of a
topographic base map because the topography of an area often provides important
clues about the relationship of map units.

To create a geologic map, “map units” must be determined. A map unit can be either a
single lithology or a combination of lithologies which collectively are mappable or
traceable in the field. For example, a map unit might consist of a single layer of
sandstone, or it may consist of a group of alternating sandstone and siltstone layers,
each of which is too small to break out individually at the map scale which is being
used. In the field, the surface between two map units is called a “contact”. On a
geologic map, the contact between two map units is represented as a line. The line,
which can also be any shape, is formed where the surface between two map units
intersects the ground surface. The contact surface between the two units could be a
normal sedimentary contact, a fault contact, and intrusive contact, or an unconformity.

Every geologic map should have a title and list the author and date. Other essential
information which should be present on every geologic map includes an explanation, a
scale a north arrow, and a reference system.

Explanation: The explanation is simply a list which explains the symbols used on the
geologic map. Most importantly, the explanation shows the break down of the map
units. Map units on the geologic map may be shown as different colors, different
patterns, or they may be blank and contain only “unit designators”. A unit designator is
a label for a specified map unit, usually shown as a short abbreviation. If the age of the
rock is known, then the first part of the abbreviation (usually one or two letters) will
indicate the age. Following this will be a letter or letters which represent the type of
rock. For example, the unit designator “Pzgr” might be used to represent Paleozoic
granite.

Scale: The scale of a map shows the relationship between the length of a line on the
map and the length of that same line in reality. There are two types of scales in use.

Fractional scale: The fractional scale shows the relationship above using a representative
fraction. For example, a representative fraction of 1:24,000 indicates that 1 unit on the map
equals 24,000 units in reality. The units can be of any type: 1 inch (on map) = 24,000 inches (in
reality), or 1 mm (on map) equals 24,000 mm (in reality). If the map is reduced or enlarged,
then the fraction must change to show the new relationship between distance on the map and
distance in reality. Another example of a type of fractional scale uses different units for the map
versus reality. For example, the scale may be written “1 inch = 1,000 feet”. This scale
indicates that 1 inch on the map is equivalent to 1,000 feet in reality.

Graphic Scale: The graphic scale (sometimes called a “bar scale”) usually consists of a thick
line segment, or bar, with endpoints labeled with the distance markers which they indicate in
reality. This type of scale is easier to use, and has the advantage of being able to be reduced or
enlarged along with the map without changing endpoint labels.

Field Methods
Geological Mapping
Vocabulary

Demarcation: The setting or marking of boundaries.

Lithology - A systematic description of rocks, interms of mineral composition and

texture.

Mylonite: A hard, coherent, often glassy-looking rock that has suffered extreme
mechanical deformation and granulation but has remained chemically unaltered;
appearance is flinty, banded, or streaked, but the nature of the parent rock is easily
recognized.

Breccia: A rock made up of very angular coarse fragments; may be sedimentary or

may be formed by grinding or crushing along faults.

Gouge: Soft, pulverized mixture of rock and mineral material found along shear (fault)
zones and produced by the differential movement across the plane of slippage.

Andalusite: Al2SiO5 A brown, yellow, green, red, or gray neosilicate mineral

crystallizing in the orthoghombic system, usually found in metamorphic rocks.
Phlogopite: K2(Mg, Fe(II))6(Si6Al2O20(OH)4 A yellow-brown to copper colored mineral
of the mica group occurring in disseminated flakes, foliated masses, or large crystals;
hardness is 2.5 – 3.0 on Hohs scale, and specific gravity is 2.8 – 3.0. Also known as
bronze mica or brown mica.
Geochemical Methods

Geochemical Sampling

Objectives - The student will be able to:

 Explain the importance of geochemical sampling.

 Define and describe different types of dispersion halos.

 List advantages and disadvantages of stream sampling.

 Explain how soil sampling surveys are conducted.

 Describe different rock sampling methods.

Explanation
Geochemical sampling methods are methods which involve collecting and analyzing
various types of geological materials (such as soils, stream sediments, and rocks) or
certain biological materials (such as plants). Historically these methods have been
some of the most productive of any methods used in mineral exploration. Sometimes
mineralization can be extremely difficult to notice, if not impossible to recognize, by
simply looking at a sample. Without the use of geochemical sampling methods, many
known ore deposits would probably not have been discovered.

After discovery, geochemical sampling plays a key role in the description of

mineralization. For example, geochemical sampling of soils is often employed to outline
the general distribution of mineralization at shallow depths where outcrops of bedrock
are minimal or nonexistent.

The procedure involves collection of materials in the field, laboratory (or field) analysis
of the geochemistry of the materials, plotting of the geochemical values on maps, and
interpretation of the results. The materials may be analyzed for any number of
elements. Which elements are chosen for analysis depends on budget, the geology of
the area, and the commodity which is being sought after. Often there are specific
elements or combinations of elements which are known to be associated with specific
types of mineralization. Therefore it is possible to evaluate the potential for the
existence of certain types of mineralization by evaluating which elements are found in a
given area.

Numerous samples of different types of rocks and other materials comprising the earth’s
crust have been analyzed. As a result, the average abundance of trace elements in
these materials is fairly well known and established. The average value for a specified
rock is called the “background” value. We are interested in values which are much
greater than average or “anomalous” because these values may indicate the presence
of an ore body. A cutoff value, or “threshold value”, is the value above which all values
are considered anomalous. The threshold value can be selected arbitrarily by simply
viewing the data, or it can be selected by statistical methods.The location of an
anomalous value on the map is called an anomaly. When values are plotted on a map,
a pattern of increasing values may emerge which would give useful informationn as to
the direction to the source. For this reason, collection of location data is an extremely
important aspect of geochemical sampling in the field.

Dispersion Halos

Dispersion is the process of dispersing elements outward from a source. A dispersion

halo is a zone around a mineral deposit where the metal values are less than those of
the deposit but significantly higher than background values found in the country rocks
around the deposit. Geochemical sampling and testing can be used to outline the
dispersion halo, and therefore help locate the source.

Primary Dispersion Halos: Primary dispersion refers to dispersion which occurs in

rocks at or near the time of formation of a mineral deposit. It is usually the result of
“hydrothermal” (hot aqueous) fluids which are responsible for creating the deposit. Fluid
movements in rocks are so variable that the halo formed by primary dispersion may or
may not reflect the shape of the ore deposit itself. The extent of the primary dispersion
halo can range from inches to hundreds of feet. The extent of the primary halo is
dependent on the nature of the rock. Rocks which are extremely porous or highly
fractured usually develop more extensive primary halos.

Secondary Dispersion Halos: Secondary dispersion refers to dispersion which occurs

in the secondary environment (soils, stream sediments or plants) long after the
formation of a mineral deposit. This type of dispersion is usually the result of
mechanical and/or chemical weathering. Mechanical weathering is caused by physical
processes such as breakage due to freezing and thawing. Chemical weathering is
caused by chemical reactions between minerals and groundwater resulting in chemical
decomposition of minerals. Chemical decomposition can also be caused by bacteria.
Halos caused by secondary dispersion are usually much more widespread than those
caused by primary dispersion. For this reason, sampling of soils, stream sediments or
plants can detect the presence of a mineral deposit from a much further distance.

Dispersion results in the transport of metallic ions (charged particles) away from a
source. Some of these ions are precisely the ones sought after, and others are called
“pathfinder” metals or elements. Pathfinder elements are those which are closely
associated with the metal of interest. High values of pathfinder elements may be more
significant because they have better mobility, resulting in greater dispersion. For
example, arsenic and bismuth are good pathfinders for gold.

Another means of dispersion in the stream environment is caused by mechanical

erosion. Mechanical erosion leads to the breakdown of host rocks containing ore
minerals. Consequently, tiny grains of the minerals occur in the suspended load of the
stream. Turbulence of the water keeps the particles in suspension. Turbulence is
greatest in steeper areas where the stream water flows faster. Downstream where the
topography is more gentle, the stream waters move slower, thereby decreasing
turbulence. This causes the suspended load to drop out, resulting in deposition of the
mineral grains in the stream sediments. Heavy minerals, like ore minerals, tend to drop
out first because less turbulence is needed to keep them in suspension.

Stream Sediment Sampling Surveys

Stream sediment surveys are very useful for mineral exploration because of greater
dispersion in the stream environment. Greater dispersion means greater ability to
detect an ore body from a greater distance. A drainage basin is an area with a network
of streams like the branches of a tree: smaller streams join together leading into larger
and larger streams. Geochemical values of sediments located downstream are an
indication of rock geochemistry, or potential ore deposits, located upstream.

Unfortunately, an anomaly discovered downstream in a large drainage basin gives only

a general idea of location of the source. The source of the anomaly could be anywhere
within the drainage basin. This is why it is a good idea to sample all the streams in a
drainage area. Typically a stream sediment survey will attempt to sample both sides of
every stream fork. In this manner, if an anomaly occurs on one side and not on the
other, only the fork with the anomaly needs to be considered in locating the source. The
trail of anomalies forms a path upstream towards the source. Generally the values will
increase towards the source, and then drop to zero or background values upstream
from the source.

Another variety of stream sediment survey is called a pan concentrate survey. This is
where sediment (usually gravel) is panned with a gold pan to collect a concentrate of
heavy minerals.

Soil Sampling Surveys

Soils are the product of weathering of bedrock, decomposition of organic material at the
surface, and deposition of other materials which have been transported. The soils tend
to form certain layers called “horizons”. The lowermost horizon consists largely of
decomposed bedrock and is called the “C” horizon. The uppermost horizon, called the
“A” horizon, is variable in composition. The “B” horizon is between the “A” and “C”
horizons, and is essentially a mixed zone. Dispersion is generally greatest in the “A”
and “B” horizons. For this reason, soil samples collected from the “B” horizon can
detect a mineral deposit from a greater distance. In arctic regions, the “B” horizon
tends to be poorly developed (if present at all). It is best to collect soil samples from
the “C” horizon in these regions.

The depth of the horizons will vary from place to place. For more information visit
http://generalhorticulture.tamu.edu/lectsupl/Soil/soil.html)

Soil surveys are most often conducted on specific targets at relatively close spacing (<
500 feet). This is because dispersion in soils is much more confined, so it is much
easier to miss a significant anomaly. Stream sediment surveys are often done before
soil surveys because they narrow down the size of the target area. The geology of the
area is also considered. There may be specific rock types, or regional structural
features like faults, which justify an area to be a better target.

Soil surveys are generally conducted along a line or a grid. The tighter the spacing, the
more likely it will be to locate a soil anomaly over a buried ore deposit. A grid survey
has a big advantage over a line survey because the anomalies which are discovered
may form a trend indicating the trend of the buried mineralization. A anomaly
discovered along a line survey gives no indication of trend, and usually must be
followed up with a grid survey.

Once a grid soil survey is completed the values can be plotted on a map and evaluated
using several different methods. One method is to assign a color code system or use
symbols for specified ranges of values. This type of map is called a “thematic” map.
The advantage of thematic maps is that they are simple to make and provide the reader
with a quick understanding of the distribution of anomalies in an area. Another method
is to create a “geochemical contour” map. Here the values are contoured: lines of
equal value (called isopleths) are extrapolated between every data point and the
adjacent points. This type of map points to possible mineralization trends but is much
more tedious to construct.

Figure F3: Thematic Geochemistry Map

 Figure F4: Geochemical Contour Map

Rock Sampling Surveys

Rock sampling reveals the true potential of an area for containing a mineral deposit. If
the sample is collected within the area of primrary dispersion it will provide valuable
information about the location of the mineral deposit. However, this applies only to rock
samples collected from bedrock. Rock samples or of float, rubble, talus, glacial
material, etc... are much less reliable because they may have been transported some
distance.

Rock samples collected for mineral exploration purposes fall into many different
categories. Each category is based on method of collection and purpose. The most
common categories used in mineral exploration are:

Grab Sample: A grab sample is a sample of rock material from a confined area (< 1
foot across). It can be a single piece of rock.

Composite Sample: A composite sample consists of small chips of uniform rock

material collected over a large area (> 5 feet across).

Chip Channel Sample: A chip channel sample consists of small chips of rock collected
over a specified interval. Samples are collected systematically to provide a
representative value for each interval. Samples are usually collected in succession
along a line laid out on a bedrock exposure. The method is valuable because if
mineralization is present, the width of the mineralized zone can be determined.
High Grade Sample: A high grade sample consists of obviously mineralized rock
material which has been “high graded” or separated from less mineralized or non-
mineralized rock material.

Unit Three - Geophysical Methods

1. Magnetic Surveys

Objectives - Students will be able to:

 Describe characteristics that will affect the magnetic strength of a rock or mineral.

 List minerals that can become magnetic.

 Describe the modern theory that explains the cause of earth's magnetic field.

 List instruments used to detect magnetism.

 Define a magnetic anomaly.

 Explain the cause of magnetic anomalies.

  Explain why geologists would be interested in magnetic anomalies.

Explanation

Magnetic Minerals

Magnetism has been studied for a very long time in human history. Early Greek
philosophers knew about the attraction of iron to a magnet. The first magnets consisted
of a naturally occurring rock called lodestone, a variety of massive magnetite (almost
pure iron oxide). Magnetite is the only naturally occurring mineral with distinctly obvious
magnetic properties. Only a few other minerals have any detectable magnetism.
However, extremely sensitive magnetometers can detect trace magnetism in many
different minerals. Iron, because of its atomic structure, has the greatest tendency to
become magnetized or aligned. Other elements, such as cobalt and nickel, also have
lesser tendency to become magnetic. Any mineral or rock which contains any of these
elements is likely be more magnetic.

Magnetism occurs when like poles of adjacent individual atoms are in alignment,
creating a “dipole” effect. Another word for this alignment effect is called “polarization”.
An analogy can be made with the north and south poles of a typical bar magnet. Like
poles repel each other, and opposite poles attract each other. At extreme temperatures,
there is a loss of alignment, leading to a loss of magnetism. Experiments have shown
this loss of magnetism occurs at a temperature of approximately 550 o C (the “Curie
point”).

Magnetic strength of a mineral or rock is a function of two things: 1) the amount of iron,
nickel or cobalt, and 2) the amount of alignment which takes place. The measure of
magnetic strength of a mineral or rock is called the “magnetic susceptibility” (Table T6).
This can be measured with a simple magnet by testing the “pull”, or it can be measured
with very sensitive, highly sophisticated instruments. The susceptibility of a completely
nonmagnetic substance is equal to 0. The susceptibility of a highly magnetic mineral
like magnetite is about 20.

Rock/Mineral Magnetic
Susceptibility

Rocks

Salt 0 – 0.001
Slate 0 – 0.002

Limestone 0.00001 –
0.0001

Granulite 0.0001 – 0.05

Rhyolite 0.00025 –
0.001

Greenstone 0.0005 – 0.001

Basalt 0.001 – 0.1

Gabbro 0.001 – 0.1

Dolerite 0.01 – 0.15

Minerals

Pyrite 0.0001 – 0.005

Hematite 0.001 – 0.0001

Pyrrhotite 0.001 – 1.0

Chromite 0.0075 – 1.5

Magnetite 0.1 – 20.0

Table T6: Magnetic susceptibilities of selected rocks and minerals.

Earth’s Magnetic Field

It is uncertain why the earth has a magnetic field. Although it is much more complex,
the earth’s magnetic field can be characterized as a giant bar magnet having a north
and south pole. The many measurements which have been made indicate this force
field completely surrounds the planet, with lines of force plunging into the polar regions.

Geologists believe the earth’s core is largely made up of molten iron. Siesmic studies
indicate that the inner core is solid and the outer core is liquid. The inner core is above
the Curie temperature, so it cannot contribute to the Earth’s magnetic field. Modern
theories suggest the Earth’s magnetic field is caused by flow of material in the outer
core which generates electricity, which is associated with the flow of electrical current.
The flow of these electrical currents effectively create a huge electromagnetic field.

As an igneous rock crystallizes, its own internal magnetic field will line up with that of
the earth. The locked orientation of the internal field of the rock is called the “remnant
magnetic field”. The orientations of these internal fields has been measured for rocks of
different ages and at numerous locations. The measurements indicate the earth’s
magnetic poles have been slowly moving over geologic time. The slow migration, called
“polar wandering”, is unpredictable. The measurements also indicate that there have
been relatively sudden reversals of polarity of the earth’s magnetic poles numerous
times in the geologic past. Measurements of ancient polarity and field orientation in
rocks has allowed geologists to piece together a time scale which has become
invaluable for age dating of rocks. The study of the ancient magnetic field of the earth is
called paleomagnetism.
Figure F8: Generalized cross section of the Earth’s magnetic field.

Magnetic Instruments

The magnetic instrument we are most familiar with is the compass. A piece of
lodestone suspended from a string will align itself with the earth’s magnetic field. In the
12th century the Chinese discovered that rubbing a needle against a piece of lodestone
would cause the needle to become magnetic. Later the magnetic needle was
suspended, and the first compass was created.

A magnetometer is a more complex instrument which measures both the orientation and
strength of a magnetic field. When the magnetic field of a rock sample is measured, the
result is actually a measure of the field as it is being effected by the earth’s magnetic
field, as well as any other large bodies of magnetic rock which are near by.

Magnetic Surveys

The orientation and strength of the earth’s magnetic field has been measured and
studied in detail at many locations. As a result, geophysicists have been able to
develop a mathematical model for its shape and intensity, which is called the
“magnetosphere”. It is not a perfect sphere, but instead is an imperfect sphere with
many bumps and irregularities.

Magnetometer surveys conducted on a local scale indicate there are many unexpected
variations in the model, called “magnetic anomalies”. A magnetic high is where the
measured field strength is higher than the value predicted by the global model, and a
magnetic low is where the measured field strength is lower than the value predicted by
the global model. Possible causes for magnetic highs include the presence of
magnetically charged rocks in the subsurface. Sophisticated
techniques have been developed which can predict the
depth, shape, and orientation of a magnetic rock mass below
the surface.

In most cases these rock masses contain the mineral

magnetite. Rocks which contain lots of magnetite include
gabbro, diorite, basalt and other “mafic” igneous rocks.
These rocks will show up as a strong magnetic high an a map
of the total field strength. Felsic igneous rocks, like granite or
rhyolite, and most sedimentary rocks are notably non-
magnetic except in rare cases. These rocks may show up as
distinct magnetic lows which are also mappable. In fact, in
some cases magnetic lows are of keen interest in mineral
exploration because they indicate areas of alteration associated with ore deposits.

Magnetic surveys are always conducted by collecting measurements at specified

locations along pre-established survey lines. The surveys can be conducted either on
the ground or from the air. Those conducted on the ground collect detailed data at very
close spacings. These surveys can outline the expanse and even the dip angle of the
the magnetic body with some degree of accuracy. Surveys conducted from the air,
called aeromagnetic surveys, are designed to cover large areas (100’s of square
miles).

Unit Four - Drilling Methods

Constructing Drill Sections

Objectives- The student will be able to:

 Explain why drilling is important to exploration.

  Describe the difference between diamond core drilling and rotary drilling.

 Explain how drilling data is used.

 List examples of the information included in a drill log

 Explain apparent dip

 Explain why it is important to determine the true thickness from the apparent thickness.

Explanation

Surface exploration only defines two dimensions of a mineral prospect or discovery.

Drilling is the stage of the exploration process where the third dimension (depth) is
defined. This is a very important process, because ultimately the information acquired
from drilling will prove if an ore deposit will be mined. There are essentially two types of
drilling: diamond core and rotary.

Diamond core drilling uses a diamond bit to carve a solid

column of rock. The core is studied in detail, and then all
or part of the rock column is sent to a geochemical lab for
analysis. If the rock is competent (solid) and the drilling
goes well, the rock core may be present in its entirety.
Usually the rock is fractured and some is missing, so the
recovery percentage must be calculated.

Rotary drilling methods shatter the rock into bits and then
pump the bits to the surface where they are collected for
sampling. The drill uses compressed air to force the
fragments to the surface. Recovery can be estimated by
weighing the samples and comparing the weights to the weights for the ideal solid
column of rock. This can be calculated knowing the density of the rock and the
dimensions of the cylinder of the rock.

Information gathered from both types of drilling is treated similarly. The best way to
present drilling data is by graphical methods so the information can be visualized more
clearly and interpreted easier. This includes both maps and drill-sections. The depth
dimension is shown in the vertical plane called the drill section, which is essentially a
special type of cross-section. The information plotted can be geochemical values, or
geological information, or both on the same section.
 A drill section shows the surface topography by
creating a topographic profile, just as in regular
cross-sections. The profile will show the “collar”
locations, which are the tops of the drill holes. The
profile will then show various “intercepts” (depth
ranges) for each significant geochemical zone or
lithological unit that is encountered, as noted in the
drill log. By knowing the locations of the intercepts
the geology of the rocks can be interpreted. The
closer the spacing of drill holes the more accurate
the profile is likely to be.

Drill Data Collection

The geologist must carefully

record the information from the
rock core or rock chips obtained from every drill hole. This is
done by completing a “drill log”, which is a form that is filled out
during the actual drilling process. The drill log has basic
information at the top, including hole number, inclination, bearing
and plunge angle, date, and loggers name. Then the log will
show the depth scale on one side of the form. The scale is
usually in feet since the equipment used by most drilling
companies, particularly the drill stems, are in standard lengths of
feet.

The drill log typically has a series of columns to the side of the
footage scale, each for a different criteria to be observed or
logged. The choices for the column titles are quite variable due to
the many different characteristics which can be recorded. Drill
logs are generally tailored to each individual drilling project.
Some of the characteristics which are commonly recorded
include: 1) lithology, 2) alteration, 3) mineralization, 4) structural
features, and 5) geochemical values. The angle of a structure is
a measure of the acute angle between the structure and the core
axis. Any of these characteristics may be plotted on the drill
section.

Plotting of geochemical values on a drill section is commonly the first step to

understanding the geometry of an underground ore body. The geometry must be
understood in as much detail as possible before mining can begin. The volume of ore
bodies which are of a tabular nature, such as veins or dikes, can be estimated by
knowing the dimensions, including the true thickness of a mineralized zone, the dip
length of the zone, and the strike length of the zone.

Graphic Representation of Drill Holes

The drill holes are shown on the drill section as lines extending below points
representing the collar locations. The length of the lines are drawn to the scale of the
drill section. A vertical drill hole will plot as a vertical line in the drill section. The length
of the line will correspond to the total depth of the drill hole, as stated on the drill log.
Some drill holes are “inclined” at a specified angle below the horizontal, and must be
illustrated accordingly. For the simplest case of plotting an inclined hole which happens
to plunge directly down the plane of the drill section, the angle of the hole will be shown
as the same. If the hole inclines or angles away from the drill section plane, then the
“apparent” dip angle must be used to illustrate the drill hole.

Apparent Dip: Some angled drill holes plunge away from the vertical plane of the drill
section. If the drill hole plunges or dips away from the vertical plane, then the dip angle
which will be observed in the drill section is called the “apparent” dip. The apparent dip
angle is always smaller than the true dip angle. The apparent dip angle can be
determined by looking up the true dip angle in the “Dwerryhouse” table (Table T4). This
table shows what the apparent dip angle will be as a function of the angle between the
section line and the strike direction of the feature. This requires measuring the angle
between the strike and the drill section line in the map view.
Table T4: Apparent Dip Angles as function of true dip and strike orientation.
Projecting Drill Holes to the Drill Section Plane: It is often necessary or desirable to
“project” drill holes into the plane of the drill section (Figure F14). This is the process of
illustrating a feature in a drill section or cross section, even though the feature does not
actually occur in the drill section plane. Drill holes which are not exactly on the section
line will be “projected” onto the plane of the drill section. Drill holes can be projected
any distance, but the longer the distance, the less the reliability in the interpretation.
The drill hole is positioned on the drill section at the closest point to the original. In most
grid-based drilling campaigns these distances are usually kept under 200 feet.

After the drill holes are plotted on the drill section, the geochemistry and/or geological
data is plotted alongside the lines representing the drill holes. It is then the goal of the
geologist to interpret the geochemistry and geology details into the ground between drill
holes. This is why a good imagination is important. The interpretation process may be
simple and straightforward, or it may be difficult, depending on the complexity of the
local geology. Typically a color coding system is used to color code the geochemical
values. The geology in between the drill holes is usually illustrated with patterns or
simple unit designators. Faults are shown as special line patterns, as they are on
geologic maps.

Figure F14: Projection of drill holes to closest point on the drill section line A-B.

Apparent Thickness

If an angled drill hole intersects an inclined, tabular-shaped layer or deposit, then the
thickness of the zone as seen in the drill core or noted on the drill log will represent the
“apparent thickness”. The “true thickness” of the tabular body is the thickness
measured perpendicular to the contacts of the body. The reason it is important to
determine the true thickness is because the true thickness must be known in order to
determine volume (Volume = length x width x thickness). The size of a deposit has a
direct impact on the commercial value of the deposit.

Petroleum Exploration
Oil Deposit Characterization

Objectives - The student will be able to:

 Define petroleum.

 Describe the rock types where oil deposits are most likely to be found.

 List geophysical methods used to locate petroleum resources.

 Describe environments where ore formation is likely to occur.

 List the requirements necessary to form an oil deposit.

 Describe the best source rocks for oil deposits to form.

 Define porosity.

 Explain why porosity is important in determining the quality of a petroleum

reservoir.

 List features found in good reservoir rocks.

 Describe an oil trap.

Explanation

Petroleum is the name for all hydrocarbon related, naturally occurring materials,
including oil, natural gas, and tar. It is made up of hydrocarbon molecules (hydrogen
combined with carbon). Petroleum supplies almost half of our total energy
requirements.

Sedimentary rocks are the dominant type of host rock for oil deposits. Oil deposits are
generally formed in younger rocks, especially those which have not undergone
metamorphic processes. Heating is required to form oil, but if too much occurred (such
as during a metamorphic event), the petroleum would get driven off.

Most petroleum resources are contained deep underground, therefore exploration relies
heavily on drilling methods. In addition to drilling, there are a variety of geophysical
methods, including seismic, gravity, and magnetic. Petroleum exploration utilizes
several branches of geology, including paleontology, stratigraphy, sedimentation, and
structure. These are needed to obtain detailed observations of the drill core samples.
Details such as these make it possible to make stratigraphic correlations of rock units
between different drill holes. These rock units can then be traced in the subsurface and
their geometrical distribution can be understood.
Oil Formation

Accumulation of organic material capable of forming petroleum can occur in a number

of different ways. Ideal environments are those which accumulate abundant organic
material in non-oxidizing conditions. This can occur near the edge of larger
sedimentary basins, behind barrier reefs, or in lagoon areas, where water circulation is
more restricted. This is possible in smaller water body seas that may be connected to a
larger ocean, or it may be isolated. If it is isolated, there is less circulation, and hence
less oxygen. This situation is good for forming oil, because less of the organic material
gets oxidized. The type of organic material which is deposited determines the outcome
of the petroleum. Land derived organic material tends to produce more natural gas than
kerogen. Marine derived organic material tends to produce more kerogen than natural
gas.

There are four requirements necessary to form an oil deposit: 1) there must be a
source rock, 2) there must be a heating event, 3) there must be a reservoir rock, and 4)
there must be a trapping mechanism. The source rock must contain abundant organic
matter. The best source rocks are organic-rich shales, limestones and sandstones
which contain 0.5 % to 5 % organic matter. The organic material liquefies during the
heating event, converting to hydrocarbons in the process. The first hydrocarbons to
form are called kerogen, which consists of carbon (69-80 %), Hydrogen (7-11 %),
Nitrogen (1.25-2.5 %), Sulfur (1-8 %), and Oxygen (9-17 %). Kerogen becomes crude
oil when the oxygen and nitrogen are removed in some manner.

The fluid that forms initially is a mixture of oil and water, but these separate during the
changes over time of the oil deposit. Oil does not mix with water, is less dense than
water, and seeks a higher position in the rocks. This happens by a slow migration
process where the oil moves through spaces of the rocks. Gas also separates out of
the oil. Since the gas is a vapor with the lowest density, it seeks a highest possible
position (Figure F19).

Figure 19: Cross section showing separation of oil, gas and water due to immiscibility
and density differences.

Rock Porosity

Porosity is the void space in the source rock. It effects the quality of both the source
rock and the reservoir rock. This is the most important factor affecting the quality of a
petroleum reservoir because it determines the maximum volume which is available for
oil accumulation (Figure F20). A rock with high porosity has a lot of open spaces.
Examples of good source rocks with high porosity include coarse-grained sandstone or
limestone. If the spaces are well connected (ie, lacking cement), then the oil can
migrate. The ability of the rocks to transmit a fluid, or the linear flow rate, is called
“permeability”. Good reservoir rocks have both good porosity and good permeability

Figure F20: Reservoir rocks comprised of graywacke, from the Umiat oil field, Alaska,
showing A) an excellent reservoir rock B) a good reservoir rock, and C) a poor reservoir
rock.

Porosity can also be formed later, and is called “secondary” porosity. One type of
secondary porosity is that which develops by bleaching out (by groundwater) of the
cements between the grains, creating more open void spaces. Another type of
secondary porosity is the result of stresses, which squeeze and shatter the rocks at
depth. This causes fractures to develop, which also creates more voids. The porosity
is reported as a percentage of the total volume. Porosity is measured by dividing the
pore space volume by the total volume, and then multiplying by 100. A good reservoir
rock usually contains 15 to 25 % porosity.

Oil Maturity

Oil can form in only a restricted temperature range (approximately 150 to 350 degrees
F). When a formation is heated to this temperature range, it is said to be “mature”. In a
normal gradient downward, the depth (pressure) where this condition is achieved
corresponds to approximately 8,000 – 18,000 feet. Immature sediments are those
which have not been heated to this temperature range.

Oil Traps

Traps are situations where a non-permeable boundary causes oil to pool. The most
important factors affecting the formation of a trap are the lithology, the geometry and
structural setting of the rocks. With regards to lithology, the grain size and porosity, of
the rock are critical. Trap rocks, or “cap” rocks, are those which form an impermeable
layer which stops oil migration. Examples of good trap rocks include shale and salt,
because of their low porosity and fine grain size. The trap rock must be situated above
the reservoir rock, to stop the upward migration of the oil.

Oil traps form in many different ways. The simplest example is where layered
sedimentary rocks (including a caprock overlying a source rock) are folded into an
anticline (Figure F21A). Anticlines were first conceived as the best place to look for oil
by geologists about 150 years ago. The arched up area under the caprock acts like a
concave, or dome-shaped surface which traps the oil beneath it. Other situations can
also form arched sedimentary layers, such as the draping of sediments over a high
point (Figure F21B), and the arching of beds caused by upward movement of a salt
dome (Figure F21C). Faults can also cause a caprock to arrive in a position overlying
a source rock (Figures F22). Many of the oil deposits at Prudhoe Bay are formed in
traps caused by unconformities, which are erosional surfaces in the rocks which formed
when the rocks were uplifted and subsequently buried again (Figure F23).

Figure 21: Anticlinal oil traps formed by A) tectonic uplift, B) sediment draping and C)
intrusion of a salt plug.
Figure 22: Structural oil trap caused by faulting.

Figure 23: Prudhoe Bay Oil Fields developed below regional unconformities