BIM312 Database Management Systems: Review: What Is SQL?

4/7/19
BIM312 Database Management

Systems
Week 9 – SQL Part II

April 5th, 2019
SQL stands for

Review: What is SQL? Structured Query Language
§ SQL is a high-‐level special-‐purpose language for querying and
manipulating data
§ Pronounced as “S-‐Q-‐L” or “sequel”
§ SQL is mostly a declarative language
§ You declare what you want without specifying how you want to get answer
§ SQL provides a limited set of operations
§ Supported by most DBMS
§ Mostly implementations of Relational Algebra operations (next week)
§ SQL programmer needs to focus on readability and on getting the right
result – do not need to worry about efficiency
§ Because the DBMS optimizes every query and chooses the most efficient
implementation for each operation
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Review: SQL is a…

§ Data Definition Language (DDL)
§ Define relational schemata
§ CREATE/ALTER/DROP tables and their attributes
§ Data Manipulation Language (DML)

§ INSERT/UPDATE/DELETE tuples in tables
§ Query one or more tables – SELECT
§ Transaction Control – COMMIT/ROLLBACK
PART I
Review: Single Table Queries
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QUERYING / RETRIEVING INFORMATION FROM

A DATABASE
§ SQL has one basic statement for retrieving information from a database à
SELECT statement
§ The SELECT statement is used to get data out of the database
§ The data returned is stored in a result table, called the result-‐set, which is
temporary, hence not stored in the database, but what user want to see
SELECT-‐FROM-‐WHERE (SFW) Query

§ A simple SQL-‐query consists of the three clauses select, from, where
§ This is the basic form of the SQL SELECT statement is also called a
mapping or a select-‐from-‐where query or SFW query
Basic form
SELECT <attributes> ü <attributes> is a list of attribute names whose values
are to be retrieved by the query
FROM <one or more tables> ü <tables> is a list of the tables required to process the
WHERE <conditions> query
ü <conditions> is a conditional (Boolean) expression
that identifies the tuples to be retrieved by the query
Call this a SFW query
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Example: SFW Query

Query: “List student names with GPA>3”
Result
SELECT name Table
FROM Student
WHERE gpa>3
How the Query is Evaluated?

§ Each tuple of Student is
inspected
§ Each attribute of WHERE
clause is substituted with
the actual tuple value
§ The condition is then
evaluated, and if true – this
tuple is added to the output
relation
SELECT name
FROM Student
WHERE gpa>3
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A Simple Example – Unspecified WHERE and *

Student
StudentNo Name Surname DateOfBirth
1 John Smith 1990-‐10-‐-‐12
2 Anne Miller 1992-‐07-‐30
3 Betty Jones 1991-‐03-‐24 * means “project
4 Boris Johnson 1992-‐07-‐30 all attributes”
Query: “Give me all available data about all students”

SELECT StudentNo, Name, Surname, DateOfBirth SELECT *
FROM Student; FROM Student;
This returns the whole table Student as shown above
A Simple Example – Selecting Attributes

Query: “Output student number and name of all students”
Student
1 John Smith 1990-‐10-‐12
2 Anne Miller 1992-‐07-‐30 Result Table
3 Betty Jones 1991-‐03-‐24 StudentNo Name
4 Boris Johnson 1992-‐07-‐30 1 John
2 Anne
SELECT StudentNo, Name
3 Betty
FROM Student;
4 Boris
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A Simple Example – SQL DISTINCT

§ By default SQL does not remove duplicates
§ SQL uses a multi-‐set (bag semantic), whereas Relational Algebra (RA) uses set
(next week)
§ If we want to remove duplicates, we have to use the keyword DISTINCT
SELECT DateOfBirth SELECT DISTINCT DateOfBirth

FROM Student; FROM Student;
Result Table Result Table
DateOfBirth DateOfBirth
1990-‐10-‐12 1990-‐10-‐12
1992-‐07-‐30 1992-‐07-‐30
1991-‐03-‐24 1991-‐03-‐24
1992-‐07-‐30
WHERE Clause
The conditions can be written using:
§ Column names
§ Logical and comparison operators
§ Mathematical expressions
§ Constants
§ Built-‐in DBMS functions
§ Sub-‐queries
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A Simple Example – with WHERE Clause

Query: “Give me all available data about students with a
Student student number less than 3”
1 John Smith 1990-‐10-‐12
2 Anne Miller 1992-‐07-‐30
3 Betty Jones 1991-‐03-‐24
4 Boris Johnson 1992-‐07-‐30
Result Table
SELECT * StudentNo Name Surname DateOfBirth
FROM Student
1 John Smith 1990-‐10-‐12
WHERE StudentNo < 3;
2 Anne Miller 1992-‐07-‐30
Operators in The WHERE Clause

The following operators can be used in the WHERE clause
Operator Description
= Equal
<> Not equal (Note: In some versions of SQL this operator may be written as != )
> Greater than
< Less than
>= Greater than or equal to
<= Less than or equal to
BETWEEN Between an inclusive range
LIKE Search for a pattern
IN To specify multiple possible values for a column
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SQL AND, OR and NOT Operators
§ The WHERE clause can be combined with AND, OR, and NOT operators
§ The AND and OR operators are used to filter records based on more than
one condition
§ The AND operator displays a record if all the conditions separated by AND is TRUE
§ The OR operator displays a record if any of the conditions separated by OR is TRUE
§ The NOT operator displays a record if the condition(s) is NOT TRUE
§ We can also combine the AND, OR and NOT operators!!!
Example: AND, OR, NOT Operators

Query1: Give me all data about Students whose name is “Betty” and from “Berlin”
SELECT *
FROM Student
WHERE Name=‘Betty’ AND City=‘Berlin’;
Query2: Give me all data about Students whose from “Berlin” or “London”
SELECT *
FROM Student
WHERE City=‘Berlin’ OR City=‘London’;
Query3: Give me all data about Students whose not from “Berlin”
SELECT *
FROM Student
WHERE NOT City=‘Berlin’;
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Example: Combining AND, OR, NOT Operators

Query1: Give me all data about Students whose country is “Germany” AND whose
city is “Berlin” OR “Munich” OR “Frankfurt”
SELECT *
FROM Student
WHERE Country=‘Germany’
AND (City=‘Berlin’ OR City=‘Munich’ OR City=‘Frankfurt’);
Query2: Give me all data about Students whose country is NOT “Germany” and
NOT “USA”
SELECT *
FROM Student
WHERE NOT Country=‘Germany’ AND NOT Country=‘USA’;
SQL LIKE Operator: Simple String Pattern Matching

§ The LIKE operator is used in a WHERE clause to search for a specified pattern in a
column
SELECT … FROM … WHERE columnN LIKE ‘pattern’ -‐ pattern matching on strings
§ There are two wildcards used in conjunction with the LIKE operator (In other
words, pattern may contain two special symbols)
§ % -‐ The percent sign represents zero, one, or multiple characters
(any sequence of characters, which can also be empty)
§ _ -‐ The underscore represents a single character (any single character)
§ The % and _ can also be used in combinations!
SELECT *
SELECT *
FROM Student
FROM Student
WHERE Name=‘Betty’
WHERE Name LIKE ‘B%’
OR Name=‘Boris’
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Example: Different LIKE operators with ‘%’

and ‘_’ wildcards
LIKE Operator Description
WHERE Name LIKE ‘a%’ Finds any values that starts with "a"
WHERE Name LIKE '%a' Finds any values that ends with "a"
WHERE Name LIKE '%or%' Finds any values that have "or" in any position
WHERE Name LIKE '_r%' Finds any values that have "r" in the second position
WHERE Name LIKE 'a_%_%' Finds any values that starts with "a" and are at least 3
characters in length
WHERE Name LIKE 'a%o' Finds any values that starts with "a" and ends with "o"
SQL BETWEEN Operator

§ The BETWEEN operator selects values within a given range
§ The values can be numbers, text, or dates
§ The BETWEEN operator is inclusive
§ begin and end values are included
§ To display the products outside of some range, use NOT BETWEEN
SELECT *
FROM Student
WHERE StudentNo BETWEEN 10 AND 20;
SELECT *
FROM Student
WHERE StudentNo NOT BETWEEN 10 AND 20;
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Example: BETWEEN Operator

Query: “Give me the names and surnames of all students who were
born between 1992-‐01-‐01 and 1994-‐01-‐01”
SELECT Name, Surname
FROM Student
WHERE DateOfBirth BETWEEN 1992-01-01 AND 1994-01-01;
This is equivalent with

SELECT Name, Surname
FROM Student
WHERE DateOfBirth >= 1992-01-01
AND DateOfBirth <= 1994-01-01;
SQL IN Operator

§ The IN operator allows us to specify multiple values in a WHERE clause
§ The IN operator is a shorthand for multiple OR conditions
SELECT * SELECT *
FROM Student FROM Student
WHERE StudentNo IN (3, 5); WHERE Name IN (’Anne’, ‘Boris’);
SELECT *
FROM Student
WHERE Name NOT IN (’Anne’, ‘Boris’);
SELECT *
FROM Student
WHERE Name IN (SELECT LecturerName FROM Lecturer);
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SQL NULL Values

§ NULL is a special value in SQL
§ Whenever we don’t have a value for an attribute, we can put a NULL
§ Can mean many things
§ Value does not exists (unavailable)
§ Value exists but is unknown
§ Value not applicable
§ The schema specifies for each attribute if it can be NULL (nullable attribute) or
not (NOT NULL)
§ If an attribute in a table is optional, it is possible to insert a new record or update
a record without adding a value to that field
§ Then, the attribute will be saved with a NULL value
Note: A NULL value is different from a zero value or a field that contains spaces. A field
with a NULL value is one that has been left blank during record creation!
How to Test for NULL Values?

SELECT *
FROM Student
WHERE Address = null;
X
The returned value here is unknown
§ It is NOT POSSIBLE to test for NULL values with comparison operators,
such as =, <, or <>
§ Instead, use the IS NULL and IS NOT NULL operators
§ … WHERE x IS NULL
§ … WHERE x IS NOT NULL
Query: List all Students that Query: List all Students that
has NO address do have an address
SELECT * SELECT *
FROM Students FROM Students
WHERE Address IS NULL; WHERE Address IS NOT NULL
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How does SQL cope with tables that have NULLs?

§ For numerical operations, NULL -‐> NULL
§ If x = NULL then 4*(3-‐x)/7 is still NULL
§ For boolean operations, in SQL there are three values:

FALSE = 0
ü In the case of AND UNKNOWN = 0.5
x AND y = min(x, y) TRUE = 1
ü In the case of OR If x=NULL then x=“Joe” is UNKNOWN
x OR y = max(x, y)
ü In the case of NOT
NOT x = 1 – x

Query: “Give me all data about Students whose age is less than 25, height is
greater than 1.70 cm, and weight is greater than 90kg”
SELECT *
FROM Student
WHERE (age < 25) AND (height > 1.70) AND (weight > 90)
Rule in SQL: include only tuples that yield TRUE (1.0)
Won’t return e.g.

(age=20
height=NULL
weight=100)!
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SELECT *
FROM Student
WHERE age < 25 OR age >= 25
§ Does this query return all the students?

§ Unexpected behavior
Some Students are not included!
§ What about this query?
SELECT *
FROM Student
WHERE age < 25 OR age >= 25 OR age IS NULL
Now it includes all Students!
SQL ORDER BY Keyword: Sorting the Results

§ When you use the SELECT statement to query data from a table, the
result set is not sorted in any orders
§ To sort the result set, use the ORDER BY clause
§ The ORDER BY keyword is used to sort the result-‐set in ascending or
descending order
§ By default the ORDER BY keyword sorts the records in ascending
order (ASC)
§ To sort the records in descending order, use the DESC keyword
Ordering is ascending, unless you specify the DESC keyword
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Query: “Select all students whose student number is less than 4 from the
”Student" table, sorted by the ”Name" column”
Student
1 John Smith 1990-‐10-‐12
2 Anne Miller 1992-‐07-‐30
3 Betty Jones 1991-‐03-‐24
4 Boris Johnson 1992-‐07-‐30
Result Table
SELECT * StudentNo Name Surname DateOfBirth
FROM Student 2 Anne Miller 1992-‐07-‐30
WHERE StudentNo < 4
3 Betty Jones 1991-‐03-‐24
ORDER BY Name;
1 John Smith 1990-‐10-‐-‐12

§ We can also ORDER BY on multiple columns
Query: “Select all customers from the ”Customer" table, sorted DESCENDING
by the “contactLastName” and ASCENDING by the ”contactFirstName" column
SELECT *
FROM Customer
ORDER BY contactLastName DESC,
contactFirstName ASC;
Note: In the query above, the ORDER BY clause sorts the
result set by the last name in descending order first and
then sorts the sorted result set by the first name in
ascending order to produce the final result set
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TOP-‐N Analysis
§ Used to specify the number of records to return
§ Useful on large tables with thousands of records, since returning a
large number of records can impact on performance
§ Ex: Select the first three records from the ”Student" table
SQL Server MySQL

SELECT TOP 3 * SELECT *
FROM Student; FROM Student
LIMIT 3;
Example: TOP-‐N Analysis

§ TOP-‐3 lowest salaries § TOP-‐4 largest rooms
SELECT name, salary SELECT roomNo, capacity

FROM Employee FROM Room
ORDER BY salary ORDER BY capacity DESC
LIMIT 3; LIMIT 4;
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PART II
Multi-‐Table Queries
Accessing More than One Table

§ If more than one relation is specified in the FROM-‐clause and there is no join
condition, then the CARTESIAN PRODUCT of tuples is selected
Student(sid, sname, address, professorid)
Professor(pid, pname, address)
SQL:
SELECT * Query: “Output all students and professors”
FROM Student, Professor;
RA:
𝑆𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡 × 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑓𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑜𝑟
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SELECT *
Cross-‐Product (×) -‐ Example FROM Student, Professor;
Student Professor
sid sname address professorid pid pname address
1 Dave 320FL 1 ×
1 MM 141FL
2 Greg 320FL 1
2 ER 201FL
3 Matt 320FL 2
𝑺𝒕𝒖𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒔 × 𝑷𝒓𝒐𝒇𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒐𝒓
List of tables without sid sname address professorid pid pname address
any condition in the
WHERE clause produces 1 Dave 320FL 1 1 MM 141FL
… Unexpected result!! 1 Dave 320FL 1 2 ER 201FL
2 Greg 320FL 1 1 MM 141FL
Cartesian Products 2 Greg 320FL 1 2 ER 201FL
usually don’t make a 3 Matt 320FL 2 1 MM 141FL
lot of sense 3 Matt 320FL 2 2 ER 201FL
SQL JOINs and Foreign Key constraints

§ We have the following schema:
§ We impose the following constraint:
We say that professorid is a foreign key that refers to Professor
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How do we Declare Foreign Keys?

CREATE TABLE Student(

sid INT NOT NULL,
sname VARCHAR(50),
address CHAR(100),
professorid INT NOT NULL,
PRIMARY KEY (sid),
FOREIGN KEY (professorid) REFERENCES Professor(pid);
)
A FOREIGN KEY is a key used to link two tables together
A FOREIGN KEY in a table points to a PRIMARY KEY in another table
Foreign Keys and UPDATE operations

§ What if we insert a tuple into student, but no corresponding professor?
§ INSERT is rejected (foreign keys are constraints)!
The FOREIGN KEY constraint is used to
prevent actions that would destroy links
between tables
§ What if we delete a professor?
§ Disallow the delete The FOREIGN KEY constraint also
prevents invalid data from being
inserted into the foreign key column,
because it has to be one of the values
contained in the table it points to
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A join between tables returns

all unique combinations of their
The JOIN Operation tuples which meet some
specified join condition
§ The JOIN operation links across several tables as part of a SELECT
operation
§ You must tell the JOIN how to use the keys that make the connection
between the tables using an ON clause
SELECT sname, pname Several equivalent ways to write a
FROM Student, Professor basic join in SQL
WHERE professorid = pid
SELECT sname, pname

FROM Student
JOIN Professor ON ( professorid = pid )
Be Careful…
§ Joining two tables without an On clause (OR without any condition in the WHERE
clause) gives all possible combinations of rows (3 x 2 = total 6 tuples) à Cartesian
Product
§ When there is no ON clause, we are getting rows, where two things do not match
§ So, the On clause is really important to throw away non-‐matching rows
§ With ON clause you would see only the matching rows, which is what you want
sid sname address professorid pid pname address
1 Dave 320FL 1 1 MM 141FL

1 Dave 320FL 1 2 ER 201FL
2 Greg 320FL 1 1 MM 141FL
2 Greg 320FL 1 2 ER 201FL
3 Matt 320FL 2 1 MM 141FL
3 Matt 320FL 2 2 ER 201FL
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Example: Keys and Foreign Keys

Company
CName StockPrice Country
What is a
GizmoWorks 25 USA
foreign key
Canon 65 Japan
here?
Hitachi 15 Japan
Product
PName Price Category Manufacturer
Gizmo $19.99 Gadgets GizmoWorks
Powergizmo $29.99 Gadgets GizmoWorks
SingleTouch $149.99 Photography Canon
MultiTouch $203.99 Household Hitachi
Example: Joins
Product(PName, Price, Category, Manufacturer)
FK Company(CName, StockPrice, Country)
Query: “Find all products under $200 manufactured in Japan;

return their names and prices
SELECT PName, Price

A join between tables returns
FROM Product, Company
all unique combinations of
WHERE Manufacturer = CName
their tuples which meet
AND Country=‘Japan’
some specified join condition
AND Price <= 200;
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Example: Joins
Product
Company
PName Price Category Manuf
Cname Stock Country
Gizmo $19 Gadgets GWorks
GWorks 25 USA
Powergizmo $29 Gadgets GWorks
Canon 65 Japan
SingleTouch $149 Photography Canon
Hitachi 15 Japan
MultiTouch $203 Household Hitachi
SELECT PName, Price

FROM Product, Company
WHERE Manufacturer = CName PName Price
SingleTouch $149
AND Price <= 200;
Example: Joins
Product(PName, Price, Category, Manufacturer)
FK Company(CName, StockPrice, Country)
SELECT PName, Price

FROM Product, Company Several equivalent ways to write a
WHERE Manufacturer = CName basic join in SQL
AND Price <= 200;
SELECT PName, Price

FROM Product
JOIN Company ON ( Manufacturer = Cname AND Country=‘Japan’ )
WHERE Price <= 200;
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Semantics of JOINs (2 tables) SELECT R.A

FROM R, S
WHERE R.A = S.B
Recall: Cross product (A X B) is the set of

all unique tuples in A,B
Ex: {a,b,c} X {1,2}
= {(a,1), (a,2), (b,1), (b,2), (c,1), (c,2)}
= Filtering!
= Returning only some

attributes
Remembering this order is critical to understanding the output of certain
queries (see later on…)
An example of A
SELECT R.A Output
SQL semantics FROM R, S 3
A WHERE R.A = S.B 3
1 A B C
3 1 2 3
Cross Product 1 3 4 Apply

B C Apply Projection
1 3 5 Selections /
2 3 Conditions
3 2 3 A B C
3 4
3 3 4 3 3 4
3 5
3 3 5 3 3 5
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Note: we say “semantics” not “execution order”
§ The preceding slides show what a join means
§ Not actually how the DBMS executes it under the covers
Aliases: Tuple Variable Ambiguity in Multi-‐Table

Person(name, address, worksfor)
Company(name, address)
SELECT DISTINCT name, address

FROM Person, Company
WHERE worksfor = name;
Which “address” does this refer to?
Which “name”s??
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Aliases: Tuple Variable Ambiguity in Multi-‐Table

Person(name, address, worksfor)
SELECT DISTINCT name, address
Company(name, address) FROM Person, Company
WHERE worksfor = name;
SELECT DISTINCT Person.name, Person.address

FROM Person, Company
All are WHERE Person.worksfor = Company.name;
equivalent
ways to resolve SELECT DISTINCT p.name, p.address
variable FROM Person AS p, Company AS c
ambiguity WHERE p.worksfor = c.name;
SELECT DISTINCT p.name, p.address

FROM Person p, Company c
WHERE p.worksfor = c.name;
Aliases
§ SQL aliases are used to give a table, or a column in a table, a temporary name
§ Aliases can also be used to make column names more readable
§ An alias only exists for the duration of the query
Result Table
StudentNo Name
Alias for Columns
1 John
SELECT StudentNo, Name 2 Anne Result Table
FROM Student; 3 Betty No Student
4 Boris 1 John
SELECT StudentNo AS No, Name AS Student 2 Anne
FROM Student; 3 Betty
4 Boris
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Aliases
Note: It requires double quotation marks or square brackets if the alias
name contains spaces
SELECT StudentNo AS “Student No”, Name AS “Student Name”
FROM Student;
Ex: Create an alias named "Address" that combine four columns
(Address, PostalCode, City and Country) from customer table
SELECT Address + ', ' + PostalCode + ’, ' + City + ', ' + Country AS Address
FROM Customer;
SELECT CONCAT(Address, ‘, ‘, PostalCode, ‘, ‘, City, ‘, ‘, Country) AS Address

FROM Customer;
More on JOINs

§ Different join variants are available in SQL
§ (INNER) JOIN: Returns records that have matching values in both tables
§ LEFT (OUTER) JOIN: Return all records from the left table, and the matched records
from the right table
§ RIGHT (OUTER) JOIN: Return all records from the right table, and the matched records
from the left table
§ FULL (OUTER) JOIN: Return all records when there is a match in either left or right
table
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Inner Joins
By default, joins in SQL are “inner joins”
Product(name, category)
Purchase(prodName, store)
SELECT Product.name, Purchase.store

FROM Product
JOIN Purchase ON Product.name = Purchase.prodName
Both equivalent:
Both INNER JOINS!
FROM Product, Purchase
WHERE Product.name = Purchase.prodName
However: Products that never sold (with no Purchase tuple) will be lost!
Inner Joins Purchase

Product prodName store
name category Gizmo Wiz
Gizmo gadget Camera Ritz
Camera Photo Camera Wiz
OneClick Photo Mamaro Kiz
SELECT Product.name, Purchase.store name store

FROM Product Gizmo Wiz
INNER JOIN Purchase
ON Product.name = Purchase.prodName Camera Ritz
Camera Wiz
Note: another equivalent way to
write an INNER JOIN!
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Outer Joins
§ An outer join returns tuples from the joined relations that
don’t have a corresponding tuple in the other relations
§ I.e. If we join relations A and B on a.X = b.X, and there is an entry in A
with X=5, but none in B with X=5…
§ A LEFT OUTER JOIN will return a tuple (a, NULL)!

§ Left outer joins in SQL: FROM Product
LEFT OUTER JOIN Purchase ON
Product.name = Purchase.prodName
Now we’ll get products even if they didn’t sell
LEFT OUTER JOIN Purchase

name store
SELECT Product.name, Purchase.store Gizmo Wiz
FROM Product Camera Ritz
LEFT OUTER JOIN Purchase
ON Product.name = Purchase.prodName Camera Wiz
OneClick NULL
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RIGHT OUTER JOIN

§ The RIGHT JOIN keyword returns all records from the right table
(table2), and the matched records from the left table (table1)
§ The result is NULL from the left side, when there is no match

§ Right Outer Joins in SQL: FROM Product
RIGHT OUTER JOIN Purchase ON
RIGHT OUTER JOIN Purchase

name store
SELECT Product.name, Purchase.store Gizmo Wiz
FROM Product Camera Ritz
RIGHT OUTER JOIN Purchase
ON Product.name = Purchase.prodName Camera Wiz
NULL Kiz
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FULL OUTER JOIN

§ The FULL OUTER JOIN keyword return all records when there is a match in
either left (table1) or right (table2) table records
§ Returns all the rows from the left table (table1), and all the rows from the right table
(table2)
§ Plus, if there are rows in ”table1" that do not have matches in ”table2", or if there are
rows in ”table2" that do not have matches in ”table1", those rows will be listed as well
§ Note: FULL OUTER JOIN can potentially return very large result-‐sets!
§ Full Outer Joins in SQL: SELECT Product.name, Purchase.store

FROM Product
FULL OUTER JOIN Purchase ON
FULL OUTER JOIN

Purchase
OneClick Photo Mamaro Kiz name store
Gizmo Wiz
SELECT Product.name, Purchase.store Camera Ritz

FROM Product Camera Wiz
FULL OUTER JOIN Purchase
OneClick NULL
ON Product.name = Purchase.prodName
NULL Kiz
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Tips on Outer Joins

§ Left outer join
§ Include the left tuple even if there’s no match
§ Right outer join

§ Include the right tuple even if there’s no match
§ Full outer join

§ Include the both left and right tuples even if there’s no match
PART III
Set Operators & Nested Queries
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Set Operations
§ The usual set operations are also available in SQL
§ UNION
§ INTERSECT
§ EXCEPT (set difference)
SQL UNION
§ The UNION operator is used to combine the result-‐set of two or more
SELECT statements
§ Each SELECT statement within UNION must have the same number of
columns
§ The columns must also have similar data types
§ The columns in each SELECT statement must also be in the same order
SELECT column_name(s) A ∪ 𝐵
There will be NO duplicates!!
FROM table1 Only distinct values
UNION A B
SELECT column_name(s)
Why aren’t there duplicates?
FROM table2
By default: SQL retains set semantics
for UNIONs, INTERSECTs!
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Example: UNION
What if we want

duplicates?
SQL UNION ALL

§ The UNION operator selects only distinct values by default
§ In contrast to SELECT, UNION does remove duplicates
automatically
§ To allow duplicate values, use UNION ALL
A ∪ 𝐵
SELECT column_name(s)
ALL indicates
FROM table1
UNION ALL A B Multiset
SELECT column_name(s) operations
FROM table2
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SQL EXCEPT -‐ SQL INTERSECT
SELECT column_name(s) SELECT column_name(s)

FROM table1 FROM table1
EXCEPT INTERSECT
SELECT column_name(s) SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table2 FROM table2
A ∩ 𝐵
A \B
A B A B
What is the
multiset
versions?
Example: EXCEPT
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Example: INTERSECT
Nested Queries: Sub-‐queries return relations

§ SQL allows nested queries
§ I.e, there may be more than one sfw-‐block
§ This nested sfw-‐block can appear in the where, from, and even the
select clause
§ Basically, the “inner” query computes some kind of intermediate
result that is used in the “outer” query
§ We can do nested queries because SQL is compositional
§ Everything (inputs / outputs) is represented as multisets-‐ the output of one
query can thus be used as the input to another (nesting)!
§ This is extremely powerful!
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Nested queries: Sub-‐queries Returning Relations

Company(name, city)
Product(name, maker)
Purchase(id, product, buyer)
SELECT c.city “Cities where one

FROM Company c can find
WHERE c.name IN ( companies that
SELECT pr.maker manufacture
FROM Purchase p, Product pr products bought
WHERE p.product = pr.name by Joe Blow”
AND p.buyer = ‘Joe Blow‘)
Example: Nested Queries
SELECT DISTINCT c.city SELECT DISTINCT c.city

FROM Company c, FROM Company c
Product pr, WHERE c.name IN (
Purchase p SELECT pr.maker
WHERE c.name = pr.maker FROM Purchase p, Product pr
AND pr.name = p.product WHERE p.product = pr.name
AND p.buyer = ‘Joe Blow’ AND p.buyer = ‘Joe Blow‘)
They are equivalent
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We can also use operations of the form:
§ s > ALL R
§ s < ANY R
§ EXISTS R
Ex: Product(name, price, category, maker)
SELECT name Find products that

FROM Product are more expensive
WHERE price > ALL( than all those
SELECT price produced by
FROM Product “Gizmo-‐Works”
WHERE maker = ‘Gizmo-Works’)

We can also use operations of the form:
§ s > ALL R
§ s < ANY R
§ EXISTS R
Ex: Product(name, price, category, maker) Find ‘copycat’
products, i.e.
SELECT p1.name products made by
FROM Product p1 competitors with
WHERE p1.maker = ‘Gizmo-Works’ the same names as
AND EXISTS(
SELECT p2.name
products made by
FROM Product p2 “Gizmo-‐Works”
<> means !=
WHERE p2.maker <> ‘Gizmo-Works’
AND p1.name = p2.name)
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Nested queries as alternatives to INTERSECT and

EXCEPT
(SELECT R.A, R.B SELECT R.A, R.B
FROM R) FROM R
INTERSECT WHERE EXISTS(
(SELECT S.A, S.B SELECT *
FROM S) FROM S
WHERE R.A=S.A AND R.B=S.B)
(SELECT R.A, R.B SELECT R.A, R.B

FROM R) FROM R
EXCEPT WHERE NOT EXISTS(
(SELECT S.A, S.B SELECT *
FROM S) FROM S INTERSECT and
WHERE R.A=S.A AND R.B=S.B) EXCEPT not in some
DBMSs!
PART IV
Aggregation -‐ GROUP BY -‐ HAVING
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SQL Functions
§ SQL has many built-‐in functions for performing calculations on data
§ SQL String Functions
§ SQL Date Functions
§ SQL Aggregate Functions
Function Description
SQL String CHARINDEX
Searches an expression in a string expression and returns its
starting position if found
Functions CONCAT()
LEFT()
LEN() / LENGTH() Returns the length of the value in a text field
LOWER() / LCASE() Converts character data to lower case
LTRIM()
SUBSTRING() /
Extract characters from a text field
MID()
PATINDEX()
REPLACE()
RIGHT()
RTRIM()
UPPER() / UCASE() Converts character data to upper case
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SQL Date Functions

NOW() Returns the current date and time
CURDATE() Returns the current date
CURTIME() Returns the current time
DATE() Extracts the date part of a date or date/time expression
EXTRACT() Returns a single part of a date/time
DATE_ADD() Adds a specified time interval to a date
DATE_SUB() Subtracts a specified time interval from a date
DATEDIFF() Returns the number of days between two dates
DATE_FORMAT() Displays date/time data in different formats
SQL Aggregate Functions

SQL aggregate functions return a single value, calculated from values in a column
AVG() Returns the average value
COUNT() Returns the number of rows
FIRST() Returns the first value
LAST() Returns the last value
MAX() Returns the largest value
MIN() Returns the smallest value
ROUND() Rounds a numeric field to the number of decimals specified
SUM() Returns the sum
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Possible Aggregations in SQL
SELECT COUNT (*) FROM Student;

SELECT COUNT (sNumber) FROM Student;
SELECT MIN (sNumber) FROM Student;
SELECT MAX (sNumber) FROM Student;
SELECT SUM (sNumber) FROM Student;
SELECT AVG (sNumber) FROM Student;
Example: Aggregation
SELECT AVG(price) SELECT COUNT(*)

FROM Product FROM Product
WHERE maker = “Toyota” WHERE year > 1995
Except COUNT, all aggregations

apply to a single attribute!!
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Aggregation: COUNT
COUNT applies to duplicates, unless otherwise stated
SELECT COUNT(category)
FROM Product Note: Same as COUNT(*)
WHERE year > 1995
We probably want:
SELECT COUNT(DISTINCT category)
FROM Product
WHERE year > 1995
More Examples
Purchase(product, date, price, quantity)
SELECT SUM(price * quantity)

FROM Purchase
What do these mean?

FROM Purchase
WHERE product = ‘bagel’
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Simple Aggregations
Purchase
Product Date Price Quantity
bagel 10/21/2005 1 20
banana 10/03/2005 0.5 10
banana 10/10/2005 1 10
bagel 10/25/2005 1.50 20

FROM Purchase 50 (= 1*20 + 1.50*20)
WHERE product = ‘bagel’
Grouping and Aggregation

Purchase(product, date, price, quantity)
SELECT product, Find total sales

SUM(price * quantity) AS TotalSales after 10/1/2005
FROM Purchase per product
WHERE date > ‘10/1/2005’
GROUP BY product
The GROUP BY statement is often used with aggregate functions

(COUNT, MAX, MIN, SUM, AVG) to group the result-set by one or more columns
Let’s see what this means…
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Grouping and Aggregation

Semantics of the query:
1. Compute the FROM and WHERE clauses
2. Group by the attributes in the GROUP BY
3. Compute the SELECT clause: grouped attributes and aggregates
1. Compute the FROM and WHERE clauses

SELECT product, SUM(price*quantity) AS TotalSales
FROM Purchase
WHERE date > ‘10/1/2005’
GROUP BY product
Purchase
FROM bagel 10/21/2005 1 20
banana 10/03/2005 0.5 10
banana 10/10/2005 1 10
bagel 10/25/2005 1.50 20
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2. Group by the attributes in the GROUP BY

FROM Purchase
WHERE date > ‘10/1/2005’
GROUP BY product
Product Date Price Quantity GROUP BY Product Date Price Quantity

Bagel 10/21/2005 1 20 10/21/2005 1 20
Bagel
Bagel 10/03/2005 1.50 20 10/03/2005 1.50 20
Banana 10/10/2005 0.5 10 10/10/2005 0.5 10
Banana
Banana 10/25/2005 1 10 10/25/2005 1 10
3. Compute the SELECT clause:

Grouped attributes and Aggregates
FROM Purchase
WHERE date > ‘10/1/2005’
GROUP BY product

SELECT Product TotalSales
10/21 1 20
Bagel
10/25 1.50 20 Bagel 50
10/3 0.5 10
Banana Banana 15
10/10 1 10
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HAVING Clause
The HAVING clause was added to SQL because the WHERE keyword
could not be used with aggregate functions
SELECT product, SUM(price*quantity) Same query as
FROM Purchase before, except that
WHERE date > ‘10/1/2005’ we consider only
GROUP BY product
HAVING SUM(quantity) > 100
products that have
more than
100 buyers
HAVING clauses contains conditions on aggregates
Whereas WHERE clauses condition on individual tuples…
General form of Grouping and Aggregation

SELECT S
FROM R1,…,Rn
WHERE C1
GROUP BY a1,…,ak
HAVING C2
§ S = Can ONLY contain attributes a1,…,ak and/or aggregates over other attributes
§ C1 = is any condition on the attributes in R1,…,Rn
§ C2 = is any condition on the aggregate expressions
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General form of Grouping and Aggregation

SELECT S
FROM R1,…,Rn
WHERE C1
GROUP BY a1,…,ak
HAVING C2
Evaluation steps
1. Evaluate FROM-‐WHERE: apply condition C1 on the attributes in R1,…,Rn
2. GROUP BY the attributes a1,…,ak
3. Apply condition C2 to each group (may have aggregates)
4. Compute aggregates in S and return the result
Group-‐by v.s. Nested Query

Author(login, name)
Wrote(login, url)
§ Find authors who wrote ³ 10 documents:

§ Attempt 1: with nested queries
SELECT DISTINCT Author.name This is
FROM Author SQL by
a novice
WHERE COUNT(
SELECT Wrote.url
FROM Wrote
WHERE Author.login = Wrote.login) > 10
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Group-‐by v.s. Nested Query

§ Find all authors who wrote at least 10 documents:
§ Attempt 2: SQL style (with GROUP BY)
SELECT Author.name This is

SQL by
FROM Author, Wrote an expert
WHERE Author.login = Wrote.login
GROUP BY Author.name
HAVING COUNT(Wrote.url) > 10
No need for DISTINCT: automatically from GROUP BY
Group-‐by vs. Nested Query

Which way is more efficient?
§ Attempt #1-‐ With nested: How many times do we do a SFW query
over all of the Wrote relations?
§ Attempt #2-‐ With group-‐by: How about when written this way?
With GROUP BY can be much more efficient!
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Writing Queries: Rules of Thumb

§ Start with the FROM clause
§ Which table(s) do you need?
§ If you need more than one table, determine the necessary join conditions
§ for N tables, you typically need N – 1 join conditions
§ is an outer join needed – i.e., do you need to include unmatched tuples?
§ Determine if a GROUP BY clause is needed
§ are you performing computations involving subgroups?
§ Determine any other conditions that are needed
§ if they rely on aggregate functions, put in a HAVING clause
§ otherwise, add to the WHERE clause
§ Is a subquery needed?
§ Fill in the rest of the query: SELECT, ORDER BY?
Summary of SQL Queries

§ A query in SQL can consist of up to six clauses
§ Only the first two, SELECT and FROM, are mandatory
§ The clauses are specified in the following order
SELECT <attribute list>

FROM <table list>
[WHERE <condition> ]
[GROUP BY <grouping attribute(s)> ]
[HAVING <group condition> ]
[ORDER BY <attribute list> ]
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Summary of SQL Queries

§ The SELECT-‐clause lists the attributes or functions to be retrieved
§ The FROM-‐clause specifies all relations (or aliases) needed in the
query but not those needed in nested queries
§ The WHERE-‐clause specifies the conditions for selection and join of
tuples from the relations specified in the FROM-‐clause
§ GROUP BY specifies grouping attributes
§ HAVING specifies a condition for selection of groups
§ ORDER BY specifies an order for displaying the result of a query
§ A query is evaluated by first applying the WHERE-‐clause, then GROUP
BY and HAVING, and finally the SELECT-‐clause
Summary
SQL is a rich programming language

that handles the way data is processed
declaratively
50

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4/7/19

BIM312 Database Management

Week 9 – SQL Part II

SQL stands for

Review: SQL is a…

§ Data Manipulation Language (DML)

QUERYING / RETRIEVING INFORMATION FROM

SELECT-­‐FROM-­‐WHERE (SFW) Query

Example: SFW Query

How the Query is Evaluated?

A Simple Example – Unspecified WHERE and *

Query: “Give me all available data about all students”

This returns the whole table Student as shown above

A Simple Example – Selecting Attributes

A Simple Example – SQL DISTINCT

SELECT DateOfBirth SELECT DISTINCT DateOfBirth

A Simple Example – with WHERE Clause

Operators in The WHERE Clause

SQL AND, OR and NOT Operators

§ We can also combine the AND, OR and NOT operators!!!

Example: AND, OR, NOT Operators

Example: Combining AND, OR, NOT Operators

SQL LIKE Operator: Simple String Pattern Matching

Example: Different LIKE operators with ‘%’

SQL BETWEEN Operator

Example: BETWEEN Operator

This is equivalent with

SQL IN Operator

SQL NULL Values

How to Test for NULL Values?

How does SQL cope with tables that have NULLs?

§ For boolean operations, in SQL there are three values:

How does SQL cope with tables that have NULLs?

Won’t return e.g.

How does SQL cope with tables that have NULLs?

§ Does this query return all the students?

Now it includes all Students!

SQL ORDER BY Keyword: Sorting the Results

SQL ORDER BY Keyword: Sorting the Results

SQL ORDER BY Keyword: Sorting the Results

SQL Server MySQL

Example: TOP-­‐N Analysis

SELECT name, salary SELECT roomNo, capacity

Accessing More than One Table

SQL JOINs and Foreign Key constraints

§ We impose the following constraint:

We say that professorid is a foreign key that refers to Professor

How do we Declare Foreign Keys?

CREATE TABLE Student(

Foreign Keys and UPDATE operations

A join between tables returns

SELECT sname, pname

1 Dave 320FL 1 1 MM 141FL

Example: Keys and Foreign Keys

Query: “Find all products under $200 manufactured in Japan;

SELECT PName, Price

SELECT PName, Price

SELECT PName, Price

SELECT PName, Price

Semantics of JOINs (2 tables) SELECT R.A

Recall: Cross product (A X B) is the set of

= Returning only some

A WHERE R.A = S.B 3

SELECT-‐FROM-‐WHERE (SFW) Query

Example: TOP-‐N Analysis

Aliases: Tuple Variable Ambiguity in Multi-‐Table

Aliases: Tuple Variable Ambiguity in Multi-‐Table

SQL EXCEPT -‐ SQL INTERSECT

Nested Queries: Sub-‐queries return relations

Nested queries: Sub-‐queries Returning Relations

Nested queries: Sub-‐queries Returning Relations

Nested queries: Sub-‐queries Returning Relations