1.

INTRODUCTION

Hydrogen (haɪdrɵdʒɪn/ HYE-dro-jin) is the chemical element with

atomic number 1. It is represented by the symbol H. With an average atomic
weight of 1.00794 u (1.007825 u for Hydrogen-1), hydrogen is the lightest and
most abundant chemical element, constituting roughly 75 % of the Universe's
elemental mass.[5] Stars in the main sequence are mainly composed of hydrogen in
its plasma state. Naturally occurring elemental hydrogen is relatively rare on Earth.

The most common isotope of hydrogen is protium (name rarely

used, symbol 1H) with a single proton and no neutrons. In ionic compounds it can
take a negative charge (an anion known as a hydride and written as H−), or as a
positively charged species H+. The latter cation is written as though composed of a
bare proton, but in reality, hydrogen cations in ionic compounds always occur as
more complex species. Hydrogen forms compounds with most elements and is
present in water and most organic compounds. It plays a particularly important role
in acid-base chemistry with many reactions exchanging protons between soluble
molecules. As the simplest atom known, the hydrogen atom has been of theoretical
use. For example, as the only neutral atom with an analytic solution to the
Schrödinger equation, the study of the energetics and bonding of the hydrogen
atom played a key role in the development of quantum mechanics.

The hydrogen economy is a proposed system of delivering energy

using hydrogen. The term hydrogen economy was coined by John Bockris during a
talk he gave in 1970 at General Motors (GM) Technical Centre. Hydrogen
lobbyists promote hydrogen as potential fuel for motive power (including cars and
boats), the energy needs of buildings and portable electronics.

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2. HYDROGEN – AN ALTERNATIVE FUEL

Hydrogen is the most abundant element in the universe, making up

75% of normal matter by mass and over 90% by number of atoms. This element is
found in great abundance in stars and gas giant planets. Molecular clouds of H2 are
associated with star formation. Hydrogen plays a vital role in powering stars
through proton-proton reaction and CNO cycle nuclear fusion.

Hydrogen gas is the most plentiful atom in the world. Found in great
supply in the Earth's water supply. Hydrogen has many applications as a fuel
source. Hydrogen is colorless, odorless and nontoxic and has the potential to be the
world's most cost-efficient, environmentally friendly fuel source. Hydrogen has
many advantages as a fuel source.

It is a clean-burning element, releasing a very small, almost

negligible amount of pollutants into the atmosphere when burned. It is much easier
on the environment and safer to use than gasoline and diesel fuel; water vapor is
the only thing that forms when hydrogen is burned. The amount of energy that can
be produced from 2.2 pounds of hydrogen is nearly equivalent to the amount of
energy that can be produced from one gallon of gasoline. It replaces the fossil fuels
and nuclear fuels which have toxic by-products.

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 3. PROPERTIES OF HYDROGEN

Hydrogen is the chemical element with atomic number 1. Hydrogen

is the lightest and most abundant chemical element. It constitutes roughly 75 % of
the Universe's elemental mass. Hydrogen forms compounds with most elements
and is present in water and most organic compounds.

At standard temperature and pressure, hydrogen is a colorless,

odorless, nonmetallic, tasteless, highly combustible diatomic gas with the
molecular formula H2.Hydrogen is a colorless gas with purple glow in its plasma
state.

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 4. COMBUTION PROPERTIES

Hydrogen gas (dihydrogen or molecular hydrogen) is highly

flammable and will burn in air at a very wide range of concentrations between 4%
and 75% by volume. The enthalpy of combustion for hydrogen is −286 kJ/mol:

2 H2(g) + O2(g) → 2 H2O(l) + 572 kJ (286 kJ/mol)

Hydrogen gas forms explosive mixtures with air in the

concentration range 4–74% (volume per cent of hydrogen in air) and with chlorine
in the range 5–95%. The mixtures spontaneously detonate by spark, heat or
sunlight. The hydrogen auto ignition temperature, the temperature of spontaneous
ignition in air, is 500 °C (932 °F).

Pure hydrogen-oxygen flames emit ultraviolet light and are

nearly invisible to the naked eye. Hydrogen is buoyant in air, hydrogen flames tend
to ascend rapidly and cause less damage than hydrocarbon fires.

H2 reacts with every oxidizing element. Hydrogen can react

spontaneously and violently at room temperature with chlorine and fluorine to
form the corresponding hydrogen halides, hydrogen chloride and hydrogen
fluoride, which are also potentially dangerous acids.

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 5. PREPARATION OF HYDROGEN

H2 is produced in chemistry and biology laboratories, often as a

by-product of other reactions; in industry for the hydrogenation of unsaturated
substrates; and in nature as a means of expelling reducing equivalents in
biochemical reactions.

5.1 LABORATORY PREPARATION

In the laboratory, H2 is usually prepared by the reaction of acids on

metals such as zinc with Kipp's apparatus.

Zn + 2 H+ → Zn2+ + H2

Aluminium can also produce H2 upon treatment with bases:

2 Al + 6 H2O + 2 OH− → 2 Al(OH)−4 + 3 H2

The electrolysis of water is a simple method of producing

hydrogen. A low voltage current is run through the water, and gaseous oxygen
forms at the anode while gaseous hydrogen forms at the cathode. Typically the
cathode is made from platinum or another inert metal when producing hydrogen
for storage. If, however, the gas is to be burnt on site, oxygen is desirable to assist
the combustion, and so both electrodes would be made from inert metals. (Iron, for
instance, would oxidize, and thus decrease the amount of oxygen given off.) The
theoretical maximum efficiency (electricity used vs. energetic value of hydrogen
produced) is between 80–94%.

2 H2O(aq) → 2 H2(g) + O2(g)

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 In 2007, it was discovered that an alloy of aluminium and
gallium in pellet form added to water could be used to generate hydrogen. The
process also creates alumina, but the expensive gallium, which prevents the
formation of an oxide skin on the pellets, can be re-used. This has important
potential implications for a hydrogen economy, as hydrogen can be produced on-
site and does not need to be transported.

5.2 INDUSTRIAL PREPARATION

Hydrogen can be prepared in several different ways, but

economically the most important processes involve removal of hydrogen from
hydrocarbons. Commercial bulk hydrogen is usually produced by the steam
reforming of natural gas.[74] At high temperatures (1000–1400 K, 700–1100 °C or
1300–2000 °F), steam (water vapour) reacts with methane to yield carbon
monoxide and H2.

CH4 + H2O → CO + 3 H2

This reaction is favoured at low pressures but is nonetheless

conducted at high pressures (2.0 MPa, 20 atm or 600 inHg). This is because high-
pressure H2 is the most marketable product and Pressure Swing Adsorption (PSA)
purification systems work better at higher pressures. The product mixture is known
as "synthesis gas" because it is often used directly for the production of methanol
and related compounds. Hydrocarbons other than methane can be used to produce
synthesis gas with varying product ratios. One of the many complications to this
highly optimized technology is the formation of coke or carbon:

CH4 → C + 2 H2

Consequently, steam reforming typically employs an excess of

H2O. Additional hydrogen can be recovered from the steam by use of carbon
monoxide through the water gas shift reaction, especially with an iron oxide
catalyst. This reaction is also a common industrial source of carbon dioxide:

CO + H2O → CO2 + H2

Other important methods for H2 production include partial

oxidation of hydrocarbons:

2 CH4 + O2 → 2 CO + 4 H2

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 And the coal reaction, which can serve as a prelude to the shift
reaction above:

C + H2O → CO + H2

Hydrogen is sometimes produced and consumed in the same

industrial process, without being separated. In the Haber process for the production
of ammonia, hydrogen is generated from natural gas. Electrolysis of brine to yield
chlorine also produces hydrogen as a co-product.

5.3 THERMALCHEMICAL PROCESS

There are more than 200 thermo chemical cycles which can be used
for water splitting, around a dozen of these cycles such as the iron oxide cycle,
cerium(IV) oxide-cerium(III) oxide cycle, zinc zinc-oxide cycle, sulphur-iodine
cycle, copper-chlorine cycle and hybrid sulphur cycle are under research and in
testing phase to produce hydrogen and oxygen from water and heat without using
electricity.[78] A number of laboratories (including in France, Germany, Greece,
Japan, and the USA) are developing thermo chemical methods to produce
hydrogen from solar energy and water.

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 6. ELECTRICITY PRODUCTION USING
HYDROGEN

Hydrogen can be used to produce electricity in the following ways

which are very economical and eco – friendly. They are:

◦ Direct combustion of H2.

◦ Using fuels cells.

6.1. DIRECT COMBUSTION OF HYDROGEN METHOD

H2 is a highly combustible gas. When H2 burned water vapour

is produced. This water vapour can be used for running the turbine. The turbine in
turn runs the generator thereby producing electricity. No harmful emissions

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produced.

Fig. 6.1.1.

Italy has come up with world’s first hydrogen power plant. This
power plant is situated in Fusina, near Venice in the Veneto region of Italy. Enel is
constructing this power plant producing no undesirable greenhouse gases. It is
Italy’s largest power company with a track record of fifty million power and gas
customers. Enel is procuring hydrogen from an accompanying production from
Polimeri Europa’s petrochemical plant. This hydrogen will be brought to the
establishment by especially built pipelines. Polimeri produces a wide range of
petrochemical products, and its ethylene-cracking process will be responsible for
the hydrogen feedstock. This hydrogen power plant will be operational in 2010. It
will provide power to 20,000 households.

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 Fig. 6.1.2.

6.2 FUEL CELL METHOD

A fuel cell is an electrochemical cell that converts a source fuel into an

electrical current. It generates electricity inside a cell through reactions between a fuel
and an oxidant, triggered in the presence of an electrolyte. The reactants flow into the
cell, and the reaction products flow out of it, while the electrolyte remains within it.

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 Fuel cells can operate continuously as long as the necessary reactant
and oxidant flows are maintained. Fuel cells are different from conventional
electrochemical cell batteries in that they consume reactant from an external
source, which must be replenished– a thermodynamically open system. By
contrast, batteries store electrical energy chemically and hence represent a
thermodynamically closed system.

HYDROGEN FUEL CELL

Fig. 6.2.1. Fig 6.2.2.

7. HYDROGEN POWERED VEHICLES

Hydrogen can be used as a fuel for automobiles in the following

ways which are economical and eco – friendly. They are:

◦ Internal combustion engine vehicles.

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 ◦ Fuel cell vehicles

7.1 INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE VEHICLES

Hydrogen cars are powered entirely by the clean-burning process of

liquid-hydrogen combustion. The ultimate goal is to eventually replace the cars
that run on atmosphere-polluting fossil fuels with vehicles that use clean-burning,
liquid-hydrogen fuel.

Best example for this kind of car is BMW's H2R (Hydrogen Record
Car). It's sleek. It's aerodynamic. It's environmentally friendly. BMW's H2R
(Hydrogen Record Car) is powered entirely by the clean-burning process of liquid-
hydrogen combustion, and this next-generation race car has already set speed
records in its class. It is lightweight aluminium chassis, a monocoque aluminium
space frame and an outer skin composed of carbon-fibre-reinforced plastic, the
H2R is designed for high speed and maximum stability under extreme driving
conditions. Tires measuring 245/40/19 ensure maximum road contact.

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 Fig.7.1.1.

The H2R's suspension system comprises a double-wishbone,

spring-strut front axle, rack-and-pinion steering, forged-aluminium track control
arms (with two ball joints for superior wheel guidance and directional stability), a
tie bar and an anti-roll bar. The result is a stable skeleton that results in a smooth
and vibration less driving experience. The H2R's race-car-like appearance and
high-speed performance belie its extreme environmental friendliness. Conceived
and developed in only 10 months, the H2R features a 6.0-liter, V-12 hydrogen-
powered engine. Whereas other carmakers have gone the route of hydrogen fuel
cells, BMW has opted for a more traditional-style engine that utilizes a non-
traditional fuel. The hydrogen combustion engine operates on the same principle as
other internal combustion engines except that liquid hydrogen is used as the fuel
source rather than gasoline or diesel oil.

7.1.1. ADVANTAGES OF HYDROGEN CARS

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 Hydrogen is renewable -- When hydrogen reacts with oxygen, the by-
product is water (H2O), which can then be hydrolyzed (broken up into its
component parts) to yield more hydrogen.

 Hydrogen is clean-burning

 Hydrogen weighs less and generates more power than hydrocarbon-based

fuels.

 Hydrogen burns faster (and at a lower temperature) than conventional

gasoline.

 Environmentally Friendly: Water will be the only byproduct of hydrogen

power.

 Ease of Production: Hydrogen is found in great abundance in the world,

allowing it to be produced easily.

 The amount of energy that can be produced from 2.2 pounds of hydrogen is
nearly equivalent to the amount of energy that can be produced from one
gallon of gasoline.

7.1.1. DISADVANTAGES OF HYDROGEN CARS

 Flammability: Hydrogen is highly flammable, which may pose a problem to

its widespread use in the present time.

 Storage: Hydrogen would be difficult to store in liquid form because it

requires an immense amount of pressure in order for it to be in its liquid,
rather than gas, form.

7.2. HYDROGEN FUEL CELL VEHICLES

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 A Fuel cell vehicle or FC vehicle (FCV) is a type of hydrogen
vehicle which uses a fuel cell to produce its on-board motive power. Fuel cells
create electricity to power an electric motor using hydrogen or a reformed
hydrocarbon fuel and oxygen from the air. Fuel cell vehicles (FCVs) have the
potential to significantly reduce our dependence on foreign oil and lower harmful
emissions that cause climate change. FCVs run on hydrogen gas rather than
gasoline and emit no harmful tailpipe emissions. These vehicles are in the early
stages of development, and several challenges must be overcome before these
vehicles will be competitive with conventional vehicles. However, the potential
benefits of this technology are substantial.

Fig.7.2.1.

FCVs look like conventional vehicles from the outside, but inside
they contain technologically advanced components not found on today's vehicles.
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The most obvious difference is the fuel cell stack that converts hydrogen gas stored
onboard with oxygen from the air into electricity to drive the electric motor that
propels the vehicle. The major components of a typical FCV are illustrated below.

Fig.7.2.2

Fig 7.2.3.

EFFICIENCY

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 Fuel cell efficiency is limited because "the energy required to
isolate hydrogen from natural compounds (water, natural gas, biomass), package
the light gas by compression or liquefaction, transfer the energy carrier to the user,
plus the energy lost when it is converted to useful electricity with fuel cells, leaves
around 25% for practical use... For comparison, the 'wind-to-wheel' efficiency is at
least three times greater for electric cars than for hydrogen fuel cell vehicles."

The efficiency of the vehicle's engine does not take into account the
efficiency at which hydrogen is produced, stored, and transported today. Fuel cell
vehicles running on compressed hydrogen may have a power-plant-to-wheel
efficiency of 22% if the hydrogen is stored as high-pressure gas, and 17% if it is
stored as liquid hydrogen. In addition to the production losses, some of the
electricity used for hydrogen production, comes from thermal power, which only
has an efficiency of 33% to 48% resulting in emission of carbon dioxide.

Honda developed and put into operation a new solar hydrogen

station at its Los Angeles research centre to refill the Honda FCX fuel cell vehicle.
The new station delivers a trickle of hydrogen, designed to put half a kilogram into
the FCX's tank over an eight hour period, enough, according to Honda, for most
drivers' daily commutes. The FCX has a hydrogen capacity of about 4 kilograms
and a range of 240 miles, so a half kilogram will run it for 30 miles. Honda
developed prototypes of this station previously, but most were inefficient because
of the need for a compressor to pressurize the hydrogen. The new station combines
compressor and electrolyser in what Honda calls a "high differential pressure
electrolyser."

While the station can use electricity from its 6-kilowatt solar panel
array to power the electrolyser and generate hydrogen, Honda envisions most
people hooking the FCX up to the hydrogen station overnight and using nonpeak
capacity electricity from the grid. The solar panels would send electricity back into
the grid during the day, when the FCX owner is at work. Given the slow fill rate of
the hydrogen from this station, public hydrogen stations, which can fill the tanks in
5 minutes, would still be needed.

8. CONCLUSION
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 From the above mentioned reports we can conclude that
gasoline, petrol or diesel is not the most economical and effective fuels. Hydrogen
can perform more effectively than other hydrocarbon fuels or fossil fuels.
Hydrogen revolution will occur when the fossil fuels gets exhausted. Even though
there are few disadvantages of using hydrogen but using modern technologies we
can find an effective remedy.

9. BIBLOGRAPHY

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WEBSITES REFERRED:

 WWW.WIKIPIDEA.COM

 WWW.HOWSTUFFWORKS.COM

 WWW.BMWMOTORS.COM

 WWW.HONDAMOTORS.COM

 WWW.NISSAN.COM

BOOKS REFERRED:

 Alternative fuels, second edition, by K. Srinivasan , Tata McGraw Hill

publication.

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