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UNIT -1
Network & OSI and TCP/IP Models:
Introduction to communication and networks, protocols and standards, hardware and software
requirement for networks, line configuration, network topologies, network transmission,
transmission modes, categories of networks, advantages of computer networks.
OSI and TCP/IP Models:
Layered architecture, functions of the layers, TCP/IP Protocol suite, comparison of models
Transmission media:
Guided and unguided media, Transmission impairment, Performance, wavelength, Shannon
capacity.
1.1 INTRODUCTION
This chapter provides an introduction to Computer networks and covers fundamental topics like
data, information to the definition of communication and computer networks.
The main objective of data communication and networking is to enable seamless exchange of
data between any two points in the world.
This exchange of data takes place over a computer network.

1.2 DATA & INFORMATION

Data refers to the raw facts that are collected while information refers to processed data that
enables us to take decisions.
Ex. When result of a particular test is declared it contains data of all students, when you find the
marks you have scored you have the information that lets you know whether you have passed or
failed.
The word data refers to any information which is presented in a form that is agreed and accepted
upon by its creators and users.

1.3 DATA COMMUNICATION

Data Communication is a process of exchanging data or information. In case of computer
networks this exchange is done between two devices over a transmission medium.
This process involves a communication system which is made up of hardware and software. The
hardware part involves the sender and receiver devices and the intermediate devices through
which the data passes. The software part involves certain rules which specify what is to be
communicated, how it is to be communicated and when. It is also called as a Protocol.
The following sections describes the fundamental characteristics that are important for the
effective working of data communication process and is followed by the components that make
up a data communications system.

1.3.1 Characteristics of Data Communication

The effectiveness of any data communications system depends upon the following four
fundamental characteristics:
1. Delivery: The data should be delivered to the correct destination and correct user.
2. Accuracy: The communication system should deliver the data accurately, without introducing
any errors. The data may get corrupted during transmission affecting the accuracy of the
delivered data.
3. Timeliness: Audio and Video data has to be delivered in a timely manner without any delay;
such a data delivery is called real time transmission of data.
4. Jitter: It is the variation in the packet arrival time. Uneven Jitter may affect the timeliness of
data being transmitted.

1.3.2 Components of Data Communication: A Data Communication system has five

components as shown in the diagram below:
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Fig. Components of a Data Communication System

1. Message: Message is the information to be communicated by the sender to the receiver.
2. Sender: The sender is any device that is capable of sending the data (message).
3. Receiver: The receiver is a device that the sender wants to communicate the data (message).
4. Transmission Medium: It is the path by which the message travels from sender to receiver. It
can be wired or wireless and many subtypes in both.
5. Protocol: It is an agreed upon set or rules used by the sender and receiver to communicate
data. A protocol is a set of rules that governs data communication. A Protocol is a necessity in
data communications without which the communicating entities are like two persons trying to
talk to each other in a different language without know the other language.

1.4 DATA REPRESENTATION

Data is collection of raw facts which is processed to gather information. There may be different
forms in which data may be represented. Some of the forms of data used in communications are
as follows:
1. Text
Text includes combination of alphabets in small case as well as upper case. It is stored as a
pattern of bits. Prevalent encoding system: ASCII, Unicode
2. Numbers
Numbers include combination of digits from 0 to 9. It is stored as a pattern of bits. Prevalent
encoding system: ASCII, Unicode
3. Images
―An image is worth a thousand words‖ is a very famous saying. In computers images are
digitally stored. A Pixel is the smallest element of an image. To put it in simple terms, a picture or
image is a matrix of pixel elements. The pixels are represented in the form of bits. Depending
upon the type of image (black n white or color) each pixel would require different number of bits
to represent the value of a pixel.
The size of an image depends upon the number of pixels (also called resolution) and the bit
pattern used to indicate the value of each pixel.
Example: if an image is purely black and white (two color) each pixel can be represented by a
value either 0 or 1, so an image made up of 10 x 10 pixel elements would require only 100 bits in
memory to be stored.
On the other hand, an image that includes gray may require 2 bits to represent every pixel value
(00 - black, 01 – dark gray, 10 – light gray, 11 –white). So the same 10 x 10-pixel image would
now require 200 bits of memory to be stored.
Commonly used Image formats: jpg, png, bmp, etc
4. Audio
Data can also be in the form of sound which can be recorded and broadcasted. Example: What we
hear on the radio is a source of data or information. Audio data is continuous, not discrete.
5. Video
Video refers to broadcasting of data in form of picture or movie
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1.5 DATA FLOW

When devices communicate with each other by sending and receiving data. The data can flow
between the two devices in the following ways.
1. Simplex
2. Half Duplex
3. Full Duplex

1.5.1 Simplex

Figure: Simplex mode of communication

In Simplex, communication is unidirectional
Only one of the devices sends the data and the other one only receives the data.
Example: in the above diagram: a cpu send data while a monitor only receives data.
Advantages of Simplex
 Cheapest communication method.
Disadvantage of Simplex
 Only allows for communication in one direction.

1.5.2 Half Duplex

Figure: Half Duplex Mode of Communication

In half duplex both the stations can transmit as well as receive but not at the same time.
When one device is sending other can only receive and vice-versa (as shown in figure above.)
Example: A walkie-talkie.

Advantages of Half Duplex

 Costs less than full duplex.
 Enables for two way communications.
Disadvantages of Half Duplex
 Costs more than simplex.
 Only one device can transmit at a time.

1.5.3 Full Duplex

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Figure: Full Duplex Mode of Communication

In Full duplex mode, both stations can transmit and receive at the same time.
Example: mobile phones
Advantage of Full Duplex.
 Enables two-way communication simultaneously.
Disadvantage of Full Duplex.
 The most expensive method in terms of equipment because of two bandwidth
channels is required.

Transmission modes can be summarized as in following figure: -

1.6 COMPUTER NETWORK

Computer Networks are used for data communications

Definition:
A computer network can be defined as a collection of nodes. A node can be any device capable of
transmitting or receiving data. The communicating nodes have to be connected by communication
links. A Compute network should ensure
 reliability of the data communication process,
 should see security of the data
 performance by achieving higher data and smaller delay times

1.6.1 Categories of Network

Networks are categorized on the basis of their size. The three basic categories of computer
networks are:
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A. Local Area Networks (LAN) is usually limited to a few kilometers of area. It may be
privately owned and could be a network inside an office on one of the floor of a building or a
LAN could be a network consisting of the computers in a entire building.
B. Wide Area Network (WAN) is made of all the networks in a (geographically) large area. The
network in the entire state of Maharashtra could be a WAN
C. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) is of size between LAN & WAN. It is larger than LAN
but smaller than WAN. It may comprise the entire network in a city like Mumbai.

1.7 PROTOCOL
A Protocol is one of the components of a data communications system. Without protocol
communication cannot occur. The sending device cannot just send the data and expect the
receiving device to receive and further interpret it correctly. When the sender sends a message it
may consist of text, number, images, etc. which are converted into bits and grouped into blocks to
be transmitted and often certain additional information called control information is also added to
help the receiver interpret the data.
For successful communication to occur, the sender and receiver must agree upon certain rules
called protocol.

A Protocol is defined as a set of rules that governs data communications.

A protocol defines what is to be communicated, how it is to be communicated and when it is to be
communicated.
1.7.1 Elements of a Protocol
There are three key elements of a protocol:
A. Syntax: It means the structure or format of the data. It is the arrangement of data in a
particular order.
B. Semantics: It tells the meaning of each section of bits and indicates the interpretation of each
section. It also tells what action/decision is to be taken based on the interpretation.
C. Timing: It tells the sender about the readiness of the receiver to receive the data. It tells the
sender at what rate the data should be sent to the receiver to avoid overwhelming the receiver.

1.7 STANDARDS IN NETWORKING

Standards are necessary in networking to ensure interconnectivity and interoperability between
various networking hardware and software components.
Without standards we would have proprietary products creating isolated islands of users which
cannot interconnect.

1.7.1 Concept of Standard

Standards provide guidelines to product manufacturers and vendors to ensure national and
international interconnectivity.
Data communications standards are classified into two categories:
1. De facto Standard
 These are the standards that have been traditionally used and mean by fact or by
convention
 These standards are not approved by any organized body but are adopted by widespread
use.
2. De jure standard
 It means by law or by regulation.
 These standards are legislated and approved by an body that is officially recognized.

1.7.2 Standard Organizations in field of Networking

 Standards are created by standards creation committees, forums, and government
regulatory agencies.
 Examples of Standard Creation Committees: 1. International Organization for
Standardization(ISO) 2. International Telecommunications Union – Telecommunications
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Standard (ITU-T) 3. American National Standards Institute (ANSI) 4. Institute of Electrical &
Electronics Engineers (IEEE) 5. Electronic Industries Associates (EIA)

 Examples of Forums
1. ATM Forum
2. MPLS Forum
3. Frame Relay Forum
 Examples of Regulatory Agencies:
1. Federal Communications Committee (FCC)

1.8 REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. Differentiate between data & information. What are the different forms in which data can be
represented?
2. What are the characteristics of data communication?
3. What are the components of a data communication system?
4. Define computer network and categorize.
5. Explain protocols in details

1.9 Hardware and Software Requirement for Networks

Network Interface Cards
 Network Interface Cards (NICs) are the most common type of network hardware on a
network.
 Every workstation and server will contain at least one NIC.
 NICs contain the electronic components that establish and control network
communications.
 The NIC is the principal hardware device that differentiates between a networked
computer and a stand-alone computer.

HUBS
 Hubs have no intelligence, meaning they cannot be programmed or have a memory of
devices that are plugged into its ports.
 They are quite suitable for small networks but tend to perform poorly on large
networks.
 Hubs typically come in both standard (10 Mbps) and Fast Ethernet (100 Mbps)
versions.

SWITCHES
 Switches look nearly identical to hubs, but a switch generally contains more
‘intelligence’ than a hub.
 Unlike hubs, network switches are capable of inspecting the data packets as they
are received, determining the source and destination device of that packet, and
forwarding that packet appropriately.
 By delivering messages only to the connected device that it was intended for,
network switches conserve network bandwidth and offer generally better
performance than hubs.
 Most switches are active: that is, they electrically amplify the signal as it moves
from one device to another.
ROUTERS
 Routers translate information from one network to another; it is similar to a bridge
with extra intelligence.
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 Routers select the best path to route a message, based on the destination address and
origin.
 The router can direct traffic to prevent head-on collisions, and is smart enough to
know when to direct traffic along back roads and shortcuts.
 While bridges know the addresses of all computers on each side of the network,
routers know the addresses of computers, bridges, and other routers on the network.
 Routers can even ‘listen’ to the entire network to determine which sections are busiest
- they can then redirect data around those sections until they clear up.

BRIDGES
 Bridges are devices that allow you to segment a large network into two small, more
efficient networks.
 If you are adding an older wiring scheme and want the new network to be up-
to-date, a bridge can connect the two.
 A bridge monitors the information traffic on both sides of the network so that it can
pass packets of information to the correct location.
 Most bridges can ‘listen’ to the network and automatically figure out the address of
each computer on both sides of the bridge.
 The bridge can inspect each message and, if necessary, broadcast it on the other side
of the network.
 Bridges manage the traffic to maintain optimum performance on both sides of the
network.
 Bridges can be used to connect different types of cabling as long as both networks are
using the same protocol.

GATEWAYS
 Gateways are able to connect networks that use completely different protocols or data
formats, such as a LAN to a mainframe.
 Generally, a gateway is a combination of hardware and software with the built-in
processing power necessary to perform protocol conversions.
 A gateway is slower than a bridge or router.

MODEMS
 Modems (MODulator DEModulator) convert data between the analogue form used on
telephone lines and the digital form used on computers.
 ADSL modems (also called ADSL routers) are used on many networks to provide the
required connectivity to the Internet.
 These modems typically have a reasonable level of intelligence and are capable of
performing a number of advanced networking features including DHCP and Firewall
services.
 ADSL modems are a popular choice for connecting small- to medium-size
organisational networks to the Internet using an established ISP.

1.10 Line Configuration

Line configuration refers to the way two or more communication devices attached to a link.
Line configuration is also referred to as connection. A Link is the physical communication
pathway that transfers data from one device to another. For communication to occur, two
devices must be connected in same way to the same link at the same time.
There are two possible line configurations.
1. Point-to-Point.
2. Multipoint.
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Point-to-Point
A Point to Point Line Configuration Provide dedicated link between two devices use actual
length of wire or cable to connect the two end including microwave & satellite link. Infrared
remote control & tvs remote control.
The entire capacity of the channel is reserved for transmission between those two devices.
Most point-to-point line configurations use an actual length of wire or cable to connect the
two ends, but other options, such as microwave or satellite links, are also possible.
Point to point network topology is considered to be one of the easiest and most conventional
network topologies. It is also the simplest to establish and understand. To visualize, one can
consider point to point network topology as two phones connected end to end for a two-way
communication

Multipoint Configuration
Multipoint Configuration also known as Multidrop line configuration one or more than
two specific devices share a single link capacity of the channel is shared.
More than two devices share the Link that is the capacity of the channel is shared now. With
shared capacity, there can be two possibilities in a Multipoint Line Config:
 Spatial Sharing: If several devices can share the link simultaneously, its called
Spatially shared line configuration
 Temporal (Time) Sharing: If users must take turns using the link , then its called
Temporally shared or Time Shared Line Configuration.

1.11 Network Topologies

Physical Topology:
Way in which network is laid out physically, two or more devices connect to a link; two or
more links form a topology. Topology is geometric representation of relationship of all the
links & nodes to one another.
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Mesh
Every device has a dedicated pt 2 pt link to every other device. Dedicated means that link
carries traffic only between two devices it connects. In mesh topology to find no of physical
links in fully connected mesh network with n nodes we must consider that each mode is
connected to every other node. We need n(n-1)/2 duplex mode links.

Advantage: - Eliminates traffic problem, it is robust, privacy.

Disadvantage: - Amt. of cabling & no. of I/O parts reqd. installation & reconnection are
difficult. Bulk of wiring can be greater than available space. Hardware reqd. to connect each
link can be expensive.
Star Topology
Each device has a dedicated point to point link only to a central controller, usually called a
hub. The devices are not directly linked to one another. Unlike a mesh topology a star
topology doesn't allow direct traffic between devices. The controller acts as an exchange: If
one device wants to send data to one another, it sends the data to the controller, which then
relays the data to the other connected device.

Advantages:
 It is less expensive than mesh topology.
 In star, each device needs only one link and one I/O port to connect it to any number
of others. This makes it easy to install and reconfigure.
 Far less cabling needs to be housed and additions, moves, and deletions involves only
on reconnection between the device and the hub.
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 It is robust means if one link fails, only that link is affected.

Disadvantage:
It is the dependency of the whole topology on one single point, the hub. If the hub goes
down, the whole system is dead.
Bus Topology
Bus Topology is multipoint. One long cable acts as a backbone to link all the devices in a
network. Nodes are connected running between the device & the main cable. A tap is a
connector that either splices into main cable or punctures the sheathing of a cable to create a
contact with metallic core. As a signal travels along the backbone, some of its energy is
transformed into heat. It becomes weaker & weaker as it travels further & further. For this
reason, there is a limit on the number of taps a bus can support & on the distance between
those tops.

Advantage: -
Ease of installation, bus uses less cabling than mesh or star, redundancy is eliminated.
Disadvantages: -
 Difficult reconnection & fault isolation.
 Difficult to add new devices.
Ring topology: Each device has a dedicated point to point connection with only the two
devices on either side of it. A signal is passed along the ring in one direction, from device to
device, until it reaches its destination. Each device in the ring incorporates a repeater. When a
device receives a signal intended for a device, its repeater regenerates the bits and passes
them along.

Advantages:
 A ring is easy to install and reconfigure. Each device is linked to only its immediate neighbors.
 To add or delete a device requires changing only two connections.
 Fault isolation is simplified.
Disadvantage:
 Unidirectional traffic can be a disadvantage.
 In a simple ring, a break in the ring can disable the entire network.
Tree or Expanded Star
A tree topology combines characteristics of linear bus and star topologies. It consists of
groups of star-configured workstations connected to a linear bus backbone cable (See fig. 3).
Tree topologies allow for the expansion of an existing network, and enable schools to
configure a network to meet their needs.
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Advantages of a Tree Topology

 Point-to-point wiring for individual segments.
 Supported by several hardware and software venders.
Disadvantages of a Tree Topology
 Overall length of each segment is limited by the type of cabling used.
 If the backbone line breaks, the entire segment goes down.
 More difficult to configure and wire than other topologies.
Hybrid Topology: -
A network can be Hybrid for sometime we can have a main star topology with each branch
connecting several stations in a bus topology as shown in the fig. below.

1.12 Categories of Networks

 Local Area Networks
Local area networks, generally called LANs, are privately-owned networks within a single
building or campus of up to a few kilometers in size. They are widely used to connect
personal computers and workstations in company offices and factories to share resources
(e.g., printers) and exchange information. LANs are distinguished from other kinds of
networks by three characteristics: (1) their size, (2) their transmission technology, and (3)
their topology.
LANs are restricted in size, which means that the worst-case transmission time is bounded
and known in advance. Knowing this bound makes it possible to use certain kinds of designs
that would not otherwise be possible. It also simplifies network management.
LANs may use a transmission technology consisting of a cable to which all the machines are
attached, like the telephone company party lines once used in rural areas. Traditional LANs
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run at speeds of 10 Mbps to 100 Mbps, have low delay (microseconds or nanoseconds), and
make very few errors. Newer LANs operate at up to 10 Gbps.

ADVANTAGES OF LAN
1. It allows sharing of expensive resources such as Laser printers, software and mass storage devices
among a number of computers.
2. LAN allows for high-speed exchange of essential information.
3. It contributes to increased productivity. A LAN installation should be studied closely in the context
of its proposed contribution to the long range interest of the organization.

DISADVANTAGES OF LAN
1. The financial cost of LAN is still high in comparison with many other alternatives.
2. It requires memory space in each of the computers used on the network. This reduces the memory
space available for the user’s programs.
3. Some type of security system must be implemented if it is important to protect confidential data.
4. Some control on the part of the user is lost. You may have to share a printer with other users. You
may face a situation like, for example, the entire network suddenly locking up because one user has
made a mistake.

 Metropolitan Area Networks

A metropolitan area network, or MAN, covers a city. The best-known example of a MAN is
the cable television network available in many cities. This system grew from earlier
community antenna systems used in areas with poor over-the-air television reception. In these
early systems, a large antenna was placed on top of a nearby hill and signal was then piped to
the subscribers' houses.At first, these were locally-designed, ad hoc systems. Then companies
began jumping into the business, getting contracts from city governments to wire up an entire
city. The next step was television programming and even entire channels designed for cable
only. Often these channels were highly specialized, such as all news, all sports, all cooking,
all gardening, and so on. But from their inception until the late 1990s, they were intended for
television reception only.

Starting when the Internet attracted a mass audience, the cable TV network operators began
to realize that with some changes to the system, they could provide two-way Internet service
in unused parts of the spectrum. At that point, the cable TV system began to morph from a
way to distribute television to a metropolitan area network.
1) The network size falls intermediate between LAN and WAN. A MAN typically covers an area of
between 5 and 50 km diameter. Many MANs cover an area the size of a city, although in some cases
MANs may be as small as a group of buildings or as large as the North of Scotland.
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2) A MAN often acts as a high speed network to allow sharing of regional resources. It is also
frequently used to provide a shared connection to other networks using a link to a WAN.

Characteristics of MAN
1) It generally covers towns and cities (50 kms)
2) It is developed in 1980s.
3) Communication medium used for MAN are optical fibers, cables etc.
4) Data rates adequate for distributed computing applications.

 Wide Area Networks

A wide area network, or WAN, spans a large geographical area, often a country or continent.
It contains a collection of machines intended for running user (i.e., application) programs. We
will follow traditional usage and call these machines hosts. The hosts are connected by a
communication subnet, or just subnet for short. The hosts are owned by the customers (e.g.,
people's personal computers), whereas the communication subnet is typically owned and
operated by a telephone company or Internet service provider. The job of the subnet is to
carry messages from host to host, just as the telephone system carries words from speaker to
listener. Separation of the pure communication aspects of the network (the subnet) from the
application aspects (the hosts), greatly simplifies the complete network design.
In most wide area networks, the subnet consists of two distinct components: transmission
lines and switching elements. Transmission lines move bits between machines. They can be
made of copper wire, optical fiber, or even radio links. Switching elements are specialized
computers that connect three or more transmission lines. When data arrive on an incoming
line, the switching element must choose an outgoing line on which to forward them. These
switching computers have been called by various names in the past; the name router is now
most commonly used

Characteristics of WAN
1) It generally covers large distances (states, countries, continents).
2) Communication medium used are satellite, public telephone networks which are connected by
routers.
3) Routers forward packets from one to another (Table 1) a route from the sender to
the receiver.
 Wireless Local Area Network
As the term implies, a WAN spans a large physical distance. The Internet is the largest WAN,
spanning the Earth. A WAN is a geographically-dispersed collection of LANs. A network
device called a router connects LANs to a WAN. In IP networking, the router maintains both
a LAN address and a WAN address. A WAN differs from a LAN in several important ways.
Most WANs (like the Internet) are not owned by any one organization but rather exist under
collective or distributed ownership and management. WANs tend to use technology like
ATM, Frame Relay and X.25 for connectivity over the longer distances.
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Common examples of other area network types are:

 LAN - Local Area Network
 WLAN - Wireless Local Area Network
 WAN - Wide Area Network
 MAN - Metropolitan Area Network
 SAN - Storage Area Network, System Area Network, Server Area Network, or
sometimes Small Area Network
 CAN - Campus Area Network, Controller Area Network, or sometimes Cluster Area
Network
 PAN - Personal Area Network
 DAN - Desk Area Network

1.13 USES OF Computer Network

● File sharing: Have you ever needed to access a file stored on another computer? A
network makes it easy for everyone to access the same file.
● Printer sharing: If you use a computer, chances are you also use a printer. With a
network, several computers can share the same printer.
● Communication and collaboration: It's hard for people to work together if no one knows
what other one is doing. A network allows employees to share files, view other people's
work, and exchange ideas more efficiently.
● Data protection: A network makes it easier to back up all of your company's data on an
offsite server
● Business Applications: As resource sharing ex an network with 2 client and 1 server
● Access to remote information:
 Home reservations for airplanes, trains, hotels, restaurants, theaters, and so on,
anywhere in the world with instant confirmation.
 Online banking and shopping.
 On-line and personalized electronic newspapers, journals, and libraries.
 Access to WWW (World Wide Web) which contains information about many topics.
● Person-to-person communication:
 Electronic mails or emails for everyone. Emails may contain digitized voice, pictures,
moving TV and video images .
 Real-time video conferencing and virtual meeting environments, allow remote users
to communicate with no delay, possibly seeing and hearing each others as well.
● Interactive entertainment:
 Video on demand (the killer application): the user can select any movie or TV
program ever made, in any country, and have it displayed on his screen instantly.
 Live and interactive TV: audience may participate in quiz shows, and so on.
 Multiperson real-time games (maybe the alternative killer application): hide-and-
seek, flight simulators, etc.

1.14 OSI and TCP/IP Models: Layers and their functions, comparison of
models.
The OSI model (minus the physical medium) is shown in Fig.1.1. This model is based on a
proposal developed by the International Standards Organization (ISO) as a first step toward
international standardization of the protocols used in the various layers (Day and
Zimmermann, 1983). It was revised in 1995 (Day, 1995). The model is called the ISO OSI
(Open Systems Interconnection) Reference Model because it deals with connecting open
systems—that is, systems that are open for communication with other systems. We will just
call it the OSI model for short.
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There are 7 layers in the OSI model. Each layer is responsible for a particular aspect of data
communication. For example, one layer may be responsible for establishing connections
between devices, while another layer may be responsible for error checking during transfer.
The layers of the OSI model are divided into two groups: the upper layer and lower layer. The
upper layers focus on user applications and how files are represented on the computers prior
to transport. For the most part, network engineers are more concerned with the lower layers.
It's the lower layers that concentrate on how the communication across a network actually
occurs.
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1) Physical Layer
The Physical Layer is the lowest layer in the OSI model and is concerned with how the
physical structure of the network enables transmission of data. It is responsible for defining
the mechanical and electrical specifications for the transmission medium within a connection,
as well as the transformation or encoding of data into “bits”.
Examples: EIA/TIA-232, V.35, EIA/TIA-449, RJ-45, Ethernet, 802.3

Protocols defined at the Physical Layer standardize physical connections. Specifications

include voltage levels, maximum transmission distances, data rates, and physical connectors.

Physical Layer Services: -

• Physical characteristics of interfaces and medium
• Representation of bits: Its data consists of a stream of bits with no interpretation. To
be transmitted, bits must be encoded into signals electrical or optical. Physical layer
defines the type of encoding
• Data Rate: Transmission Rate- the number of bits sent/sec is also defined by the
physical layer.
• Synchronization of bits: The sender and receiver not only must use the same bit rate
but also must be synchronized at bit level.
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• Line Configuration: The physical layer is concerned with the connection of device to
the media. In a point to point configuration two devices are connected to a dedicated
link. In a multipoint configuration a link is shared among several devices.
• Physical Topology: The physical topology defines how devices are connected to make
a network. Devices can be connected by using star, mesh, bus, hybrid, ring topologies.
• Transmission Mode: The physical layer also defines the direction of transmission
between two devices such as simplex or half duplex or full duplex

2) Data Link: -
LAN and WAN protocols occupy the bottom two layers of the OSI model. These two layers,
Physical Layer and Data Link Layer, work very closely together to ensure data transfer across
the physical network. Examples: HDLC, Frame Relay, PPP, ATM, FDDI, IEEE 802.3/802.2

To accomplish accurate delivery, the Data Link Layer provides the following services:
1. Machine address determination of both sending and receiving machines
2. Formatting of Network Layer "packets" into frames with machine addresses attached
3. Sequencing and re- sequencing of frames transmitted out of sequence
Data Link Sub layers: -
Logical Link Control (LLC) responsible for identifying Network layer protocols and
encapsulating them.
Media Access Control (MAC) defines how packets are placed on media.

Data Link Layer Services: -

• Framing: Data link layer divides the stream of bits received from the network layer
into manageable data units called frames.
• Physical Addressing: If frames are to be distributed to different systems on the
network, the data link layer adds a header to the frame to define the sender and/or
receiver of the frame. If the frame is intended for the system outside the sender’s
network the receiver address is the address of the device that connects the network to
the next one.
• Flow Control: If the rate at which data absorbed by the receiver is less than the rate at
which data are produced in the sender.
• Error Control: It adds reliability to the physical layer by adding mechanism to detect
and transmit damage or lost frames. It also loses mechanism to recognize duplicate
frame. It is normally achieved through a trailer added to the end of the frame.
• Access Control: When two or more devices are connected to the same link, data link
layer protocols are necessary to determine which device has control over the link at
any given time.
 21

3) Network Layer: -
The Network Layer is the 3rd layer in the OSI model and is responsible for identifying
computers on a network. This layer works closely with layer 2 to translate data packets from
a logical address (similar to an IP address) into hardware based MAC addresses.
This layer is concerned with 2 functions:
• Routing
• Fragmentation / Reassembly
 22

Two types of packets are used at the Network layer:

Data packets: Used to transport user data through the internetwork. Protocols used to support
data traffic are called routed protocols. Eg. IP and IPX.
Route update packets: Used to update neighboring routers about the network connected to
all routers within the internetwork. Protocols that send route updates are called routing
protocols. Eg. RIP, EIGRP, OSPF

Network Layer Services: -

Logical Addressing: The physical addressing implemented by data link layer handles the
addressing problem locally. If a packet passes the network boundary we need an addressing
system to help distinguish the source and destination system. The network layer adds a header
to the packet coming from the upper layer that, among other things includes the logical
addresses of the sender and the receiver.
Routing: When independent networks or links are connected to create internetworks or large
networks the connecting devices route or switch the packet to their final destination.
 23

4) Transport Layer
The basic roles of the Transport Layer are to establish end-to-end connections from one
computer to another on the network and provide reliable "transport" of data between devices.

Basic Transport Layer Services:

 Resource Utilization (multiplexing)
 Connection Management (establishing)
 Flow Control (Buffering / Windowing)
 Reliable Transport (positive acknowledgment / error checking)

Flow Control
Once the connection has occurred and transfer is in progress, congestion of the data flow can
occur at a destination for a variety of reasons. Possible options include:
 The destination can become overwhelmed if multiple devices are trying to send it data
at the same time.
 It may become overwhelmed if the source is sending faster than it can physically
receive.

Transport Layer Services: -

• Service Point Addressing: Computers often run several programs at the same time
for this reason source to destination delivery means delivery not only from one
computer to next but also from a specific process of one computer to specific process
of another. The transport layer header must therefore include a type of address called
service point address (port address).
• Segmentation and Reassembly: A message is divided into transmittable segments
with each segment containing sequence number. These number enable transport layer
to reassemble the message correctly upon arriving at the destination and to identify
and replace packet that were lost in transmission.
 24

• Connection Control: It can be either connectionless or connection oriented. A

connectionless transport layer treats each segment as an independent packet and
delivers it to the transport layer at destination machine. A connection oriented
transport layer makes a connection with transport layer at destination machine first
before delivering the packets.
• Flow Control: Like the data link layer transport layer is responsible for flow control.
Flow control at this layer is performed source to destination rather than node to node.
• Error Control: It is responsible for error control. At this layer error control is
performed process to process rather than across a single link. The sending transport
layer makes sure that the entire message arrives at the receiving transport layer
without error. Error correction usually achieve through retransmission.

5) Session Layer
The Session Layer establishes, manages, and terminates sessions (different from
connections) between applications as they interact on different hosts on a network.
Its main job is to coordinate the service requests and responses between different hosts for
applications.
Examples: NFS, SQL, RPC, ASP
Three different communication modes exists for data transfer within a session connection:
• Single-duplex
• Half-duplex
• Full-duplex.
Session Layer Services
• Dialog Control: It allows two systems to enter into dialog and communication
between two processes to take place in either half duplex or full duplex.
• Synchronization: It allows the process to add check point or synchronization points
to stream of data.
6) Presentation Layer
The Presentation Layer manipulates the representation of data for transfer to applications on
different devices.

Presentation Layer Services

• Translation: The processes in two systems are usually exchanging information in the
form of character strings, numbers, etc. The presentation layer at the sender changes
 25

the info from its sender dependent format into a common format. This layer at the
receiving machine changes the common format into its receiver dependent format.
• Encryption: A system must be able to ensure privacy. Encryption means that the
sender transforms the original info into another form and sends the resulting message
out over the network. Decryption does the reverse at the receiving side.
• Compression: Data compression reduces the number of bits contained in the info.
Data Compression becomes particularly important in the transmission of multimedia
such as text, audio, and video.

7) The Application Layer

The Application Layer is the highest layer in the protocol stack and the layer responsible for
introducing data into the OSI stack. In it resides the protocols for user applications that
incorporate the components of network applications.

Application Layer Services

• Network Virtual Terminal: It is a software version of a physical terminal, and it
allows a user to log on to a remote host.
• File Transfer, access, and management: This allows a user to access file in a remote
host, to retrieve files from a remote computer for use in the local computer ,and to
manage or control files in a remote computer locally
• Mail Services: It provides the basis for e-mail forwarding and storage.
• Directory Services: This application provides distributed database sources and access
for global info about various objects and services.

TCP/IP Model (Transmission Control Protocol / Internet Protocol)

Just like the OSI model, the TCP/IP model has many layers which are described below:

Host to Host Network: In fact, TCP/IP model does not specify this layer. But it basically
combines functionally of physical and data link layers. Starting at the bottom, the Physical
layer is what deals with hardware (wires, cables, satellite links, NICs, etc.). Utilizing the
existing Physical layer, TCP/IP does not define its own, thus letting the layer be compatible
with all network suites. This layer also encodes and
transmits data over network communications media in the form of bits which are received by
the Physical layer of the destination device. Often combined with this layer is the Data link
layer which is responsible for moving packets from the network layer onto different hosts.
Depending on the connection type, IP packets are transmitted using various methods. Dialup
modems transmit IP packets using PPP
while broadband users transmit using PPoE.
 26

Internet Layer: This layer routes and delivers data across similar networks or completely
different networks. The Network layer is responsible for end to end packet delivery while
maintaining routing, flow control, and error control functions. An example of this layer is the
actual Internet Protocol (IP) or the Internet Protocol Security (IPSec).

Transport Layer: The Network layer can be thought of the actual vehicle which transports
information. This layer categorizes end to end message transmissions or connecting
applications as either transmission Control Protocol (TCP) or User Datagram Protocol
(UDP). TCP is a connection oriented protocol which is considered to provide a reliable byte
stream. Some characteristics of TCP are traffic congestion control, data arrives in order, data
has minimal error, and duplicate data is discarded.

The top layer of the TCP/IP model is the Application layer which is used for network
communication. Ports are used by programs to transfer data through this layer. For example,
the File Transfer Protocol uses port 21 while the Hypertext Transfer Protocol uses port 80.

TCP/IP has many benefits. TCP/IP enables crossplatform networking which is useful in this
day image.
This suite also has superior failure recovery and the ability to add networks without
interrupting existing services. The reliability of TCP/IP is also a huge benefit to using this
protocol. The fact that if one part of the network goes down, other parts are still able to
function is what has set TCP/IP above other networking protocols. TCP/IP is also easily
expandable which allows for the unprecedented rate of growth which the Internet possesses.

Comparison of the OSI and TCP/IP Reference Models

The OSI and TCP/IP reference models have much in common. Both are based on the concept
of a stack of independent protocols. Also, the functionality of the layers is roughly similar.
For example, in both models the layers up through and including the transport layer are there
to provide an end-to-end, network-independent transport service to processes wishing to
communicate. These layers form the transport provider. Again in both models, the layers
above transport are application-oriented users of the transport service.
Despite these fundamental similarities, the two models also have many differences. In this
section we will focus on the key differences between the two reference models. It is
important to note that we are comparing the reference models here, not the corresponding
 27

protocol stacks. The protocols themselves will be discussed later. For an entire book
comparing and contrasting TCP/IP and OSI, see (Piscitello and Chapin, 1993).
Three concepts are central to the OSI model:
1. Services.
2. Interfaces.
3. Protocols.
Probably the biggest contribution of the OSI model is to make the distinction between these
three concepts explicit. Each layer performs some services for the layer above it. The service
definition tells what the layer does, not how entities above it access it or how the layer works.
It defines the layer's semantics.
A layer's interface tells the processes above it how to access it. It specifies what the
parameters are and what results to expect. It, too, says nothing about how the layer works
inside.
Finally, the peer protocols used in a layer are the layer's own business. It can use any
protocols it wants to, as long as it gets the job done (i.e., provides the offered services). It can
also change them at will without affecting software in higher layers.
These ideas fit very nicely with modern ideas about object-oriented programming. An object,
like a layer, has a set of methods (operations) that processes outside the object can invoke.
The semantics of these methods define the set of services that the object offers. The methods'
parameters and results form the object's interface. The code internal to the object is its
protocol and is not visible or of any concern outside the object.
The TCP/IP model did not originally clearly distinguish between service, interface, and
protocol, although people have tried to retrofit it after the fact to make it more OSI-like. For
example, the only real services offered by the internet layer are SEND IP PACKET and
RECEIVE IP PACKET.
As a consequence, the protocols in the OSI model are better hidden than in the TCP/IP model
and can be replaced relatively easily as the technology changes. Being able to make such
changes is one of the main purposes of having layered protocols in the first place.
The OSI reference model was devised before the corresponding protocols were invented. This
ordering means that the model was not biased toward one particular set of protocols, a fact
that made it quite general. The downside of this ordering is that the designers did not have
much experience with the subject and did not have a good idea of which functionality to put
in which layer.
For example, the data link layer originally dealt only with point-to-point networks. When
broadcast networks came around, a new sublayer had to be hacked into the model. When
people started to build real networks using the OSI model and existing protocols, it was
discovered that these networks did not match the required service specifications (wonder of
wonders), so convergence sublayers had to be grafted onto the model to provide a place for
papering over the differences. Finally, the committee originally expected that each country
would have one network, run by the government and using the OSI protocols, so no thought
was given to internetworking. To make a long story short, things did not turn out that way.
With TCP/IP the reverse was true: the protocols came first, and the model was really just a
description of the existing protocols. There was no problem with the protocols fitting the
model. They fit perfectly. The only trouble was that the model did not fit any other protocol
stacks. Consequently, it was not especially useful for describing other, non-TCP/IP networks.
Turning from philosophical matters to more specific ones, an obvious difference between the
two models is the number of layers: the OSI model has seven layers and the TCP/IP has four
layers. Both have (inter)network, transport, and application layers, but the other layers are
different.
Another difference is in the area of connectionless versus connection-oriented
communication. The OSI model supports both connectionless and connection-oriented
communication in the network layer, but only connection-oriented communication in the
transport layer, where it counts (because the transport service is visible to the users). The
 28

TCP/IP model has only one mode in the network layer (connectionless) but supports both
modes in the transport layer, giving the users a choice. This choice is especially important for
simple request-response protocols.
1.15 GUIDED MEDIA
The guided transmission media includes cables/wires to transmit the information from source
to destination. The wire may be made up of copper or other metal or may be of glass/fiber. It
includes electrical and light signals to flow in these wires. But these cables are very sensitive
to noise and this degrades the signal also called as attenuation. There are three types of
guided media transmission cables.

I. Twisted Pair Cables:

It has two copper wires and twisted with one another to form a helical structure. It is twisted
because to lower the attenuation and crosstalk from the noise. Cross talk is also known as
bleeding of signals. It is common wire used in telephone lines.
Advantages:
1. It is simple and flexible.
2. It is easy to install and maintain.
3. Lower in weight and inexpensive.
Disadvantages:
1. It possesses high attenuation, so we have to use repeater for long distances.
2. It has low bandwidth, so we can't use broadband applications.
3. Maximum data rate is of 1 Mbps, which is quite lower.

II. Co-axial Cable:

This cable consists of a solid wire core and it is surrounded by one or more wire shield
(fishnet), these are separated by a plastic insulator. The inner core carries signals and shield
provides the ground and protect from electro-magnetic interference. It is used in cable-TV.
Advantages:
1. It offers higher bandwidth upto 400 MBPS
2. Transmission is better than twisted pair cable.
3. We can have several channels (frequencies) through one cable, simultaneously.
Disadvantages:
1. Expensive as compared to twisted pair.
2. Not compatible with any other cable.
3. Only one use in cable TV.
Types:
i. Thick net: The thick net coaxial cable segments can up to 500 meters long.
ii. Thin net: The thin net coaxial cable segments up to 185 meters long.
 29

III.

Optical Fiber:
These cables are made up of glass or plastic fibers. Its sources are LED or laser diodes. It
uses light beam to transmit the signals. Firstly, the signal converted in to light signal from
electrical signal. It has core and cladding; core is under the cladding. The refractive index of
cladding is lower than that of core.
Advantages:
1. It is protected to electro-magnetic interference, as it used light signals.
2. It is suitable in all types of environment.
3. It guarantees the secure transmission of information.
Disadvantages:
1. It is quite tough to install the equipment of optical fibers.
2. It is expensive.
3. Connection losses are common problems in optical fiber.
Types:
i. Single node: It supports the segment length of up to 2 kilometers.
ii. Multi node: It supports the segment length of up to 100 kilometers.

UNGUIDED MEDIA
Radio Waves
Radio waves are a type of electromagnetic radiation with wavelengths in the electromagnetic
spectrum longer than infrared light. Like all other electromagnetic waves, they travel at the
speed of light. Naturally-occurring radio waves are made by lightning, or by astronomical
objects Artificially generated radio waves are used for fixed and mobile radio
communication, broadcasting, radar and other navigation systems, satellite communication,
computer networks and innumerable other applications.
Different frequencies of radio waves have different propagation characteristics in the Earth's
atmosphere; long waves may cover a part of the Earth very consistently, shorter waves can
reflect off the ionosphere and travel around the world, and much shorter wavelengths bend or
reflect very little and travel on a line of sight.
 Range:
 2GHz-6GHz: 70km
 18GHz-45GHz: 1.6-8km
Microwave
Microwave transmission is line of sight transmission. The transmit station must be in visible
contact with the receive station. This sets a limit on the distance between stations depending
on the local geography. Typically, the line of sight due to the Earth's curvature is only 50 km
to the horizon! Repeater stations must be placed so the data signal can hop, skip and jump
across the country.
 30

Microwaves operate at high operating frequencies of 3 to 10 GHz. This allows them to carry
large quantities of data due to their large bandwidth.
Advantages:
a. They require no right of way acquisition between towers.
b. They can carry high quantities of information due to their high operating frequencies.
c. Low cost land purchase: each tower occupies only a small area.
d. High frequency/short wavelength signals require small antennae.
Disadvantages:
a. Attenuation by solid objects: birds, rain, snow and fog.
b. Reflected from flat surfaces like water and metal.
c. Diffracted (split) around solid objects.
d. Refracted by atmosphere, thus causing beam to be projected away from receiver.
Satellite
Satellites are transponders (units that receive on one frequency and retransmit on another)
that are set in geostationary orbits directly over the equator. These geostationary orbits are
36,000 km from the Earth's surface. At this point, the gravitational pull of the Earth and the
centrifugal force of Earth's rotation are balanced and cancel each other out. Centrifugal force
is the rotational force placed on the satellite that wants to fling it out into space.

The uplink is the transmitter of data to the satellite. The downlink is the
receiver of data. Uplinks and downlinks are also called Earth stations
because they are located on the Earth. The footprint is the "shadow" that
the satellite can transmit to, the shadow being the area that can receive
the satellite's transmitted signal.
S.No.
Guided Media Unguided Media

The signal energy propagates within theThe signal energy propagates through
1.
guided media.i.e. through wires. air.

It is mainly suited for point to point lineIt is mainly used for broadcasting
2.
configurations. purpose.
 31

The signal propagates in the form ofThe signal propagates in the form of
3.
voltage, current or photons. electromagnetic waves.

Examples of guided media are: -

Examples are: -
=>Twisted Pair Cable
4. =>Microwave or Radio Links
=>Co-axial Cable
=>Infrared
=>Optical Fiber Cable
Transmission Impairment
Signal travel through transmission media, which are not perfect. The imperfection causes
signal impairment. This means that the signal at the beginning of the medium is not the same
as the signal at the end of the medium. What is sent is not what is received. Three causes of
impairment are attenuation, distortion and noise.
Attenuation
It means a loss of energy when a signal, simple or composite, travels through a medium, it
loses some of its energy in overcoming the resistance of medium. That is why a wire carrying
electrical signals get warmed if not hot after a while. Some of the electrical energy is
converted to heat. To compensate for this loss, amplifiers are used to amplify the signal as
shown in the figure the effect of attenuation and amplification.
Decibel
To show that the signal has lost or gained strength, engineers use the unit of decibel. Decibel
measures the relative strength of two signals or one signal at two different points. Note that
the decibel is negative if a signal is attenuated and positive if amplified.

Variables , are the powers(voltage) of signals at points 1 and 2, respectively.

Distortion
It means that the signal changes it forms or shape. Distortion can occur in a composite signal
made of different frequencies. Each signals component has its own propagation speed
through a medium and, therefore its own delay is arriving at the final destination. Differences
in delay may create a difference in phase, if the delay is not exactly the same as period
duration. In other words, signal components at the receiver have phases different from what
they have at the sender. The shape of composite signal is therefore not the same. Figure
shown below shows the effect of distortion on composite signal.
Noise
It is another cause of impartment. Several types of noise such as thermal noise, induced noise
and impulse noise may corrupt the signal. Thermal noise is random motion of electrons in a
wire which creates an extra signal not originally sent by a transmitter. Induced noise come
from source such as motor and appliances. These device act as a sending antenna, and
transmission medium act as receiving antenna. The cross talk is effect of one wire on another.
One wire act as sending antenna and other as receiving antenna. Impulse noise is a spike that
comes from power lines, lightning and so on. Figure shown below describes the effect of
noise on the signal.
Signal to Noise Ratio
In order to find the theoretical bit rate, limit we need to know the ratio of signal power to
noise power. The signal to noise ratio is defined as

We need to consider the average signal power and average noise power because this may
change with time. Figure shown below shows the idea of SNR
 32

A high SNR means the signal is less corrupted by noise. A low SNR means the signal is more
corrupted by the noise because SNR is the ratio of two powers. It is often described in decibel
unit, SNRdB, defined as

Throughput
 It is a measure of how fast we can actually send data through a network. Although at
first glance, bandwidth in bits/sec and throughput seems the same.
The bandwidth is a potential measurement of link but throughput is an actual measurement
of how fast we send data.
Propagation Time
It measures the time required for bit to travel from source to destination. The propagation time is
calculated by dividing the distance by propagation speed.
Propagation Time = Distance/Propagation Speed
Propagation Speed of electromagnetic signals depends on medium and on frequency of signal.
For eg. In vacuum light is propagated with a speed of 3x 108 m/sec.
Wavelength
It is another characteristic of a signal travelling through a transmission medium. It binds the
period or frequency of simple sine wave to the propagation speed of the medium. The
frequency of the signal is independent of the medium, the wavelength depends on frequency
and medium.

Wavelength= Propagation Speed x period=

Shanon Capacity
As early as 1924, an AT&T engineer, Henry Nyquist, realized that even a perfect channel has a
finite transmission capacity. He derived an equation expressing the maximum data rate for a finite
bandwidth noiseless channel. In 1948, Claude Shannon carried Nyquist's work further and extended
it to the case of a channel subject to random (that is, thermodynamic) noise (Shannon, 1948). We
will just briefly summarize their now classical results here. Nyquist proved that if a random signal
has been run through a low-pass filter of bandwidth H, the filtered signal can be completely
reconstructed by making only 2H (exact) samples per second. Sampling the line faster than 2H
times per second is pointless because the higher frequency components that such sampling could
recover have already been filtered out. If the signal consists of V discrete levels, Nyquist's theorem
states:

For example, a noiseless 3-kHz channel cannot transmit binary (i.e., two-level) signals at a rate
exceeding 6000 bps. So far we have considered only noiseless channels. If random noise is present,
the situation deteriorates rapidly. And there is always random (thermal) noise present due to the
motion of the molecules in the system. The amount of thermal noise present is measured by the
ratio of the signal power to the noise power, called the signal-to-noise ratio. If we denote the signal
power by S and the noise power by N, the signal-to-noise ratio is S/N. Usually, the ratio itself is not
quoted; instead, the quantity 10 log 10 S/N is given. These units are called decibels (dB). An S/N
ratio of 10 is 10 dB, a ratio of 100 is 20 dB, a ratio of 1000 is 30 dB, and so on. The manufacturers
of stereo amplifiers often characterize the bandwidth (frequency range) over which their product is
linear by giving the 3-dB frequency on each end. These are the points at which the amplification
factor has been approximately halved (because log 103 0.5). Shannon's major result is that the
maximum data rate of a noisy channel whose bandwidth is H Hz, and whose signal-to-noise ratio is
S/N, is given by

For example, a channel of 3000-Hz bandwidth with a signal to thermal noise ratio of 30 dB (typical
parameters of the analog part of the telephone system) can never transmit much more than 30,000
 33

bps, no matter how many or how few signal levels are used and no matter how often or how
infrequently samples are taken. Shannon's result was derived from information-theory arguments
and applies to any channel subject to thermal noise. Counterexamples should be treated in the same
category as perpetual motion machines. It should be noted that this is only an upper bound and real
systems rarely achieve it.