International

Finance
Project of Financial Institutions

Submitted By Muhammad Arif Hassan

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Contents
Introduction to International Finance..................................................................................................2
New Global Economic War...................................................................................................................4
Importance of International Finance...................................................................................................4
Characteristic of International Finance................................................................................................5
Market Imperfection............................................................................................................................7
International Financial Markets...........................................................................................................8
International flow and Funds.............................................................................................................10
Types of flow of funds........................................................................................................................11
Exchange Rate Behavior.....................................................................................................................12
Accounting Rules...............................................................................................................................13
Legal Framework................................................................................................................................14
Ease of doing Business.......................................................................................................................15
International Corporate Governance and Control..............................................................................17
Currency Derivations..........................................................................................................................17
Risk and Risk Management................................................................................................................18
International Capital Budgeting.........................................................................................................19
International cash management........................................................................................................19
Pitfalls................................................................................................................................................22

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Introduction to International Finance

Globalization is more integrated financial markets, economies and trade, higher factor mobility,
and spectacular change in information technology leading to the spread of knowledge throughout
the world. Globalization is both a beneficial and a challenging, inevitable, irreversible process
for the world economy and the international financial system.
Globalization of trade implies universalization of the process of trade. In late 20th century,
concept of outward orientation or trade liberation boost up the international trade and open a
new chapter of international finance. In financial economics International Finance is consider as
an important part. Multinational or International finance mainly discusses the issues related with
monetary interactions of at least two or more countries. International finance is concerned with
subjects such as exchange rates of currencies, monetary systems of the world, foreign direct
investment (FDI), and other important issues associated with international financial management.
International finance which is also refer as International Monetary Economics is the branch
of financial economics broadly concerned with monetary and macroeconomic interrelations
between two or more countriesi.
Like international trade and business, international finance exists due to the fact that economic
activities of businesses, governments, and organizations get affected by the existence of nations.
It is a known fact that countries often borrow and lend from each other. In such trades, many
countries use their own currencies. Therefore, we must understand how the currencies compare
with each other. Moreover, we should also have a good understanding of how these goods are
paid for and what is the determining factor of the prices that the currencies trade at.
The World Bank, the International Finance Corporation (IFC), the International Monetary Fund
(IMF), and the National Bureau of Economic Research (NBER) are some of the notable
international finance organizations.
World trade has expanded by more than 6 percent a year since 1950, which is more than 50
percent faster than growth of output the most dramatic increase in globalization, has occurred in
financial markets. In the global forex markets, billions of dollars are transacted each day, of
which more than 90 percent represent financial transactions unrelated to trade or investment.
(SIDE NOTE INFORMATION)
International trade is one of the most important factors of growth and prosperity of participating
economies. Its importance has got magnified many times due to globalization. International
finance examines the dynamics of the global financial system, international monetary
systems, balance of payments, exchange rates, foreign direct investment, and how these topics
relate to international trade.
Sometimes referred to as multinational finance, international finance is additionally concerned
with matters of international financial management. Investors and multinational
corporations must assess and manage international risks such as political risk and foreign
exchange risk, including transaction exposure, economic exposure, and translation exposure.
Pakistan has bilateral and multilateral trade agreements with many nations and international
organizations. It is a member of the World Trade Organization, part of the South Asian Free

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Trade Area agreement and the China–Pakistan Free Trade Agreement. Fluctuating world demand
for its exports, domestic political uncertainty, and the impact of occasional droughts on its
agricultural production have all contributed to variability in Pakistan's trade deficit. The current
trade deficit of Pakistan is 341272 Million PKR. (Jan 2019)
Pakistan's exports continue to be dominated by cotton textiles and apparel. Imports include
petroleum and petroleum products, chemicals, fertilizer, capital goods, industrial raw materials,
and IT products.

Pakistan had a total export of 21,877,787.16 in thousands of US$ and total imports of
57,440,012.50 in thousands of US$ leading to a negative trade balance of -35,562,225.34 in
thousands of US$The trade growth is -2.60% compared to a world growth of 1.50%. GDP of
Pakistan is 304,951,818,494.07 in current US$. Pakistan services export is 5,718,000,000 in BoP,
current US$ and services import is 10,466,000,000 in Bop, current US$. Pakistan exports of
goods and services as percentage of GDP is 8.24% and imports of goods and services as
percentage of GDP is 17.55%.

TOP 10
TOP 10 EXPORT
IMPORT
COUNTRIES
COUNTRIES
Country Import USD$
COUNTRY Export USD$
China $15,383,397,803
UNITED STATES $3,560,300,692
United Arab $7,523,994,442
UNITED KINGDOM $1,634,955,498
Emirates
United States $2,842,546,760
CHINA $1,508,079,658
Saudi Arabia $2,730,371,304
AFGHANISTAN $1,390,081,390
Indonesia $2,583,267,022
GERMANY $1,286,490,628
Japan $2,293,951,028
SPAIN $904,571,068
India $1,696,136,475
UNITEDARAB $869,050,183
EMIRATES
Qatar $1,608,304,627
NETHERLANDS $758,215,041
Kuwait $1,468,124,908
ITALY $703,342,985
Thailand $1,279,321,119
BELGIUM $700,690,563
Sources

1. UN Comtrade (2017) except where stated otherwise.

2. The World Bank. Accessed: 12/1/2018

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New Global Economic War

After the Second War and the IMF par value system came into existence, we became half of the
new world system. Countries had exchange management and numerous styles of trade
restrictions. It was once the Seventies that gently a theme of versatile exchange rates came into
existence among leading developed countries. Bit by bit the developed countries started freeing
their exchange rates and conjointly stirred towards their system off trade.

The World Trade Organization, of that we tend to area unit a member, is currently introducing
complete the globe a trade system. Once the appearance of Economic Reforms from 1991-1992,
we have stirred over to currency, interchangeability on accounting. The importance of the World
Bank as financier has diminished significantly. The globe is currently hooked in to private capital
imports. Even the role of the UN agency has diminished with most countries adopting currency
interchangeability. Capital flows area unit moving on a large-scale hooked in to incentives. Most
countries have raised trade barriers and reduced import duties.

The global organization is introducing system within which domestic subsidies have to be
compelled to be removed and uniform and low import duties have currently to become the
quality. There’s no place for tariff barriers and non-tariff barriers also are currently obtaining
raised. The world’s industries area unit now organized mostly in terms of transnational
companies whose operations transcend many countries. International demonstration effects area
unit operating powerfully in deciding the living designs all told countries client merchandise.

Importance of International Finance

International finance plays a critical role in international trade and inter-economy exchange of
goods and services. It is important for a number of reasons, the most notable ones are listed here
International finance is an important tool to find the exchange rates, compare inflation rates, get
an idea about investing in international debt securities, ascertain the economic status of other
countries and judge the foreign markets. International financial significance cannot be
exaggerated. It is, however, the core factor to successful business operations. In the absence of
finance in local even in international market, no entity can achieve its full strengths for success
and growth. We all know that money is a worldwide lubricant that keeps the local and
multinational enterprise dynamic in developing product, keeping machines and men in working,
motivating management to create values and progress. As I have discussed above that
globalization open the market for major corporations to business into international markets, but it
also brings corporations to a variety of risks that they can face while operating in international
era and in this regard international financial management is the only solution to mitigate these
risks and expose corporations to the whole world to operate in.

Characteristic of International Finance

Like any finance function, international finance, the finance function of a multinational firm has
two functions namely, treasury and control. The treasurer is responsible for financial planning

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analysis, fund acquisition, investment financing, cash management, investment decision and risk
management. On the other hand, controller deals with the functions related to external reporting,
tax planning and management, management information system, financial and management
accounting, budget planning and control, and accounts receivables etc. For maximizing the
returns from investment and to minimize the cost of finance, the firms has to take portfolio
decision based on analytical skills required for this purpose.

Since the firm has to raise funds from different financial markets of the world, which needs to
actively exploit market imperfections and the firm’s superior forecasting ability to generate
purely financial gains. The complex nature of managing international finance is due to the fact
that a wide variety of financial instruments, products, funding options and investment vehicles
are available for both reactive and proactive management of corporate finance. Multinational
finance is multidisciplinary in nature, while an understanding of economic theories and
principles is necessary to estimate and model financial decisions, financial accounting and
management accounting help in decision making in financial management at multinational level.

Because of changing nature of environment at international level, the knowledge of latest

changes in forex rates, volatility in capital market, interest rate fluctuations, macro level charges,
micro level economic indicators, savings, consumption pattern, interest preference, investment
behavior of investors, export and import trends, competition, banking sector performance,
inflationary trends, demand and supply conditions etc. is required by the practitioners of
international financial management.

International Finance is a distinct field of study and certain features set it apart from other fields.
The important distinguishing features of international finance from domestic financial
management are discussed below:

 Foreign Exchange Risk

 Political risk

 Expended opportunity set

 Market Imperfection

 Integrated Risk

Foreign Exchange Risk

Foreign exchange rate risk is the potential gain or loss resulting from a change in exchange rate.
It is the risk arising from the adverse movements in exchange rate to the earnings and capital. It
is the impact of adverse movement in currency exchange rate on the value of open foreign
currency position. Banks faced this risk that arises from maturity mismatching of foreign
currency positions. Banks also face the risk of failure to pay of counter party in foreign exchange
business. While such type of risk crystallization does not cause primary loss, bank may
undertake new transaction in cash/spot market for replacing the failed transactions.

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Ankrom (1974) was the first writers who classify the foreign exchange risk in different
categories. Many other writers and researcher also classified foreign exchange risk in different
types. These authors include Walker (1978), Whilborg (1980), Dumas (1984), and Shapiro
(1989). Following are three main kinds of foreign exchange risk,
 Translation exposure
 Transaction exposure
 Operating exposure
Translation exposure
Translation exposure, also known as accounting exposure, arises from the need for purpose of
reporting and consolidation, to convert the financial statements of foreign operations from the
local currency (LC) involved to home currency (HC). If exchange rate has changed, liabilities
revenues, expenses, gains and losses that are denominated in foreign currency will result in
foreign exchange gain or loss.
Transaction exposure
Transaction risk, result from transactions that give rise to know, actually binding future foreign-
currency-denominated cash inflows or cash outflows. As exchange rate change between now and
when these transactions settle, so does the value of their associated foreign currency cash flow,
leading to currency gains or losses
Operating exposure
Operating exposure, measures the extent to which currency fluctuations can alter a company’s
future operating cash flows, that is, its future revenues and costs. The firm faces operating
exposure the moment it invests in servicing a market subject to foreign competition or in
sourcing goods or inputs abroad. This investment includes new-product development, a
distribution network, foreigndirect investment.
Political risk

International political risks for businesses are first and foremost economic threats caused by
events like terrorism, war, sanctions, and other disagreements between heads of two or more
states. In other words, it is a risk of losing money due to unstable governments, economies or
threatened nations. This concept looks covers a broad spectrum of diverse problems. Some of the
risks that international politics poses to businesses are ongoing, others only happen under the
pressure of certain events and occur on an occasional basis.

Expended Opportunity Set

Expended Opportunity Set means different things to different people as per the situation. Some
people understand the timeless adage of “don’t put all of your eggs in one basket,” which
strongly emphasizes the risk side of the investment coin. It could also be understood as the
ability to expand our opportunity set. This takes a sober inquisition into our own limitations as
investor.

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By doing business in other than native countries, a business expands its chances of reaping fruits
of different taste. Not only does it enhance the opportunity for the business but also diversifies
the overall risk of a business.

Just like domestic financial management, the goal of International Finance is also to maximize
the shareholder’s wealth. The goal is not only is limited to the ‘Shareholders’ but extends to all
‘Stakeholders’ viz. employees, suppliers, customers etc. No goal can be achieved without
achieving welfare of shareholders. In other words, maximizing shareholder’s wealth would mean
maximizing the price of the share. Here again comes a question, whether in which currency
should the value of the share be maximized? This is an important decision to be taken by the
management of the organization.

International level initiatives like General Agreement on Trade and Tariffs (GATT), The North
American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), World Trade Organization (WHO) etc has to give
promoted international trade and given it a shape. All because of liberalization and those
international agreements, we have a buzz word called “MNC” i.e. Multinational Corporations.
MNCs enjoy an edge over other normal companies because of its international setting and best
opportunities.

International Finance has become an important wing for all big MNCs. Without the expertise in
International Financial Management, it can be difficult to sustain in the market because
international financial markets have totally different shape and analytics compared to the
domestic financial markets. A sound management of international finances can help an
organization achieve same efficiency and effectiveness in all markets.

Market Imperfection

Market imperfections theory is a trade theory that arises from international markets where
perfect competition doesn't exist. In other words, at least one of the assumptions for perfect
competition is violated and out of this is comes what we call an imperfect market. We know that
a perfect market isn't really attainable. Even in the United States, we have imperfect markets.
Remember, the assumptions for a perfect market are:

1. Buyers and sellers are both price takers

2. Companies sell virtually identical products

3. Buyers and sellers have perfect information

4. Multiple companies owns a small market share

5. There is no barrier of entry or exit

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Common situations that violate perfect competition are market structures like monopolies,
monopolistic competition, and oligopolies. With international trade, firms are seen as price takers
because they are only a small part of a foreign market. They can't influence the price, have to
deal with government interference related to trade, and operate with imperfect information. This
is why International (eg. Volkswagen) automotive companies moved some operations to the
United States.

What is interesting about market imperfections theory is that it is an international trade theory. It
tells us that in international markets, certain protections are necessary to safeguard our interests.
Free trade is a function of perfect competition, and given that it doesn't exist, we need to look at
ways to get more desirable outcomes. This is where government interference enters.
The existence of market imperfection is due to following reasons.
a) Tariffs are imposed by states on international transactions.
b) Taxes are also applied on different transections by different states.
c) Quotas are also set for different products and goods.
d) There is a local content requirement

International Financial Markets

The International Financial Market is the place where financial wealth is traded between
individuals (and between countries). It can be seen as a wide set of rules and institutions where
assets are traded between agents in surplus and agents in deficit and where institutions lay down
the rules.

The financial market comprises the markets strictusensu (stock market, bond market, currency
market, derivatives market, commodity market and money market), the institutions which work
in them with different aims and functions (Central Bank, Ministry of Economy and Finance), as
well as direct/indirect policies orientated to making the market the place (not necessarily a
physical place and not necessarily ruled but regulated) where the exchange between surplus and
deficit units is carried out as efficiently as possible.

With regard to policies, consideration must be given to those connected with monetary, fiscal and
more structural policies, as well as those directly connected with the governance of the market
itself. Governance in the financial market can be defined as a set of rules useful in
interconnecting the agents who operate within it and the institutions. These rules define the
market.Governance rules in a financial market can be defined at both a microeconomic and
macroeconomic level.

Microeconomic rules deal not only with individuals (single money savers, professional agents,
and companies) but also with the market itself and its microstructure. Macroeconomic
governance rules deal with the market as a whole, but they are also strictly connected with
policies regulating the market.

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At a macroeconomic level, governance is important for the financial market in order to define
every single rule of the trading process: from those which regulate the stock exchange or the
Over The Counter (OTC) trades to those which define who can join the market. Moreover, great
importance is given to the market microstructure, where microstructure is understood as the set
of rules that makes and defines the asset exchange price. This is a main point in allowing the
market to function properly. The liquidity/thickness/depth of the market depends on the price
formation rules according to which the asset is traded off. At a microeconomic level, the steps to
trade assets on the financial market are: listing, trading, and post-trading. The latter comprises
clearing, settlement, and custody. From the market insiders’ point of view, each of these steps
needs to be defined in order to conclude the exchange at a time and price previously defined.
Each step has its own rules that allow those who operate in the financial market to establish their
own strategy with respect to their specific expectations. The traded asset returns are linked to the
definition of these rules. Each market has its own rules that deal with the microstructure.
Different markets have different liquidity and this depends on the micro-rules that they
themselves have established. These rules are relevant both for (official) exchange trading and for
the OTC trading.

Macroeconomic rules of the financial market have a different task and are linked to the broad-
spectrum policies of the market. These can indicate the required market institution, the market
structure and furthermore its aims and its own monetary and fiscal policies. All these
characteristics make the market unique with respect to the economy in which it works. One of
the features of this uniqueness is market transparency. This characteristic is defined on the basis
of (governance) rules, institutions, agents, and polices connected to it. The more people know
how to complete the trading asset process, the more a market is transparent. In this manner,
expectations become heterogeneous for individuals/agents and, at the same time, they reflect the
information at hand, which is then elaborated depending on the different sell/buy strategies.

This leads to the definition of expectations. Defining the role of expectations in a financial
market has a two-fold purpose. The first is defined at a macroeconomic level. Expectations are
defined with respect to the policies and rules to be adopted in the market.

Macroeconomic rules, as previously defined, are connected to different monetary and fiscal
policies. The financial market is subjected to policies that depend mostly on the regulating
institutions. At the same time, institutions are responsible for defining rules and for enforcing the
application of these rules in the market. The institutions determine the rules that in turn define
their field of action. Individuals who operate in one market have to follow these rules but, at the
same time, their decision is based on the rules that a given market has set itself. Transparency,
liquidity, and expectations help individuals to choose the market in order to maximize their own
utility.

The financial market examined in this manner is an extremely complex system in which rules,
individuals and institutions interact. This complexity increases even more in time and space (in
the case of international financial markets). In time, financial markets cover an increasingly
important role in the financial saving mediation of agents at an international as well as at a
national level. In space, agents have instruments at their disposal that have become increasingly
more complicated and specific. These instruments are utilized through the markets of reference

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(stock market, bond market, currency market, derivatives market, commodities market, money
market) that are a fundamental part of the financial market. Each market has its own
characteristics that in turn define the contexts in which agents operate on the basis of the risk
associated to them.

Source:https://www.msci.com/market-classification

International flow and Funds

The international flow of funds connected with risk-on and risk-off markets are gross circulations
with uneven risk attributes. In risk-on markets leveraged and unleveraged international investors
place themselves in high-beta emerging market assets. In response, emerging market central
banks that handle their currencies tend to enhance their reserves, investing them in safe assets in
reserve currencies. To the extent that this financial investment lowers global bond yields, the
risk-on is strengthened. The international flow of funds produces not an exchange of dangerous
possessions however an acquisition of risky possessions on one side and an acquisition of safe
possessions on the other.

A set of accounts that is utilized to follow the flow of money, within various sectors of an
economy, specifically, the account evaluates economic data on loaning, loaning and investment
throughout sectors like homes, farms and businesses.The accounts are tracked and evaluated by a
nation’s reserve bank. In the United States, this is done by the Federal Reserve Bank, and the
findings are supplied around 10 weeks after the end of a quarter while in Pakistan it is done by
the State bank of Pakistan.

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The international flow of funds is a core finance topic which basically deals with the influential
economic factors that drives the flow of funds globally. The deals or the flow of funds globally
are classified in three distinct groups, namely monetary account, present account and capital
account. The trade volume varies in various areas of the world and the affordable development of
a nation is heavily dependent on the international flow of funds.

The different transactions developing from international company cause cash flows from one
country to another. The international flow of fund is as an outcome of international trade
circulations. The various agencies that have actually reinforced the international flow of fund are
International Monetary Fund (IMF), World Bank, World Trade Organization, to discuss just a
few.

. International flow of funds explains the summary of those transaction treatments that is done
between domestic and the residents of foreign in a particular country in specific period of time.
This can likewise be called as balance of payments in financial terms and one needs to preserve
the government rules and policies of both the countries in order to comprehend the fund flow
procedure in the market.International market is really competitive and one has to remember the
altering prices of numerous products so that fund streams can be investigated well and
comprehended at its best.

Types of flow of funds

There are two kinds of international flow of funds as per international flow of funds assignment
assistance instructors. They are as follows:

Current Account: explains the total of funds flow that occurs in a market.

Capital Account: explains the summarized report of fund flow that results from operational sale
of the possessions that takes place between one country and also other nations in a restricted
amount of time.

Both these accounts are equally important in identifying the fund flow declarations globally on
the planet market.International flow of funds explains the deal processes done between foreign
and domestic residents in a nation in a specific time. In financial terms, international flow of
funds can be referred as balance of payments and one need to keep federal government rules and
policies of both nations in mind to comprehend the flow of funds in the market.

International flow of funds Balance of payment, it is an account of all the trade transaction that
occurs between the domestic homeowners of a country and the foreign citizens of another nation
over a given period of time. The balance of payment account can be divided into 2 components
the bank account and capital account. The bank account represents all the transfer of funds in
between one country and the other country which arises from the purchase of services and goods.
Its main components are the payments for

1. Merchandise

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2. Aspect

3. Income.

Transfer Payments for product and services: The current account thinks about the import and
export of all the tangible good that are traded between the countries, likewise the transfer of
services between the countries. If a country exports goods to the other country and earn revenue
on these exports then it needs to have a positive influence on its bank account as there is an
inflow of funds to the country. When a country imports certain goods for example the
components utilize in vehicle manufacturing from another nation as there is an outflow of funds
from the nation so for that reason it has a damaging effect on its current account. The difference
between total exports and imports is described as the balance of trade

Evaluation of the major effects that microeconomic and macroeconomic elements might have on
the international flow of funds in between countries and the main way in which such factors
could impact a country’s balance of payments and its currency.

In financial terms, international flow of funds can be referred as balance of payments and one
need to keep government rules and policies of both nations in mind to comprehend the flow of
funds in the market. The international flow of funds is a core finance subject which essentially
deals with the influential economic factors that drives the flow of funds internationally. The
international flow of fund is as a result of international trade flows

Exchange Rate Behavior

As we discussed in the start of chapter that we are in an era which is known by increasingly
integrated and complex economies, exchange rate is consider as the relative price in free and
open economies. As an important deal of attention is highly focused on determining and
characterizing its trends, behavior and characteristics. Unluckily, it is not on clear on screen that
how much chances are there that one can determine the behavior of exchange rate. As recently
remarked, "There may be more forecasting of exchange rates, with less success, than almost any
other economic variable."ii
Following are the major parameters that are used to determine the behavior of exchange rate.
1. Change in Productivity
2. Market Characteristics and Exchange Rate Behavior
3. Exchange rates, Interest rates and their expectations expectations
4. Thinking of Market Participants
5. Predictability of Exchange Rates
The main significant lines of request I've seem is connections changes in efficiency to changes in
real and nominal exchange rates. There is a long and respected writing that interfaces these two
factors hypothetically, most prominently connected with Balassa and Samuelson. In these
models, contrasts in profitability levels among exchanged and nontrade parts influence the

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overall costs of these products. Further, with exchanged products costs adjusted in monetary
terms, genuine trade rates which reduce the costs of nontrade great will be influenced.
If the productivity of a market or economy is increasing in monetary terms then we can say that
economy is going in upstream and there will be positive effect on exchange rate. Thinking
pattern of participants and environment of country also effect exchange rate.

Accounting Rules
International Accounting Standers (IASs) are consider as the fundamental and mostly used
accounting rules internationally. As we are discussing in this chapter that we are trading across
the boundaries when we are trading in different countries so we have to follow some unified
accounting rule so that there is an element of universality. International Accounting Standards
are issued by International Accounting Standards Council (IASC) but they are endorsed by
International Accounting Standards Board (IASB). The IASB is also responsible for the changes
in these system.
The major historical changes in this system is as follow:

Issues Name
IAS 1 Presentation of Financial Statements2007
IAS 2 Inventories2005
IAS 3 Consolidated Financial Statements
IAS 4 Depreciation Accounting
IAS 5 Information to Be Disclosed in Financial Statements
IAS 6 Accounting Responses to Changing Prices
IAS 7 Statement of Cash Flows
IAS 8 Accounting Policies, Changes in Accounting Estimates and Errors
IAS 9 Events After the Reporting Period
IAS 10 Construction Contracts
IAS 11 The Effects of Changes in Foreign Exchange Rates
IAS 12 Income Tax
IAS 13 Presentation of Current Assets and Current Liabilities
IAS 14 Segment Reporting
IAS 15 Information Reflecting the Effects of Changing Prices
IAS 16 Property, Plant and Equipment
IAS 17 Employee Benefits (1998)
IAS 18 Accounting for Government Grants and Disclosure of Government Assistance
IAS 19 Related Party Disclosures Accounting for Investments
IAS 20 The Effects of Changes in Foreign Exchange Rates
IAS 21 Business Combinations
IAS 22 Borrowing Costs
IAS 23 Related Party Disclosures
IAS 24 Accounting for Investments
IAS 25 Accounting and Reporting by Retirement Benefit Plans

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IAS 26 Separate Financial Statements

IAS 27 Borrowing Costs
IAS 28 Investments in Associates and Joint Ventures
IAS 29 Investments in Associates
IAS 30 Financial Reporting in Hyperinflationary Economies
IAS 31 Disclosures in the Financial Statements of Banks and Similar Financial Institutions
IAS 32 Interests In Joint Ventures
IAS 33 Financial Instruments: Presentation
IAS 34 Earnings Per Share
IAS 35 Interim Financial Reporting
IAS 36 Discontinuing Operations
IAS 37 Impairment of Asset
IAS 38 Provisions, Contingent Liabilities and Contingent Assets
IAS 39 Financial Institutions
IAS 40 Investment Property
IAS 41 Agriculture

Link https://www.iasplus.com/en/standards/ias

Legal Framework
According to Joanna Benjamin “Financial regulation is a form of regulation or supervision,
which subjects financial institutions to certain requirements, restrictions and guidelines, aiming
to maintain the integrity of the financial system. This may be handled by either a government or
non-government organization. Financial regulation has also influenced the structure of banking
sectors by increasing the variety of financial products available. Financial regulation forms one
of three legal categories which constitutes the content of financial law, the other two being
market practices, case lawiii”.
When we are trading internationally it become essential for us to follow the international
regulations and legal structure there are different organizations that sets the legal framework.
The following is a short listing of regulatory authorities in various jurisdictions.
United States
1. U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC)
2. Financial Industry Regulatory Authority (FINRA)
3. Commodity Futures Trading Commission (CFTC)
4. Federal Reserve System ("Fed")
5. Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC)
6. Office of the Comptroller of the Currency (OCC)
7. National Credit Union Administration (NCUA)
8. Office of Thrift Supervision (OTS) (dissolved in 2011)
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9. Consumer Financial Protection Bureau (CFPB)

United Kingdom
1. Bank of England (BoE)
2. Prudential Regulation Authority (PRA)
3. Financial Conduct Authority (FCA)
Some others are
1. Financial Services Agency (FSA), Japan
2. Federal Financial Supervisory Authority (BaFin), Germany
3. Autorité des marchés financiers (France) (AMF), France
4. Monetary Authority of Singapore (MAS), Singapore
5. Swiss Financial Market Supervisory Authority (FINMA), Switzerland
People's Republic of China
1. China Banking Regulatory Commission (CBRC)
2. China Insurance Regulatory Commission (CIRC)
3. China Securities Regulatory Commission (CSRC)
Islamic Republic of Pakistan
1. State Bank of Pakistan
2. Security and Exchange Commission of Pakistan
3. Federal Board of Revenue
These all organization not only construct legal regulation structure in their own countries but also
influence international legal framework.

Ease of doing Business

In every country there are some legal procedure which one have to follow in order to set up a
new business. Additionally some governments and states impose taxes on installing a new
business while some states gives tax benefits and other benefits to businessmen for installing
new business. Governments do these all activities either to promote businesses or to manage
saturation in the market. For business entrants barrier varies from country to country because
each and every state has its own policy for new businesses. To which there are less barriers in
legal and procedural system of installing is business in one country that country is consider more
business friendly countries and there ease of doing business is very high. In order to measure
ease of doing business of country we use an index that is published by the World Bank.
According to the report of word bank Pakistan ranks on 136 th number out of 190 countries with a
score of 55.31 which less the average score of doing business in South Asia. Recently in early

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2019 Pakistan improves its position by an improvement in 11 points. The major reason for that
one widow operation of Securities and Exchange Commission of Pakistan (SECP) and online
services by government organization including tax collection organization. High tech integrated
are used by the regulators which creating business easy for the new entrants. Due to change in
new business setup rules business become easy for Pakistan and there are less condition by them
on government.
The score of ease of doing business is very much low due to following reasons.
1. There is a week and old regulatory system and policies for businesses so all legislative
member should think about that.
2. There is no constant business policy of State of Pakistan.
3. Old and bureaucratic system of Government department which is not very much
receptive for new business
4. Useless and time wasting activities in the process of registration of new businesses
5. Cross departmental coordination in different governmental is very week which create
problem for business starters when they are seeking for permission from multiple
departments.
Pakistan is good opportunity for international business but the score of ease of doing business in
Pakistan is very low due to multiple reasons. New and strong legislation that will create new sets
of opportunities and open one window policies for registering new business should be adopted.
There should be a clear and unified strategy for business start-up in all over the country. By
making environment and coordination better in respective registration offices we can improve
the environment for new businesses. Use of Information Technology especially internet is an
important tool that can make the process of registering a new business easy for the business man.
In order promote business government should support small and medium business by providing
them short and loans and expert advisees because these business set a trend in local market and
make their role in making markets effective. Government should also control law in order
situation and should promote businesses by reducing taxes on initial investments.
By doing all above things Pakistan can easily improves its score of Ease if doing businesses and
can excel economically by creating opportunities for business as its neighbor China is doing
already.

International Corporate Governance and Control

Due globalization we have control and govern different organization at global level. Due to high
diversity it become difficult for us to govern and control these organization.
The structure and hierarchy of the organizations are changing due to this reason.
In international markets, company governance objectives area unit increasingly increasing
as governance becomes concerned within the whole internal and external network, in an
approach supported satisfying expectations and exchanging information. Corporate
governance choices wont to be soft on relation to shareholders interest (shareholder view)
and there have been usually conflicts between governance bodies and managers. That sort of
behavior exhibited limits in terms of lasting development potential.

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Changes brought on by international competition and growing exposure and permeability to info
flow with the varied social group players, has highlighted the importance of relations between
company success conditions and a good approach to the combo of stakeholders expectations. in
this sense, a read of company responsibilities as an entire over house and time is consolidating,
commutation the main target on short-run economic-financial results.

According to Salvioni “(Global markets impose the spread of an equity, propriety and
transparency culture and emphasizes the careful setting up of links between all societal player
expectations, governance decisions and management activities. For this, just refer to the recent
introduction of managerial positions and behavior codes aimed at creating a common, shared
approach towards company problems (e.g. the spread of ethical codes, the implementation of
plans to construct an ethical company culture and introduction of those responsible for ethics,
social responsibility managers and Ethical Committees). All this together with frequent re-
defining of project control mechanism variables consistent with internal culture and relative
permeability”iv.

Currency Derivations

When we are trading internationally across the globe it means that we are trading in different
currencies. If the trade of one country is more power full then the demand of the currency of that
country will be high because everyone want to do trade with that country and according to the
law of demand if the demand of the currency of one country is high then its value will be high
too. Due to change in demand the value of the currency of specific countries also changes. Below
are the exchange rates of Pakistan with top 10 countries.

RATES
TABLE1 Pakistani Rupee
Rates table

Top 10Mar 15, 2019

05:07 UTC

inv. 1.00
Pakistani Rupee 1.00 PKR
PKR

US Dollar 0.00715 139.851274

Euro 0.006318 158.284714

British Pound 0.005399 185.206496

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Indian Rupee 0.495375 2.018674

Australian Dollar 0.010099 99.018542

Canadian Dollar 0.009518 105.05972

Singapore Dollar 0.00969 103.204217

Swiss Franc 0.007169 139.48416

Malaysian Ringgit 0.029252 34.185915

Japanese Yen 0.798744 1.251966

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Risk and Risk Management

ISO 3000 in its objective defines risk as “Risk management is the identification, evaluation, and
prioritization of risks followed by coordinated and economical application of resources to
minimize, monitor, and control the probability or impact of unfortunate events or to maximize
the realization of opportunities”.

In international market risk prevail in form of multiple type of risk and its sources are also
different some time it is due to the uncertainty in the market and sometime it is due to the
high probability of project failure. Major sources of risks are natural causes, disasters,
accidents, credit risk and in some cases the source of risk is unknown. In market we can
categorize these risk in two major types one is positive which is known as opportunities and
other are negative generally known as threats. Project Management Institute, the National
Institute of Standards and Technology, Reckoner Societies, and ISO Standards Methods are
the institutes that defines the standards of risk management.

They also sets goals wide per whether or not the danger management methodology is within
the context of project management, security, engineering, industrial
processes, monetary portfolios, reckoner assessments, or public health and safety.

When we are in international market the exposure to multiple type of risks are quite high because
we are that environment where we have more external threats (competitors, regulations, Multiple
Governments). Risk management is also complicated because in international market business
have very less things in their hand not only that the external factors are more powerful then the
businesses.

International Capital Budgeting

We can define capital budgeting as process of estimation in which businesses determine or

estimate their long term expenditures and investment so that they can make a trend line and
policies for their business in long term.

According to Adrian Buckley (Cranfield University School of Management) “The financial

analysis of international investment decisions is complex. The basic methodology which
homes in on incremental cash flows needs to be refined in order to focus upon cash flows
which are remittable to the parent company, for it is only these that would logically add
shareholder value. Build in the complications of two lots of tax and changing exchange rates
and the equation looks anything but simple. But there is another complexity too which
renders the traditional discounting methodology less than wholly appropriate. And this
applies not just to international investment but to any situation where capital is committed

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with an option to expand or curtail embedded in it. This is not to say that the typical model
cannot be adapted to meet the situation. It can and it is not too difficult” v.

In short it is relatively difficult for the international businesses to become global then the
local business because long term planning is difficult in international environment due to
uncertainties in the internal markets.

International cash management

Cash is the one of the important parameter in establishing and developing an organization or
a country. One can’t deny the importance cash in market. When cash is so important then its
management is also very important. In international market it become difficult due to
multiple channels and threat. Not only that there are diverse threats too. Cash is one
amongst the principal forces behind the success or failure of any company Companies
should look on the far side the normal practices of:

 Debt service

 Collection of assets

 Disbursements to vendors

 Forecasting

While these practices square measure instrumental to the sound money management, once
operational internationally, it’s necessary to gauge and implement new polices not
historically employed in domestic money management. Implementing a number of the
topics mentioned below may be the vehicle to giving your company the additional edge.

Centralized money Management – assuaging the Challenges of Cross-Border Transactions

Managing money across borders with various bank accounts and currencies will typically be
a difficult enterprise for many corporations. a way to assuaging a number of the challenges
is implementing a centralized money management system. Centralized money management
systems supply a lot of with efficiency handled money and manufacture a bigger rate of
come on money investments. Beneath a centralized system, every subsidiary solely worries
and forecasts money demands for his or her own subsidiary. The parent company then
controls and distributes money round the organization to satisfy needed assets wants, or
maximize investment returns.

Cash savings square measure made in many ways in which. for instance, if the parent
company determines, supported prognostication wants, that Subsidiary A can have a
$100,000 short fall of money this month, however Subsidiary B can have a $125,000
surplus, they'll move money from one subsidiary to the opposite. As a result, Subsidiary A
doesn't have to be compelled to acquire funding from an out of doors financial organization.
In addition, money may be pooled from multiple locations to assist maximize the
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speed of come on associate degree investment. If the organization has excess money not
being employed for operations, the corporate will consolidate money into one account,
receiving the foremost advantageous charge per unit and earning a better rate of come
thanks to a bigger balance and most charge per unit.

Last, corporations that operate with multiple currencies will maintain separate accounts of
foreign currencies and distribute them to subsidiaries once in demand, reducing periodic
translation prices. Using a Netting Policy to scale back Clerical and group action prices

By golf shot into follow a centralized money management system or operating directly with
subsidiaries and different corporations, a netting policy may be enforced to help in reducing
clerical and group action prices. the target of a netting policy is to accumulate 2 or a lot of
companies’ transactions, whether or not it's collections or payments, for associate degree
extended amount of your time and mixture transactions into batches.

Accumulating the balances over a amount of your time can achieve reducing the amount of
transactions that happens between corporations. rather than collection or paying on multiple
transactions a month, one aggregative group action will occur. The reduction to the quantity
of transactions can yield many benefits:

The overall body and banking charges are going to be reduced, as weakened range of
transactions can release company resources and cut back money transfer fees for
international transactions, prices generally related to translation expense are going to be
reduced. Additionally, it may also act as hedge against currency losses connected with
translation, and cut back traditional banking fees

Netting will improve management over a company’s money position with fewer
transactions, corporations can realize it easier to watch and predict money inflows and
outflows.

Restriction of Funds – obtaining the cash in and Out many countries like Brazil and China
have robust currency management measures. Several foreign governments mandate that
profits generated at intervals their borders be reinvestment into the native economy to assist
stimulate economic process or recovery. Understanding these controls is vital to effectively
managing your money and providing the required capital to stay your business robust.

Another approach of intercompany relationships is victimization leading and insulating

material. Beneath this approach, subsidiaries will either pay money for provides from the
parent company before, called leading, or the parent will lend provides to its subsidiaries
and not need payment at once, called insulating material. Leading and insulating
material will facilitate release extra money to service debt or
fund different operational needs. Operating abroad will terribly completely different from
doing therefore domestically, as foreign governments and banking systems square

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measure terribly completely different from our own Some countries, like China, limit cash
getting into or exiting the country. Generally, solely the approved paid-in capital may be
remitted to bound bank accounts in China, and solely affordable amounts square measure
allowed to be born-again to the native currency RMB. However, typically time’s
corporations that square measure commerce and commercialism out of China are going to be
allowed to pay and receive funds in CNY. Moreover, choose corporations square measure
currently allowable to open non-resident CNY accounts. Thanks to the constant state of flux
in currency laws and restrictions, it’s imperative that you just see associate degree
experienced skilled before implementing any new policies.

Intercompany Transfers – A Tool to Manage money and Earnings

In addition to the policies mentioned on top of, there square measure more tools a global
parent subsidiary relationship will use to assist manage money and earnings. The foremost
acquainted technique is thru intercompany agreements for services or product. Though
establishing intercompany arrangements may be a good suggests that of money management
and tax designing, several government agencies square measure sharply examining
companies’ records, and became diligent in guaranteeing that corporation’s square measure
observant the set forth laws. Penalties may be harsh for corporations that don't adjust to the
international transfer evaluation regulations; thus, it's necessary a correct analysis of
transferring evaluation is performed before being enforced.

Transfer evaluation, put simply, is moving merchandise and services across borders to
connected corporations. Transactions should be performed at associate degree arm’s-length,
which means that costs would be an equivalent for the other company on the open market.
Transfer evaluation may be a good tool to:

Help shift financial gain between taxes jurisdictions Lower taxes paid be used as some way
to counter blocked funds, as mentioned on top of before fitting the intercompany
transactions, a services tax and different withholding ought to be thought of. For instance,
the service suppliers might subject to a five-hitter service tax if the purchasers square
measure in China, even the services square measure provided within the US.

Pitfalls

There are some drawback or pitfalls of international finance. Usually organizations and countries
face crises in international environment due miss- management and underestimation of the
environment. Some major pitfalls are as below.

High Risk Relatively high risk is present in international market due to the presence of
integrated factors.

Scale of risk is high because global economy is so closed that recession in one economy can
effects the others.

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Uncertain Environment is prevailing in international market because of changing dynamics of

the globe. The situations are so uncertain that one can’t predict something.

International economy is revolving around big economies so these economies can exploit the
international markets.

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iGandolfo, Giancarlo (2002). International Finance and Open-Economy Macroeconomics. Berlin, Germany:
Springer. ISBN 978-3-540-43459-7.

ii Alan Greenspan, Testimony of the Federal Reserve Board's semiannual monetary policy report to the Congress, before
the Committee on Banking, Housing, and Urban Affairs, U.S. Senate, July 16, 2002.

iii Joanna Benjamin 'Financial Law' Oxford University Press

iv For this, please refer to contributions by S. Franzoni, F.Gennari and A. Mazzoleni, D.M. Salvioni (ed.) Corporate
governance, controllo di gestione e risorse immateriali, Franco Angeli, Milan, 2004.
v CAPITAL BUDGETING: A FUZZY SET APPROACH FOR DETERMINING EXPECTED VALUE OF CASH FLOWS