Available online at www.sciencedirect.

com

Bioresource Technology 99 (2008) 4661–4667

Review Paper

Wood–plastic composites as promising green-composites

for automotive industries!
Alireza Ashori *

Department of Chemical Industries, Iranian Research Organization for Science and Technology (IROST), P.O. Box 15815-3538, Tehran, Iran

Received 6 June 2007; received in revised form 6 September 2007; accepted 10 September 2007
Available online 18 December 2007

Abstract

Wood–plastic composite (WPC) is a very promising and sustainable green material to achieve durability without using toxic chem-
icals. The term WPCs refers to any composites that contain plant fiber and thermosets or thermoplastics. In comparison to other fibrous
materials, plant fibers are in general suitable to reinforce plastics due to relative high strength and stiffness, low cost, low density, low
CO2 emission, biodegradability and annually renewable. Plant fibers as fillers and reinforcements for polymers are currently the fastest-
growing type of polymer additives. Since automakers are aiming to make every part either recyclable or biodegradable, there still seems
to be some scope for green-composites based on biodegradable polymers and plant fibers. From a technical point of view, these bio-based
composites will enhance mechanical strength and acoustic performance, reduce material weight and fuel consumption, lower production
cost, improve passenger safety and shatterproof performance under extreme temperature changes, and improve biodegradability for the
auto interior parts.
 2007 Published by Elsevier Ltd.

Keywords: Composite; Wood fiber; Thermoplastic; Automotive industry; Mechanical properties

1. Introduction to maximize the efficiency of use of raw materials and to

In the past decades, Greenpeace groups and NGOs in
various countries have increasingly addressed the environ-
mental impact of the chemical substances, fully recognized
as a global issue. As a consequence, this awareness is push-
ing governments toward more stringent legislation, which
promotes the preservation and protection of the quality
of the environment for future generations. To overcome
the problem at the source, the chemical industry must
develop cleaner chemical processes or materials by the
design of innovative and environmentally benign chemical
reactions. Green chemistry offers the tools for this
approach. In the other words, green chemistry is the chem-
ical products and processes that reduce or eliminate the use
and generation of hazardous substances (Anastas and Kir-
chhoff, 2002). A significant goal of green chemistry must be
*
Tel./fax: +98 21 88838337.
E-mail address: ashori@irost.ir
minimize the creation of waste (Trost, 2002).
As a result of this, composite industries are seeking more
environmental friendly materials for their products. There
is an increasing interest in biodegradable renewable com-
posites reinforced with plant fiber. The combination of
interesting mechanical and physical properties together
with their sustainable character has triggered various activ-
ities in the area of ‘green-composites’.
The present work aims to provide a short review on
developments in the area of wood–plastic composites
(WPCs) and their applications in automotives industries
using plant-based fibers.
2. What is WPC?!
WPC was born as a modern concept in Italy in the
1970s, and popularized in North America in the early
1990s. By the start of the 21st century it was spreading to
India, Singapore, Malaysia, Japan and China (Pritchard,

0960-8524/$ - see front matter  2007 Published by Elsevier Ltd.

doi:10.1016/j.biortech.2007.09.043
4662 A. Ashori / Bioresource Technology 99 (2008) 4661–4667

2004). WPCs may be one of the most dynamic sectors of Table 1

today’s plastic industry with an average annual growth rate List of important plant fibers
of approximately 18% in Northern America and 14% in Fiber source Species Origin
Europe (Gupta et al., 2007). It has been reported that Abaca Musa textilis Leaf
460 million pounds of WPCs were produced in 1999. Statis- Bagasse – Grass
tics show that the production of these composites in 2001 Bamboo (>1250 species) Grass
Banana Musa indica Leaf
has increased to 700 million pounds (Jacob and Thomas, Broom root Muhlenbergia macroura Root
in press). The plastics industry has traditionally used talc, Cantala Agave cantala Leaf
calcium carbonate, mica, and glass or carbon fibers to Caroa Neoglaziovia variegate Leaf
modify the performance of plastic (Eckert, 2000). Impor- China jute Abutilon theophrasti Stem
tant industries such as the aerospace, automotive, con- Coir Cocos nucifera Fruit
Cotton Gossypium sp. Seed
struction or packaging industries have shown enormous Curaua Ananas erectifolius Leaf
interest in the development of new composite materials. Date palm Phoenix dactylifera Leaf
One example of this is the replacement of inorganic fibers, Flax Linum usitatissimum Stem
such as glass or aramid fibers, by plant fibers as filler Hemp Cannabis sativa Stem
(Alemdar and Sain, in press). Henequen Agave foourcrocydes Leaf
Isora Helicteres isora Stem
The term WPCs refers to any composites that contain Istle Samuela carnerosana Leaf
plant (including wood and non-wood) fibers and thermo- Jute Corchorus capsularis Stem
sets or thermoplastics. Thermosets are plastics that, once Kapok Ceiba pentranda Fruit
cured, cannot be melted by repeating. These include resins Kenaf Hibiscus cannabinus Stem
such as epoxies and phenolics, plastics with which the for- Kudzu Pueraria thunbergiana Stem
Mauritius hemp Furcraea gigantea Leaf
est products industry is most familiar. Thermoplastics are Nettle Urtica dioica Stem
plastics that can be repeatedly melted. This property allows Oil palm Elaeis guineensis Fruit
other materials, such as wood fibers, to be mixed with the Piassava Attalea funifera Leaf
plastic to form a composite product. Polypropylene (PP), Pinneapple Ananus Comosus Leaf
polyethylene (PE) and polyvinyl chloride (PVC) are the Phormium Phormium tenas Leaf
Roselle Hibiscus sabdariffa Stem
widely used thermoplastics for WPCs and currently they Ramie Boehmeria nivea Stem
are very common in building, construction, furniture and Sansevieria Sansevieria Leaf
automotive products (Panthapulakkal et al., 2006). Sisal Agave sisilana Leaf
WPCs are normally produced by mixing plant fiber with Sponge gourd Luffa cylinderica Fruit
polymer, or by adding wood fiber as filler in a polymer Straw (cereal) – Stalk
Sun hemp Crorolaria juncea Stem
matrix, and pressing or molding under high pressure and Cadillo/urena Urena lobata Stem
temperature. Additives such as colorants, coupling agents, Wood (>10,000 species) Stem
stabilizers, blowing agents, reinforcing agents, foaming
agents and lubricants help tailor the end product to the tar-
get area of application. fibers although they have a lower cellulose content com-
pared to wood (Panthapulakkal et al., 2006).
3. Plant fibers In an interesting study, Reddy and Yang (in press)
reported that velvet leaf (Abutilon theophrasti) that is cur-
Much academic research and industrial development rently considered a weed and an agricultural problem could
explores new ways to create greener and environmentally be used as a source for high quality plant fibers. Stem of
friendlier chemicals and materials for a variety of applica- velvet leaf fibers have properties similar to that of common
tions. Fibers can be classified into two main groups: man- bast fibers such as hemp and kenaf. The availability of
made and natural. Natural fibers offer the potential to deli- large qualities of such fibers with well-defined mechanical
ver greater added value, sustainability, renewability and properties is a general prerequisite for the successful use
lower costs especially in the automotive industry (Bismarck to reinforce plastics.
et al., 2006). In general, natural fibers are subdivided based Plant fibers have a number of advantages and disadvan-
on their origins, coming from plants, animals or minerals. tages over traditional glass fibers. Their ecological charac-
All plant fibers are composed of cellulose while animal ter, biodegradability, low costs, nonabrasive nature, safe
fibers consist of proteins (hair, silk, and wool). Plant fibers fiber handling, high possible filling levels, low energy con-
can be classified according to which part of the plant they sumption, high specific properties, low density and wide
are obtained from. Plant fibers include bast (or stem or soft variety of fiber types are very important factors for their
sclerenchyma) fibers, leaf, seed, fruit, root, grass, cereal acceptance in large volume markets, such as the automo-
straw and wood (Peijs et al., 2002). Some of the important tive and construction industry. Furthermore, the public
plant fibers are listed in Table 1 (Jacob and Thomas, in generally regards products made from renewable raw mate-
press). Agricultural residuals such as wheat straw, rice rials as environmentally friendly (Lundquist et al., 2003;
straw, bagasse and corn stalks are also sources of plant Kim et al., 2006; Bismarck et al., 2006).
 A. Ashori / Bioresource Technology 99 (2008) 4661–4667
However certain drawbacks, such as tendency to form
aggregates during processing, low thermal stability, low
resistance to moisture and seasonal quality variations (even
between individual plants in the same cultivation), greatly
reduce the potential of plant fibers to be used as reinforce-
ment for polymers (Bismarck et al., 2006; Kim et al., 2006).
The high moisture absorption of plant fibers leads to swell-
ing and presence of voids at the interface (porous prod-
ucts), which results in poor mechanical properties and
reduces dimensional instability of composites. Treatment
of plant fibers with hydrophobic chemicals (i.e. PPgMA)
or modification with vinyl monomers can reduce the mois-
ture gain (Gassan and Bledzki, 2000; Espert et al., 2003).
One of the major disadvantages of plant fibers is the
poor compatibility exhibited between the fibers and the
polymeric matrices, which results non-uniform dispersion
of fibers within the matrix and poor mechanical properties.
Wood and plastic are like oil and water, and do not mix
well. Most polymers, especially thermoplastics, are non-
polar (‘‘hydrophobic’’, repelling water) substances, which
are not compatible with polar (‘‘hydrophilic’’, it absorbs
water) wood fibers and, therefore, poor adhesion between
polymer and fiber in WPC can result. In order to improve
the affinity and adhesion between fibers and thermoplastic
matrices in production, chemical ‘‘coupling’’ or ‘‘compati-
bilizing’’ agents have been employed (Kim et al., 2006).
Chemical coupling agents are substances, typically poly-
mers that are used in small quantities to treat a surface
so that bonding occurs between it and other surfaces, e.g.
Fig. 1. Mechanism of coupling agent between hydrophilic fiber and hydrophobic matrix polymer.
4663
wood and thermoplastics. The coupling forms include
covalent bonds, secondary bonding (such as hydrogen
bonding and van der Waals’ forces), polymer molecular
entanglement and mechanical interblocking (Lu et al.,
2000). Therefore, chemical treatments can be considered
in modifying the properties of plant fibers. Some com-
pounds are known to promote adhesion by chemically cou-
pling the adhesive to the material, such as sodium
hydroxide, silane, acetic acid, acrylic acid, isocyanates,
potassium permanganate, peroxide, etc. The mechanism
of compatibilizing agent is shown in Fig. 1. The coupling
agent chemically bonded with hydrophilic fiber and
blended by wetting in the polymer chain (Yang et al.,
2007).
Another problem is the processing temperature that
restricts the choice of matrix material. Plant fibers are com-
posed of various organic materials (primarily cellulose, as
well as hemicellulose and lignin) and therefore their ther-
mal treatment leads to a variety of physical and chemical
changes. Thermal degradation of those fibers leads to poor
organoleptic properties, such as odor and colors and more-
over to deterioration of their mechanical properties. It also
results in the generation of gaseous products, when pro-
cessing takes place at temperatures above 200 C, which
can create high porosity, low density and reduced mechan-
ical properties. For the improvement of thermal stability,
attempts have been made to coat and/or graft the fibers
with monomers (cited by Georgopoulos et al., 2005; Jacob
and Thomas, in press).
4664 A. Ashori / Bioresource Technology 99 (2008) 4661–4667

3.1. Fiber morphology Table 2

Mechanical properties of fibers as compared to conventional polymers
To improve thermoplastic or duroplastic plastics Fiber Density Elongation Tensile Young’s
mechanical properties, fibers of different origins are added (g/cm3) (%) strength modulus
(MPa) (GPa)
in the production process. Common materials for rein-
forcement are synthetic fibers like glass and carbon fibers. Fibers (reinforcements)
Cotton 1.5–1.6 7.0–8.0 287–800 5.5–12.6
While waste disposal problems are the strongest arguments Jute 1.3 1.5–1.8 393–773 26.5
for the replacement of these reinforcing materials by plant Flax 1.5 2.7–3.2 3451035 27.6
fibers, additionally they can provide equal or better perfor- Hemp 1.5 1.6 690 70
mance, reduce product weight by about 15% and have very Ramie 1.5 1.2–3.8 400–938 61.4–128
reactive surface chemistry. Glass fiber causes skin irrita- Sisal 1.5 2.0–2.5 511–635 9.4–22.0
Coir 1.2 30.0 175 4.0–6.0
tions and respiratory problems, which can be reduced by Viscose (cord) – 11.4 593 11
the use of plant fibers (Anonymous, 2000). Soft wood (kraft) 1.5 – 1000 40
Wood elements, used in polymer composites have a E-glass 2.5 2.5 2000– 70.0
large variety of shapes and can be used alone or in combi- 3500
nations. The properties of the final product are determined S-glass 2.5 2.8 4570 86.0
Aramide (normal) 1.4 3.3–3.7 3000– 63.0–67.0
by the sizes, shapes and characteristics of plant fibers. 3150
These include surface chemistry (e.g. waxes and in-organics Carbon (standard) 1.4 1.4–1.8 4000 230.0–
such as silica) and fiber aspect ratio in particular. Aspect 240.0
ratio means average length over diameter of the fibers Polymers (resins/matrices)
which change from species to species. For example, soft- ABS 1.05 10 55 2.8
wood fibers (spruce) are more flexible compared to fibers Polycarbonate 1.22 100 62 2.3
derived from aspen or birch (hardwoods). Polyetherimide 0 – 105 2.8
Nylon 1.12 29 66 3.5
In addition, other factors such as size of fibers, morphic
Polyethylene 0.95 30 28 1.04
structure, chemical compositions, density, thickness, fiber (HDPE)
percentage, and amount and type of bonding agent (if Polypropylene 0.9 200 35 0.83
any) are important for the strength properties of WPCs. Polystrene 1.05 15 35 2076
The mechanical properties of plant fibers depend on the (high impact)
Epoxy resin – 6.2 32 0.5
pulping process even within the same species. The wide
variety of fiber types, fiber preparation techniques and pos- Adapted from: Gassan and Bledzki (2000), Bismarck et al. (2006).
sibilities for fiber surface modification, open up opportuni-
ties to tailor such composites to specific end-product
requirements (Anonymous, 2000; Sain et al., 2005). ferred. They provide a higher specific surface area and
the fibers are distributed more homogeneously compared
3.2. Strength properties to composites with long fibers and so the compatibility of
fiber and matrix is improved. With this, swelling decreases
Wambua et al. (2003) and Bismarck et al. (2006) and breaks during processing are reduced.
reported that plant fibers are in general suitable to rein-
force plastics due to their relative high strength and stiff- 4. Green-composite application on automotive industries
ness and low density (Table 2). The characteristic values
for flax and softwood (kraft-fibers) reach levels close to Manufacturers and engineers are always on the look out
the values for glass fibers, types E (‘‘E’’ because of their for new materials and improved processes to use in manu-
early use in electronic applications and today the most typ- facturing better products, and thus maintain their compet-
ically used glass fibers reinforcing plastics in non-aggressive itive edge and increase their profit margin. WPCs are being
media). Nevertheless and also obvious in Table 2, the range used in a large number of applications in automotives, con-
of the characteristic values, as one of the drawbacks for all structions, marine, electronic and aerospace (Fig. 2). The
natural products, is remarkably higher than those of glass WPCs market is now a multibillion-dollar business. The
fibers, which can be explained by differences in fiber struc- major market identified for the application of green WPCs,
ture due to the overall environmental conditions during the replacement of fiberglass and steels, is the automotive
growth. The favorable aspect ratios of plant fibers and high components. They are used as trim parts in dashboards,
specific properties at low costs make them an ecological door panels, parcel shelves, seat cushions, backrests and
alternative to conventional reinforcing fibers in engineering cabin linings. Plant fibers are increasingly used for
composite materials. Flax and hemp fibers are up to 40% thermo-acoustic insulation purposes. The use of flax fibers
cheaper than standard glass fibers. in car disk brakes to replace asbestos fibers is also another
One of the critical parameters influencing the strength example. So far, there are only very few exterior parts made
properties of WPCs is the size of the fibers. Short and tiny from plant fiber composites (Bismarck et al., 2006; Jacob
fibers (average particle size 0.24–0.35 mm) should be pre- and Thomas, in press).
 A. Ashori / Bioresource Technology 99 (2008) 4661–4667
Aerospace
Consumer 1% Miscellaneous
products 4%
8%
Automotives
31%
Appliances
8%
Electronic
components
10% Construction
Marine 26%
12%
Fig. 2. Wood plastic composites used in 2002.
With a greater concern for environmental protection, it
is more important for automakers to improve recyclability
of newly produced vehicles (Stark and Rowlands, 2003).
According to the European Guideline 2000/53/EG admin-
istered by the European Commission, 85% of the weight of
a vehicle has to be recyclable by 2005. This recyclable per-
centage will be increased to 95% by 2015. Vehicles must be
constructed of 95% recyclable materials, with 85% recover-
able through reuse or mechanical recycling and 10%
through energy recovery or thermal recycling. This will def-
initely lead to an increased use of WPCs (Kemper and
Hobi, 2003; Peijs, 2003). In the US, however, such require-
ments have not been regulated. Recycling automotive inte-
rior parts is still difficult because most of them are petro-
based polymer materials with mixed composite structures
(Chen et al., 2005).
Daimler–Benz has been exploring the idea of replacing
glass fibers with plant fibers in automotive components
since 1991. Mercedes used jute-based door panels in its
E-class vehicles in 1996. In September 2000, Daimler
Chrysler began using plant fibers for their vehicle produc-
tion. The bast fibers are primarily used in automotive
applications because they exhibit greatest strength. The
other advantages of using bast fibers in the automotive
industry include weight savings of between 10% and 30%
and corresponding cost savings. Virtually all the major
car manufacturers in Germany (Daimler Chrysler, Merce-
des, Volkswagen, Audi Group, BMW, Ford and Opel)
now use WPCs in various applications. Interior trim com-
ponents such as dashboards and door panels using poly-
propylene and plant fibers are produced by Johnson
Controls, Inc. for Daimler Chrysler. In 2000 Audi
launched the A2 midrange car in which door trim panels
were made of polyurethane reinforced with mixed flax/sisal
mat. Daimler Chrysler has now increased its research and
development in flax reinforced polyester composites for
exterior applications (Automotive Industries, 2000, cited
by Jacob and Thomas, in press).
Research has demonstrated that the use of wood fibers
and/or various types of agro-derived fibers for automotive
composite applications has many advantages (Muller and
4665
Stryjewski, 2001; Muller et al., 2001; Chen et al., 2005).
From a technical point of view, these bio-based composites
will enhance mechanical strength and acoustic perfor-
mance, reduce material weight, energy/fuel consumption
and processing time, lower production cost, improve pas-
senger safety and shatterproof performance under extreme
temperature changes, and improve biodegradability for the
auto interior parts (Chen et al., 2005). As an example, the
Mercedes-Benz E-Class was achieved a remarkable weight
reduction of about 20%, and the mechanical properties,
important for passenger protection in the event of an acci-
dent, were improved. From a viewpoint of the national
interest, the plant fibers are renewable (harvesting annu-
ally), biodegradable and green! A-Class showing prototype
parts made from flax/PP based NMT, photo courtesy
Daimler-Chrysler, Germany (Peijs et al., 2002; Anony-
mous, 2006).
Automotive components including plant fibers are cur-
rently being used by many vehicle manufactures such as:
Audi, Opel, Daimler-Chrysler, Fiat, Ford, Mercedes Benz,
Peugeot, Renault, Volvo, VW, Volkswagen and BMW
(Bismarck et al., 2006). Typical amounts of plant fibers
used for different applications the automotive industry
are (Ellison and McNaught, 2000):
• Front door linens: 1.2–1.8 kg.
• Rear door linens: 0.8–1.5 kg.
• Boot linens: 1.5–2.5 kg.
• Parcel shelves: up to 2.0 kg.
• Seat backs: 1.6–2.0 kg.
• Sunroof sliders: up to 0.4 kg.
• Headliners: average 2.5 kg.
A further 5 kg could be used in other parts of a vehicle
interior. With world automobile production of 58 million
light vehicles per annum, of which 30% is Western Europe,
then potential markets are approximately 18 million vehi-
cles and approximately 175,000–350,000 tons per annum,
respectively (Anony., 2000). From 1996 till 2003, the use
of plant fibers in composites of the German automotive
industry increased from 4000 tons to 18,000 tons per year.
From 1996 till 2002, an almost linear increase of use
amounts with yearly growth rates between 10% and 20%.
For Europe, it accordingly amounts to almost 70,000 tons
of these new plant fiber materials. This is about twice as
much as the estimated total use of WPCs in the EU (Karus
et al., 2004). A study performed in the USA suggests a mar-
ket potential of 45,000 tons for fibers such as kenaf, jute,
hemp, flax and sisal with expected growth rates of 15–
20% every year. It is assumed that this upward trend will
continue. According to the Food and Agriculture Organi-
zation of the United Nations (FAO) and the Common
Fund for Commodities (CFC) an average use of 5–10 kg
plant fibers was estimated to be used in future automobiles.
Plant fibers as fillers and reinforcements for polymers are
currently the fastest-growing type of polymer additives
(cited by Bismarck et al., 2006).
4666 A. Ashori / Bioresource Technology 99 (2008) 4661–4667
5. Concluding remarks
1. WPC is a very promising, sustainable and biodegradable
green material to achieve durability without using toxic
chemicals.
2. The extensive use of plant fibers and their products is
because of their properties such as low density, relative
high strength, modulus and stiffness, non-abrasive nat-
ure, high level of filler loadings, biodegradability and
safe working environment. On the other hand, plant
fibers are an annually renewable raw material and their
availability is more or less unlimited.
3. When plant reinforced plastics were subjected, at the end
of their life cycle, to a combustion process or landfill, the
released amount of CO2 of the fibers is neutral with
respect to the assimilated amount during there growth.
4. As in the case of all plant products, the mechanical and
physical properties of plant fibers vary considerably.
These properties are determined by the chemical and
structural composition, which depend on the fiber type
and its growth circumstances. Morphology of plant
fibers varies from plant to plant.
5. The abrasive nature of plant fibers is much lower com-
pared to that of glass fibers, which leads to advantages
with regard to technical, material recycling or process
of composite materials in general.
6. A serious problem of plant fibers is their strong polar
character which creates incompatibility with most poly-
mer matrices. Surface treatments are potentially able to
overcome the problem of incompatibility. Chemical
treatments can increase the interface adhesion between
the fiber and matrix, and decrease the water absorption
of fibers.
7. WPCs are being increasingly used in automotive indus-
tries as a result of their superior strength/weight and
stiffness/weight ratios.
8. From a technical point of view, these bio-based compos-
ites will enhance mechanical strength and acoustic
performance, reduce material weight and fuel consump-
tion, lower production cost, improve passenger safety
and shatterproof performance under extreme tempera-
ture changes, and improve biodegradability for the auto
interior parts.
Acknowledgements
Author would like to acknowledge the financial support
(Grant No. #600-47) by the Iranian Research Organization
for Science and Technology (IROST).
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