​M.

SHAHZAIB 
Q1​)Define the term homeostasis and discuss the factor with effects the homeostasis?
Answer:​Homeostasis​ The tendency to maintain a stable, relatively constant internal
environment is called homeostasis. The body maintains homeostasis for many factors in
addition to temperature. For instance, the concentration of various ions in your blood must
be kept steady, along with pH and the concentration of glucose. If these values get too high
or low, you can end up getting very sick.
Homeostasis typically involves negative feedback loops that counteract changes of various
properties from their target values, known as set points.
In contrast to negative feedback loops, positive feedback loops amplify their initiating
stimuli, in other words, they move the system away from its starting state.

Q2​)Describe cell structure and function of cells?

Answer:​-Cell​ are the smallest functional units of the body.They are grouped together to
form tissues, eachof which has a specialised function, e.g. blood,muscle, bone.
• cell consists of a plasma membrane
inside which there are a number of
organelles floating in a watery fluid called
cytosol.
• Organelles are small structures with highly
specialised functions, many of which are
• contained within a membrane. They include:
• the nucleus, mitochondria, ribosomes,
endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus,lysosomes, microfilaments and
microtubules.
Plasma membrane
The plasma membrane consists of two layers
of phospholipids (fatty substances with some protein molecules embedded in them.Those
that extend all the way through the membrane may provide channelsthat allow the passage
of, for example electrolytes and non-lipid-soluble substances.The phospholipid molecules
have a head which is electrically charged and hydrophilic (meaning 'water loving') and a tail
which has no charge and is
hydrophobic (meaning 'water hating').
Nucleus
Consists of a nuclear envelope with pores,
nucleoli, and chromosomes, which exist as a
tangled mass of chromatin in inter phase cells.
Functions
• 1. Controls cellular structure.
• 2. Directs cellular activities.
• 3. Produces ribosomes in nucleoli.
The functional subunits of chromosomes are called genes.Each cell contains the total
complement of genes required to synthesise all the proteins in the body but most cells
synthesise only the defined range of proteins
that are appropriate to their own specialised functions.This means that only part of the
genome or genetic code is used by each cell.
Mitochondria
Mitochondria are sausage-shaped structures
in the cytoplasm,sometimes described as the
'power house' of the cell.They are involved in aerobic respiration, the processes by which
chemical energy is made available in the cell. This is in the form ofATP, which releases
energy when the cell breaks it down Synthesis of ATP is most efficient in the final stages of
aerobic respiration, a process requiring oxygen.
Ribosomes
These are tiny granules composed of RNA and
protein.They synthesise proteins from amino acids,
using RNA When present in free as the template
units or in small clusters in the cytoplasm, the
ribosomes make proteins for use within the cell.
Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)
Endoplasmic reticulum is a series of interconnecting membranous canals in the
cytoplasm.There are two types: smooth and rough.
Smooth ER synthesizes lipids and steroidhormones, and is also associated with the
detoxification of some drugs.Rough ER is studded with ribosomes. These are the site of
synthesis of proteins that are 'exported' (extruded) from cells, i.e. enzymes and hormones
that pass out of
their parent cell to be used by other cells in the body.
Golgi apparatus
The Golgi apparatus consists of stacks of closely
folded Flattened membranous sacs. It is present in all cells but is larger in those that
synthesis and
export proteins. The proteins move from the
endoplasmic reticulum to the Golgi apparatus
where they are 'packaged' into membrane-
bound vesicles called secretory granules.The vesicles are stored and, when needed, move
to the plasma membrane, through which the proteins are exported.
Lysosomes
Lysosomes are one type of secretory vesicle
formed by the Golgi apparatus.They contain a variety of enzymes involved in breaking down
fragments of organelles and large molecules (e.g. RNA, DNA, carbohydrate proteins)inside
the cell into smaller particles that are either recycled, or extruded from the cell as waste
material. Lysosomes in white blood cells contain
enzymes that digest foreign material such as microbes.
Microfilaments and microtubules
Microfilaments​.
These are tiny strands of protein that provide structural support and maintain the
characteristic shape of the cell.
Microtubules​.
These are contractile protein structures in the cytoplasm involved in the movement of the cell
and of organelles within the cell, the movement of cilia (small projections from the free
border of some cells) and possiblythe organization of proteins in the plasma membrane.

Q3​)Discuss the process of celk division i.e mitosis and meosis?

Answer:​-Mitosis​ division of somatic (body) cells ​•Interphase
1. Cell preparing to divide
2. Genetic material doubles
• ​Prophase
• Chromosome pair up!
1. Chromosomes thicken and shorten
-become visible
-2 chromatids joined by a centromere
2. Centrioles move to the opposite sides of the
nucleus
3. Nucleolus disappears
4. Nuclear membrane disintegrate
• Metaphase
• Chromosomes meet in the middle!
1. Chromosomes arrange at equator of cell
2. Become attached to spindle fibres
by centromeres
3. Homologous chromosomes do not
associate
• Anaphase
• Chromosomes get pulled apart
1. Spindle fibers contract pulling
chromatids to the opposite poles of the
cell
• Telophase
• Now there are two!
1. Chromosomes uncoil
2. Spindle fibers disintegrate
3. Centrioles replicate
4. Nuclear membrane forms
5. Cell divides
Meosis
• 4 daughter cells produced
• Each daughter cell has half the
chromosomes of the parent
• 2 sets of cell division involved

Q4​)Define tissue list the types of epithelium tissue and function of the epithelium tissue?
Answer:​-Tissue​ A group of cells which are similar in structure and function is called tissue.
Types and function of epithelium tissue
1)simple squamous epithelium
• Squamous (pavement) epithelium
This is composed of a single layer of flattened cells The cells fit closely together like flat
stones, forming a thin and very smooth membrane. Diffusion takes place freely through this
thin, lining of the following structures:-
• heart
• blood vessels
• lymph vessels
• alveoli of the lungs .where it is also known as
endothelium
2)Simple Cuboidal epithelium
• Cuboidal (cubical) epithelium
• This consists of cube-shaped cells fitting closely
together lying on a basement membrane .It forms the tubules of the kidneys and is found in
some glands. Cuboidal epithelium is actively involved in secretion,absorption and excretion.
3)Simple Columnar epithelium
• This is formed by a single layer of cells,
rectangular in shape, on a basement membrane.
It is found
4)Ciliated epithelium
• This is formed by columnar cells each of which has many fine, hair-like processes, called
cilia.The cilia consist of microtubules inside the plasma membrane that extends from the free
border (luminal border) of the columnar cells. The wave-like movement of many cilia propels
the contents of the tubes, which they line in one direction only.Ciliated epithelium is found
lining the uterine tubes and most of the respiratory passages.In the uterine tubes .the cilia
propel ova towards the uterus and in the respiratory passages they propel mucus.
5)Stratified epithelium
• Stratified epithelia consist of several layers of
cells of various shapes. The superficial layers
grow up from below. Basement membranes
are usually absent.
•The main function of stratified epithelium is to
protect underlying structures from mechanical
wear and tear.
• There are two main types: stratified squamous and transitional.
6)Stratified squamous epithelium
• This is composed of a number of layers of cells of different shapes representing newly
formed and mature cells.
• In the deepest layers the cells are mainly columnar and ,as they grow towards the surface,
they become flattened and are then shed.
• Non-keratinised stratified epithelium. This is found on
• wet surfaces that may be subjected to wear and tear but
• are protected from drying, e.g. the conjunctiva of the
• eyes, the lining of the mouth, the pharynx, the esophagus and the vagina
7)Keratinised stratified epithelium​.
• This is found on dry surfaces that are subjected
to wear and tear, i.e. skin, hair and nails.
• The surface layer consists of dead epithelial cells
to which the protein keratin has been added.
• This forms a tough, relatively waterproof
protective layer that prevents drying of the
underlying live cells.
• The surface layer of skin is rubbed off and is
replaced from below.
8)Transitional epithelium
• This is composed of several layers of pear-
shaped cells and is found lining the urinary
bladder.
• It allows for stretching as the bladder fills.

Q5​)Define skeleton list the types of skeleton. List the functions of the bone and types of
bone?
Answer:​-skeletal​ The framework of the body, consisting of bones and other connective
tissues, which protects and supports
the body tissues and internal organs. The
human skeleton contains 206 bones.
Functions of Bone
1)​Shape​:
The skeleton gives the body its shape, which changes with growth.
2)​Support​:
provides structural support for the entire body.
3)​Protection​:
surrounds soft tissue
ribs and sternum protect the heart and lungs.
skull protects the brain.
4)​Movement​:
The muscular and skeletal systems work together as the musculoskeletal system, which
enables body movement and stability. When muscles contract, they pull on bones of the
skeleton to produce movement or hold the bones in a stable position.
5)​Blood Cell Production​:
Larger bones contain bone marrow, a spongy tissue inside the bones. There are two main
types of marrow, red and yellow. Red marrow is responsible for production of all of the
body's red blood cells and many of its white blood cells. Red blood cells are produced at an
average rate of approximately 200 million per day. These cells carry life-sustaining oxygen to
the body tissues.
Yellow bone marrow contains primary fat cells.
6)​Mineral homeostasis​:
stores calcium and phosphorus--minerals are
released into .the blood when needed
Types of bone
1)​Flat Bone​: These bones are expanded into broad, flat plates, as in the cranium (skull), the
Ilium (pelvis), sternum and the rib cage.
2)​Long Bone​: Long bones are hard, dense bones that provide strength, structure, and
mobility. The thigh bone (femur) is a long bone. A long bone has a shaft and two ends.
3)​Short Bone​: those bones that are as wide as they are long. Their primary function is to
provide support and stability with little
to no movement.
for example carpals and metacarpals
4)​Irregular Bones​: vary in shape and structure and therefore do not fit into any other
category (flat, short, long, or sesamoid). They often have a fairly complex shape, which
helps protect internal organs. For example, the vertebrae, irregular bones of the vertebral
column, protect
the spinal cord.
5)​Sesamoid Bone​: it has no shaft or extremity and is diverse in shape and size.
For example patella bone ( knee cap )

Q6​)Discribe the skull , Vertebral skeleton , and the rib cage?

Answer:​-Skull​ The skull is a collection of bones which encase the brain and give form to the
head and face. The skull rests on the upper end of the vertebral column and its bony
structure is divided into two parts: the cranium and the face.
• The bones of the skull include the following: the frontal, parietal, occipital, temporal,
sphenoid, ethmoid, zygomatic, maxilla, nasal, vomer, palatine, inferior concha, and
mandible.
Vertebral skeleton
This consists of 24 movable bones (vertebrae) plus the sacrum and coccyx. The bodies of
the bones are separated from each other by intervertebral discs, consisting of fibrocartilage.
The vertebral column is described in five parts and the bones of each part are numbered
from above downwards
• 7 cervical
• 12 thoracic
• 5 lumbar
• 1 sacrum (5 fused bones)
• 1 coccyx (4 fused bones).
Thoracic cavity or Rib cagr
This is the largest body cavity and is oval in shape. It occupies most of the trunk and its
boundaries are:
Superiorly​ – the diaphragm, which separates it from the thoracic cavity
Anteriorly​ – the muscles forming the anterior
abdominal wall
Posteriorly​ – the lumbar vertebrae and muscles forming the posterior abdominal wall
Laterally​ – the lower ribs and parts of the muscles of the abdominal wall
Inferiorly​ – it is continuous with the pelvic cavity.
By convention, the abdominal cavity is divided into the nine regions shown in. This facilitates
the description of the positions of the organs and structures it contains.
• Humans have 12 pairs of ribs: • True ribs (7)
• False ribs (5), of which: • Floating (2)
• There are some anomalies: • Cervical ribs
• Lumbar ribs
Q7​)List the bones of the upper limbs and lower lims?
Answer:​-Upper limbs
1)Femur​ Longest bone of body • Head
• Fovea capitis • Neck• Greater trochanter
• Lesser trochanter• Linea aspera

• Condyles• Epicondyles
2)​Patella​• Aka kneecap
• Anterior surface of the knee joint
• Flat sesamoid bone located

in the quadriceps tendon

3)​Tibia•​ Aka shin bone
• Medial to fibula• Condyles• Tibial tuberosity
• Anterior crest• Makes the medial malleolus

4)​Fibula•​ Lateral to tibia• Long, slender

• Head• Makes the lateral malleolus
• Non-weight bearing
5)​Tarsal​ (14) • Calcaneus• Talus
• Navicular• Cuboid• Lateral (3rd) cuneiform
• Intermediate (2nd) cuneiform
• Medial (1st) cuneiform
6)​Metatarsals ​ 10 bones

7)​Phalanges​ (28)

Q8​)Describe blood and list its function and discuss the components of blood?
Answer:​-Blood​ is a fluid connective tissue. It circulates constantly around the body, allowing
constant communication between tissues distant from each other. It transports:
• oxygen• nutrients• hormones• heat
• protective substances• clotting factors.
Blood is composed of a clear, straw-coloured, watery fluid called plasma in which several
different types of blood cell are suspended. Plasma normally constitutes 55% of the volume
of blood and the cell fraction 45%. Blood cells and plasma can be separated by
centrifugation
(spinning) or by gravity when blood is allowed to stand. The cells are heavier than plasma
and sink to the bottom of any sample.Blood makes up about 7% of body weight (about 5.6
litres in a 70 kg man). This proportion is less in women
and considerably greater in children, gradually decreasing until the adult level is reached.
Blood in the blood vessels is always in motion because of the pumping action of the heart.
The continual flow maintains a fairly constant environment for body cells. Blood volume and
the concentration of its many constituents are kept within narrow limits by homeostatic
mechanisms. Heat produced from metabolically active organs, such as working skeletal
muscles and the liver, is distributed around the body by the bloodstream, contributing to
maintenance of core body temperature.

Q9​)Describe the structure and function of the Arteries , Veins and Capillaries?
Answer:​-Arteries and arterioles
These blood vessels transport blood away from the heart. They vary considerably in size
and their walls consist of three layers of tissue
• tunica adventitia or outer layer of fibrous tissue
• tunica media or middle layer of smooth muscle and elastic tissue
• tunica intima or inner lining of squamous epithelium called endothelium.
The amount of muscular and elastic tissue varies in the arteries depending upon their size
and function. In the large arteries, including the aorta, sometimes called elastic arteries, the
tunica media contains more elastic tissue and less smooth muscle. This allows the vessel
wall to stretch,
absorbing the pressure wave generated by the heart as it beats. These proportions gradually
change as the arteries branch many times and become smaller until in the arterioles (the
smallest arteries) the tunica media consists almost entirely of smooth muscle. This enables
their
diameter to be precisely controlled, which regulates the pressure within them. Systemic
blood pressure is mainly determined by the resistance these tiny arteries offer to blood flow,
and for this reason they are called resistance vessels.
Arteries have thicker walls than veins to withstand the high pressure of arterial blood.
Veins and venules
Veins return blood at low pressure to the heart. The walls of the veins are thinner than
arteries but have the same three layers of tissue. They are thinner because there is less
muscle and elastic tissue in the tunica media, as veins carry blood at a lower pressure than
arteries. When cut, the veins collapse while the thicker-walled arteries remain open. When
an artery is cut blood spurts
at high pressure while a slower, steady flow of blood escapes from a vein.Some veins
possess valves, which prevent backflow of blood, ensuring that it flows towards the
heart.They are formed by a fold of tunica intima and strengthened by connective tissue. The
cusps are semilunar in
shape with the concavity towards the heart. Valves are abundant in the veins of the limbs,
especially the lower limbs where blood must travel a considerable distance against gravity
when the individual is standing. They are absent in very small and very large veins in the
thorax and abdomen. Valves are assisted in maintaining one-way flow by skeletal muscles
surrounding the
veins.The smallest veins are called venules.
Veins are called capacitance vessels because they are distensible, and therefore have the
capacity to hold a large proportion of the body’s blood. At any one time, about two-thirds of
the body’s blood is in the venous system. This allows the vascular system to absorb (to an
extent) sudden changes in blood volume, such as in haemorrhage; the veins can constrict,
helping to prevent a sudden
fall in blood pressure.
Capillaries and sinusoids
The smallest arterioles break up into a number of minute vessels called capillaries. Capillary
walls consist of a single layer of endothelial cells sitting on a very thin basement membrane,
through which water and other small molecules can pass. Blood cells and large molecules
such as plasma proteins do not normally pass through capillary walls. The capillaries form a
vast network of tiny vessels
that link the smallest arterioles to the smallest venules. Their diameter is approximately that
of an erythrocyte (7 µm). The capillary bed is the site of exchange of substances between
the blood and the tissue fluid, whichbathes the body cells and, with the exception of those on
the skin surface and in the cornea of the eye, every body cell lies close to a capillary.Entry to
capillary beds is guarded by rings of smooth muscle (precapillary sphincters) that direct
blood flow. Hypoxia (low levels of oxygen in the tissues), or high levels of tissue wastes,
indicating high levels of activity, dilate the sphincters and increase blood flow through the
affected beds.In certain places, including the liver (p. 309) and bone marrow, the capillaries
are significantly wider and leakier than normal. These capillaries are called sinusoids and
because their walls are incomplete and their lumen is much larger than usual, blood flows
through them more
slowly under less pressure and can come directly into contact with the cells outside the
sinusoid wall. This allows much faster exchange of substances between the blood and the
tissues, useful, for example, in the liver, which regulates the composition of blood arriving
from the gastrointestinal tract.

Q10​)Describe the heart and flow on the blood through the heart?
Answer:​-Heart​ The heart is a muscular organ in most animals, which pumps blood through
the blood vessels of the circulatory system. Blood provides the body with oxygen and
nutrients, as well as assisting in the removal of metabolic wastes. In humans, the heart is
located between the lungs, in the middle compartment of the chest.
Right Side of the Heart
1)Blood enters the heart through two large veins, the inferior and superior vena cava,
emptying oxygen-poor blood from the body into the right atrium of the heart.
2)As the atrium contracts, blood flows from your right atrium into your right ventricle through
the open tricuspid valve.
3)When the ventricle is full, the tricuspid valve shuts. This prevents blood from flowing
backward into the atria while the ventricle contracts.
4)As the ventricle contracts, blood leaves the heart through the pulmonic valve, into the
pulmonary artery and to the lungs where it is oxygenated.
Left Side of the Heart
1)The pulmonary vein empties oxygen-rich blood from the lungs into the left atrium of the
heart.
2)As the atrium contracts, blood flows from your left atrium into your left ventricle through the
open mitral valve.
3)When the ventricle is full, the mitral valve shuts. This prevents blood from flowing
backward into the atrium while the ventricle contracts.
4)As the ventricle contracts, blood leaves the heart through the aortic valve, into the aorta
and to the body.

Q11​)Discuss the conduction of the heart?

Answer:​-Conducting system of the heart
The heart possesses the property of autorhythmicity, which means it generates its own
electrical impulses and beats independently of nervous or hormonal control, i.e. it is not
reliant on external mechanisms to initiate each heart-beat. However, it is supplied with both
sympathetic and parasympathetic nerve fibres, which increase and
decrease respectively the intrinsic heart rate. In addition, the heart responds to a number of
circulating hormones, including adrenaline (epinephrine) and thyroxine.Small groups of
specialised neuromuscular cells in the
myocardium initiate and conduct impulses, causing coordinated and synchronised
contraction of the heart muscle.
Sinoatrial node (SA node)
This small mass of specialised cells lies in the wall of the right atrium near the opening of the
superior vena cava.The sinoatrial cells generate these regular impulses because they are
electrically unstable. This instability leads them to discharge (depolarise) regularly, usually
between 60 and 80 times a minute. This depolarisation is followed by recovery
(repolarisation), but almost immedi-
ately their instability leads them to discharge again,
setting the heart rate. Because the SA node discharges faster than any other part of the
heart, it normally sets the heart rate and is called the pacemaker of the heart. Firing of the
SA node triggers atrial contraction.
Atrioventricular node (AV node)
This small mass of neuromuscular tissue is situated in the wall of the atrial septum near the
atrioventricular valves. Normally, the AV node merely transmits the electrical signals from the
atria into the ventricles. There is a delay
here; the electrical signal takes 0.1 of a second to pass through into the ventricles. This
allows the atria to finish contracting before the ventricles start.
The AV node also has a secondary pacemaker function and takes over this role if there is a
problem with the SA node itself, or with the transmission of impulses from the atria. Its
intrinsic firing rate, however, is slower than that set by the SA node (40–60 beats per
minute).
Atrioventricular bundle (AV bundle or bundle of His) ​This mass of specialised fibres
originates from the AV node. The AV bundle crosses the fibrous ring that separates atria and
ventricles then, at the upper end of the ventricular septum, it divides into right and left bundle
branches. Within the ventricular myocardium the branches break up into fine fibres, called
the Purkinje fibres. The AV bundle, bundle branches and Purkinje fibres transmit electrical
impulses from the AV node to the apex of the
myocardium where the wave of ventricular contraction begins, then sweeps upwards and
outwards, pumping blood into the pulmonary artery and the aorta.Nerve supply to the heart
As mentioned earlier, the heart is influenced by
autonomic (sympathetic and parasympathetic) nerves originating in the cardiovascular
centre in the medulla oblongata.
The vagus nerve (parasympathetic) supplies mainly the SA and AV nodes and atrial muscle.
Vagal stimulation reduces the rate at which impulses are produced, decreasing the rate and
force of the heartbeat.
Sympathetic nerves supply the SA and AV nodes and the myocardium of atria and
ventricles, and stimulation increases the rate and force of the heartbeat.

Q12​)write a short note on any two

1)Aorta 2)Gland
3)Membrane 4)Cavities
Answer:-1)​Aorta ​The largest artery in the body, the aorta arises from the left ventricle of the
heart, goes up (ascends) a little ways, bends over (arches), then goes down (descends)
through the chest and through the abdomen to where ends by dividing into two arteries
called the common iliac arteries that go to the legs.
2)​Gland​ A gland is a group of cells in an animal's body that synthesizes substances (such
as hormones) for release into the bloodstream (endocrine gland) or into cavities inside the
body or its outer surface (exocrine gland).
3)​Membrane​ The membrane is made up of a thin layer called the 'phospholipid bilayer'.
This has two layers of phospholipid molecules with phosphate heads on the surfaces and
lipid (oil) tails on the inside. The outside heads mix with water, but the tails reject water.
Other proteins and lipids can be added to the cell membrane.
4)​Cavities​ Tooth decay, also known as dental caries or cavities, is a breakdown of teeth
due to acids made by bacteria. The cavities may be a number of different colors from yellow
to black. ... The cause of cavities is acid from bacteria dissolving the hard tissues of the teeth
(enamel, dentin and cementum).