The Philosophy of Science, Scientific

Truth, and Research

Nafrianti
 A. Philosophy of Science

People will ask “why is philosophy of science important?’ and “why is it worth
understanding and thinking about?”. Here some reasons why philosophy is to be worth to learn
especially for acamedical purposes. According to Rosenberg in Caswili(2014), “ Philosophy
deals with two sets of questions: First, the questions that science – physical, biological, social,
behavioral –. Second, the questions about why the sciences cannot answer the first lot of
questions”. From his statement, the two concept of philosophy which is usually used are what
and how. The questions will come up from philosophy view toward science are what is science
and how science made up and developed. Those are the basis for scientific discussion and
commonly science is answered by philosophy and other is by philosophy of science. Before
discussing about philosophy further, we need to know the basic concept of it.
The word philosophy derives from tow Greek words, philia, love or friendship, and Sophia,
wisdom. So, philosophy, etymologically speaking means “love of wisdom.” (Earle,1992:1).
From learning philosophy, people are expected to be wise toward everything in their daily life.
To be philosopher, accordingly involves striving after wisdom. Second, wisdom, is used
inclusively to cover continued intellectual inquiry in any area, the understanding and practice of
morality, and the development of such enlightened opinions and attitudes as lead to a life of
happiness and contentment (Earle,1991:2)
Philosophy is conceptual, rather than a factual, discipline. A fact is a truth about the world
established through observation. There are everyday facts, historical facts, and scientific facts,
but the crucial things to remember about facts of every kind are that they are must be true and
they must established by observation. (Earle,1991:3-4) In philosophy,
How about philosophy of science itself? Philosophy of science is defined in terms of the
key question: what explain extraordinary success of science. It provides intellectually satisfying
explanations of a broad range of natural phenomena. Actually, the word science, unqualified,
usually refers to the natural sciences. However, there are also human or social sciences, such as
psychology, sociology (Earle,1991:15). In this case, since the major of study is English
education program, the aspect that will be discussed furtherly about social science, linguistics
and pedagogy. Those things derived from formal and object material in philosophy of science.
However, from discussion above, the simplest answer for Philosophy of science, like
philosophy in general, is a discipline that tries to expose the underlying presuppositions that
structure important practices and institutions of life. It subjects the structures of life and thought
to critical.

B. Material and Formal Object in Philosophy of Science

Philosophy science has two object, material and formal object

 1. Material Object
Material object is an object which becomes as source of research or main object in
developing knowledge (Suarjiyo:2015:7). It is investigated, or viewed by certain
discipline. The range object can be a concrete and abstract thing. Object material is what
becoming something to be learnt or to be coverage by certain discipline. The object
becomes scientific knowledge which is constructed systematically with certain scientific
method and can be proven scientifically. In this case of English Education program, there
are two material object that can be investigated, linguistics and pedagogy.

2. Formal Object
Formal object is a view for the material object from a research. A material object
can be viewed from any aspects so it will create various science. It used for approaching
formal object to make a characteristic in one field science. If the approach is logic,
consistent, and efficient, it will create philosophy of science system (Suarjiyo:2015:7).
For example, we take example material object is language or linguistics while formal
object are like syntacs, semantics, grammar, and so on. For education, the formal object
will be methodology in teaching.
The formal object of philosophy of science is a science which is concerned with a
problem in a science. It seems like what knowledge is, how we get the scientific truth,
and what for human life. Those thing were discussed in underlying concept namely
ontology, epistemology, and axiology.

C. The Scope of Philosophy of Science: Ontology, Epistemology, and Axiology

1. Ontology
Ontology refers to “the science or study of being aiming at encompassing ‘claims
about what exists what it looks like, what units make it up and how these units interact
with each other’(Blaikie cited in UKesssay,2015). To make simple, it is one of branch
science that describes one’s worldview and assumptions on the nature of reality. It can be
objective and subjective view.
Ontology has correlation with material and formal object of philosophy of science. In
conducting research, assumptions and the nature of reality can be taken from those object
and as problem that to be explored or discovered. Therefore, for any type of research it is
important to identify and consider these assumptions to remain objective and not to take
any phenomenon for granted but critically evaluate and discuss them where necessary.
The ontology can be approached with two views of research, quantitative and qualitative
research. However, ontology and its ideas lead to and raise another set of important
questions. How is the reality measured? What constitutes knowledge of reality? How
does one know where the reality is? The answers to these questions are provided by
epistemology.(UKessay:2015)
 2. Epistemology
Also known as theory of knowledge, is defined in terms of two key questions: 1.
What is knowledge and how do human beings acquire knowledge? Dealing with these
questions involves analyses of such concepts as belief, truth, and
justification.(Earle,1992:15) From etymology, the word epistemology derives from two
Greek words, episteme meaning knowledge and logos many of study or theory of. In
English, theory of knowledge is used interchangeably with epistemology (Earle,1992:21)
Epistemology is as the way for ontology to define reality. It is consider as the
appropriate way or methods of questioning into our natural world(UKessay,2015). It will
answer the questions think that it answers the question 'what is knowledge and what are
the sources and limits of knowledge' and discuss how it defines the ways of producing
and arguing for knowledge (Eriksson & Kovalainen cited in UKessay,2015). The
questions which are derived from epistemology can be taken serious consideration in
deciding appropriate method in research.
However, to be considered by researcher is the position of the researcher that
requires clear definition as his/her certain ontological position, objective or subjective, or
assumptions may affect the epistemological choices. For example, the researcher takes
pedagogy as his/her ontological aspect, more specific TPR method as the main ontology.
He/she must decide whether it can be approached objectively or subjectively even can be
both. The objective and subjective view can bring us two different paradigm in acquire
the scientific truth, positivism that lead quantitative research and
phenomology/interpretivist that lead to qualitative research or even both paradigm and
research can be used, mixed method.

3. Axiology
Axiology is derived from word Axios= value and Logi=science. Axiology is a science
which discussed about value. It is as one of philosophy aspect which discussing or
questioning what the value from a science for human. Axiology will answer what is the
valued from a science? How does the use of science relate with moral? So, axiology value
for standard scientific truth, ethic, and moral which underline a research

Epistemology is as the neutral position in science, it means that will not take only one
side except the truth. Meanwhile, ontology and axiology, a researcher can decide which one is
god or bad. In other words, a researcher must have the moral foundation (Bakhtiar,2007:170).
So, his/her research has benefit for humanity.

D. Scientific Truth
Science is a word derived from the Latin scire, meaning "to know."(Spirkin,2000). We
commonly attribute the term "science" to many diverse disciplines ranging from physics to
psychology. However, for this case, our discussion is not about the disciplines that are called
scientific but the methods in gathering information in the disciplines. The truth that we get is
from scientific method that the result become as the scientific truth. David H. Killeffer in Spirkin
describes two different approaches to research in answering about the way scientific truth. The
first model is that of Bacon-Edison in which one makes large numbers of "experiments or
observations from which one draws conclusions and a theory." The other model of the scientific
method is called "the Aristotle-Bancroft approach, based on forming a theory first and then
seeking to prove or disprove it by experiment." The two models or methods may be used
alternately or mixture of the two methods.

E. Philosophy of Science and Research

1. Paradigm and Reasoning

The paradigm is related to the way of looking at the world. Khun cited Blackstad
(2008) introduced the concept of paradigm in research. The paradigm has been important
part in conducting research since it used by us to view the world, our daily life, likely
influence in it. Long stated in Blackstad(2008): a paradigm is a pre-requisite of
perception itself – what you see depends on what you look at, your previous
visual/conceptual experience. The difference in paradigm will lead different research
approach and reasoning. If we take positivist paradigm when conducting a research, our
research will be a quantitative research with deductive reasoning. Meanwhile, if we take
interpretive/ phenomenology paradigm, it will lead us to qualitative approach with
inductive reasoning.
Then, there is a question, what is reasoning? Reasoning is the foundation
supporting the scientific research with underlying the logic. It is related with the logic in
conducting research. It is an empirical reasoning with using mathematical and statistical
concept. There are two reasoning that used in each research approach, deductive and
inductive. Both of them have contributions to the development of science are enormous
and divided into three categories: (1) the suggestion of hypotheses; (2) the logical
development of these hypotheses; and (3) the clarification and interpretation of scientific
findings and their synthesis into a conceptual framework. Research is a combination of
both experience and reasoning and must be regarded as the most successful approach to
the discovery of truth, particularly as far as the natural sciences are concerned (Borg cited
in Cohen,Keith,&Morrison,2000:5)

a. Positivism paradigm and Deductive reasoning

Positivism paradigm, since it is derived from the natural science, this paradigm
separates reality from the knowledge of it (Subject from object) and provides an objective
reality than can be used to against others claim in research (Cohen,2000:4). It means that
 the positivist will test hypotheses through the experiment in order to measure the existing
theory objectively and externally. Because this paradigm concerns on truth and validity,
positivism focuses on facts exclusively and controls that there are gathered and measured
properly and accurately. Mostly, it uses empirical quantitative methods such as
experiments, survey, correlations, statistical analysis and so on (Cohen,2000:4).
In this case, the way of thinking that will be used is deductive reasoning. This
reasoning is “top-down” and makes conclusions about a specific case according to more
general principles or rules. Deductive reasoning starts with finding a theory that will be
our problem continue with creating hypotheses and then doing observations go with
testing the hypotheses and last conclude it which is become theory.

b. Interpretivist/phenomenology and inductive

This paradigm is exist because some experts against with the positivist paradigm. It is
referred as anti-positivist or post-positivist. In this paradigm, according to
Denzin&Lincoln in UKessay (2015) interpretivist believe in multiple realities or facts
since as individual understand various situations based on his/her individual experience,
expectations, and assumptions. It leads to an unlimited of interpretations toward a topic
discussion.
Interpretivist/phenomenology is important to discover and consider different
meanings and determinacy factors since it is based on the assumption that any knowledge
from various individual. This approach is inductive in its core as interpretivists move
from specific observations to broader generalisations and theories in their work alongside
others (Hatch & Cunliffe in UKessay,2015). It fits for research related to social
phenomenon. It is also allowed using subjective factors like feeling. However, taken the
subjective nature of the approach, there is a risk of misinterpretations and biases. So, the
use of self-reflection is advised as a necessary step to avoid these and to remain possibly
objective.
In this case, the way of thinking that will be used is inductive reasoning like
mentioning before. This reasoning is “down-top” and we can make sure 100% with result
from the research. On the other hand, we make sure the phenomena and add some
evidence to enrich the data toward it. It is started from a series of specific observations to
support the probability of a more general conclusion. As a note, inductive reasoning not
allows us to establish the truth 100%. In this reasoning, we can strengthen a certain
conclusion by adding more evidence from our research. If we combine interpretivist
paradigm with inductive reasoning, it will lead us to qualitative approach.
1. Research
a. Quantitative Research
Quantitative research originated in positivism. Positivist believe that general
principles as they do the physical world and that through objective procedures
researchers can discover these principles and apply them to understand human
behavior. Positivism is often considered the traditional scientific method, which
involves hypothesis testing and objective data gathering leading to findings that are
systematic, generalizable and open to replication by other investigators.
In the social sciences, the numerical data is as the data for researchers in
employing quantitative research (Charles&Mertler in UKessay,2015). Like
explanation before, using connection between empirical observation and
mathematical language. These include cause-effect thinking, testing theories and use
of measurement also obtain highly reliable result.
There are some types in quantitative research. According to Ary et all (2010),it is
divided to be experimental research, ex post facto, correlational research, and survey
research. Firstly is experimental research. Experimental uses two variables,
dependent and independent variables. Independent variable is as the treatment while
dependent variable is as the one which is observed and measured. Then, ex post facto
is similar with experimental research but the researcher does not manipulate the
independent variable because it has already occurred naturally. Next is correlational
research. This research gathers the data from individuals to know about a certain
phenomenon and find out the correlation between the events or variables. The last is
survey research. This research uses questionnaires and interview in gathering the data
from individuals in order to know their opinion and attitude towards some issues.
How about a quantitative research related with English Education? We take
example, we focus on pedagogy which is concern with methodology in teaching. We
find the problem in young learner level. In order to solve it, we have already chosen
the specific method in teaching TPR. Using this method, we conduct an experimental
research to find out the result. To know whether the method is success or not, we use
the numerical data to decide it.

b. Qualitative Research
Qualitative research is based on a different philosophical approach which sees the
individual and his/her world as interconnected. Researchers can only understand
human behaviour by focusing on the meanings thatevents which involved the people.
Not only focus on what we look but also at how they think and feel, we must
consider and understand their reality. According to Creswell in UKessay (2015),
researchers will develops a "complex, holistic picture, analyses words, reports
detailed views of informants, and conducts the study in a natural setting". The result
from this research will be a narrative report. Furthermore, the researchers do not
 begin with hypotheses since they do not know how naturally occurring events will
unfold.
There are some types in qualitative research. According to Ary.et.all (2010)
qualitative research consist of basic interpretative studies, case studies, document or
content analysis, ethnography, grounded theory, historical research, narrative inquiry,
and phenomenological studies. The first one is basic interpretative studies which
collecting data with various ways such as interviews, observations, and document
review in order to know and understand an event or individual. For example,
describing how teachers perceive their role in selecting curriculum.
Then, a case study is a type of ethnographic research study that focuses on a
single unit, such as one individual, one group, one organization, or one program.
Next is ethnography which is and in-depth study of naturally occurring behavior
within a culture or a social group. Grounded theory research is designed to develop a
theory of social phenomenon based on the field data collected in a study. Historical
research analyzes documents, and artifacts and/or uses interviews with eyewitnesses
to gain insight into the past events. Narrative inquiry examine the stories people tell
their live and co-construct a narrative analysis of those stories. The last is
phenomenology studies begin with the assumption that multiple realities are rooted
in subjects’ perspectives. Through unstructured interviews, the investigator explores
the subject’s thoughts and feelings to elicit the essence of an individual’s experience.

F. Philosophy of science, research, and English education.

After we know what philosophy of science is, the correlation between philosophy of science
with scientific truth and research, we shift our discussion to the correlation those things with
English education. In simple way, we take an example from each research approach, quantitative
and qualitative research. The first example from quantitative research. In the previous discussion,
an example of quantitative research had be already mentioned it, it is about TPR. For this
research, it focuses on experimental research. We use deductive reasoning, so we start from the
specific one in subject, a certain class, then doing generalization which means that the method is
applicable to every class since the result is positive. Meanwhile, from qualitative research, we
take example from linguistics as material object and grammar as the formal object. It is used
interview and observation to find out the result. Using inductive reasoning, firstly we seek from
the general concept, grammar, after conducted the research the result will show the specific like
types of structure of grammar from students. However, it can be generalized since every subject
an every situation will be shown different result. In the end, both of research must have value
especially for educational purposes in other words it will give good benefit for teaching and
learning foreign language.
 G. Conclusion

Our ontology and epistemology give us holistic and systematic view toward a knowledge
which can lead us to the scientific truth. We also look at the connection between ourselves with
the knowledge. Using methodology, we can discover the knowledge and enrich our knowledge.
Awareness of philosophical view will help us to increase the quality from our research and
improve the creativity of the researcher. Besides that, we also are aware toward the value from
our research and more responsibility everything that we did in a research, so we can be more
humanism.

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